Discovery of X-rays Published 1st of 3 papers Berlin Med. Assoc. Mtg
17 yr hiatus w/ active debate about the particle vs wavelength puzzle Barkla, Walter, & Pohl vs. Einstein & W.H. Bragg Spring 1912, U. Munich Rntgen, Sommerfeld, von Laue, von Groth, Ewald, Friedrich, Debeye, Knipping von Laue & Ewald Siegfriedstrasse 10 Published, special copy to
June, 1912 W.H. Bragg Nov. 11, 1912
W.L. Bragg & Braggs Law (Japan, Russia, & Germany)
Consequences: von Laue, Friedrich, & Knipping established three modern concepts (1) Atomic particles within xls are arranged in orderly, 3-D, repeating patterns (2) These regular arrangements have spacings of about equal to X-ray wavelength Therefore, (3) Because diffraction does take place, X-rays must be wavelike in nature
W.H. & W.L. Bragg
1913 invented X-ray crystallography with their spectrometer 1913 -1st xl structures ever 1929 -1st structure of an organic compound 1930 -1st layered silicate
W.L. Bragg Kathleen Lonsdale Linus Pauling
Hendricks & Fry, &Kelley et al. 1930 -Confirmed that claysized minerals were crystalline John Gruner 1932 -1st structure of kaolinite
Hofmann et al. Grim et al. Hendricks & Teller Mineralogical Society Natl Res. Council (NRC) AIPEA Grims Clay Mineralogy CMS
1933 -model for smectite 1937 -illite as term for micalike clay minerals 1942 -concept of mixed-layering 1947 formed Clay Minerals Group 1952 sponsor annual mtgs on clays 1952 first meeting, in Algiers 1953 first book on clay mineralogy 1963 shift from NRC to the independent Clay Minerals Society 1985 NEWMOD introduced 1992XX WILDFIRE introduced
R.C. Reynolds R.C. Reynolds
What are clay minerals? Where and how do they touch our lives? How do they tell their stories? What stories can they tell?
The short chemical answer: LAYERED hydrated aluminosilicates
BUT! Size may be their most important property
-this could effect definition e.g., Au
Relation of Particle Size to Surface Area
The Importance of Size
-Limits of abrasion -Limits of crystallite size -Surface to volume ratio and consequential properties -permanent charge -reactivity -CEC -adsorption -origin of life -plasticity
Making a tetrahedron
Lower plane
Connecting the octahedra edge-to-edge
Octahedral Occupancy
Moore&Reynolds, 1997
Assembling a 2:1 clay mineral
Plane Sheet Layer
Vocabulary (picky, picky)
Rotating to fit
Disorder: Primary characteristic of clay minerals
Classification of Phyllosilicates, Emphasis on Clay Minerals
1. Layer type: 1:1 or 2:1 (or 2:1 inverted ribbons) 2. Layer charge: from 0 to 2 & variable 3. Dioctahedral or trioctahedral 4. Chemical variations
The 1:1s
The 2:1s
Still considered a 2:1
Paly & sepiolite
Transformation sequences
Common transformation sequences or mixed-layered clay minerals
Regularly stacked mixed layered
Stories They Can Tell Us & How They Can Be Useful
Clay Minerals Serving the Global Environment
Biogeochemical cycling Buffering capacity of the oceans Natural containment of toxic materials Sposito et al., 1999, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
Clay Minerals Serving the Human Environment
Design of environmentally sound, cost-effective chemical and biological remediation strategies Accurately assessing environmental and human health risks from contaminants Industrial and consumer products
Their environment is our environment
Each of us, every day, use clay minerals. How? Let me count the ways. Greatest industrial uses are for: -paper, both coating and filling -sanitary ware, ceramics, and other fired products -fiberglass -fillers, carriers, and clarifiers -barriers for landfills, physical and as adsorbers
Pillared clay minerals
Hopewell Artifacts
Clay mineral zoning, Cochiti mining district
Murray and Bundy, 1957
Diagenesis The sum of all chemical and physical changes in minerals during and after their initial accumulation, a process limited on the hi-T, hi-P side by low-grade metamorphism. Weaver & Brocksra (1984) proposed a boundary between diagenesis and metamorphism as that point at which all illite-1M has been converted to illite 2M1. Authigenesis is a subprocess of diagenesis. (AGI Glossary, 1997)
The oil window
From Hower et al.s classic 1976 paper
Sequence of morphologies
Size-age spectra
1M
2M1
2M2
Extrapolation to detrital & diagenetic K/Ar ages
Reichweite RO, R1, R2, R3
Electric double layer
NEWMOD & WILDFIRE by Robert Reynolds & Sybilla, Reichweite
Modeling
Where clay minerals come from
-Weathering (f) climate (f) parent material (f) fauna and flora (f) reverse weathering -Hydrothermal alteration
2 methods for il. xl index
Eberl, D.D., and Velde, B. (1989) Beyond the Kbler index: Clay Minerals, 24, 571-577
L = low charge; H = high charge
References for Crystallization Index
Eberl, D.D., and Velde, B. (1989) Beyond the Kbler index: Clay Minerals, 24, 571-577. Eberl, D.D., and Blum, A. (1993) Illite crystallite thickness by X-ray diffraction: in Reynolds, R.C., Jr., and Walker, J.R., eds., Computer Applications to X-Ray Powder Diffraction Analysis of Clay Minerals: Workshop Lectures, vol. 5, The Clay Minerals Society, 123-153. Kbler, B. (1968) valuation quantitative du mtamorphisme par la cristallinit de l'illite; tat des progrs raliss ces dernires annees: Bulletin du Centre de Recherches de Pau, 2, 385-397. Warr, L.N., and Rice, H.N. (1994) Interlaboratory standardization and calibration of clay mineral crystallinity and crystallite size data: J. Metamorphic Geol., 12, 141-152. Warr, L.N. (1996) Standardized clay mineral crystallinity data from the very low-grade metamorphic facies rocks of southern New Zealand: Eur. J. Mineral., 8, 115-127.
Decrease in % 7 layers with depth, Lower Tuscaloosa, Gulf Coast
XRD tracing for 7/14 mixed layering
Porrengas model for exploration
Porrenga (1966) and Odin et al. (1988)
Other petroleum provinces
Other petroleum provinces w/ primary-porosity preserving 7/chlorite
