AN INTRODUCTION

TO CHINESE
CULTURE

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 AN INTRODUCTION TO CHINESE CULTURE

Contents

Foreword

Part 1: The Origins of Chinese Civilization

1. Early Civilization
2. Jade Culture
3. Bronze Culture

Part 2: Writing and Language

1. Chinese Characters
2. Chinese Dialects

Part 3: Chinese Philosophy

1. Confucianism
2. Daoism
3. Chinese Buddhism
4. Historical Scholarship

Part 4. Literature
1. Poetry
2. Essay Writing
3. The Novel

Part 5. Art
1. Calligraphy
2. Painting
3. Sculpture
4. Architecture
5. Music
6. Dance
7. Drama
8. Crafts
 Ceramics
 Silk Textiles
 Lacquerware
9. Folk Art
 Acrobatics
 Miscellaneous Arts and Crafts

Part 6. Cultural Exchange

1. Cultural Exchange in Ancient China

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2. Cultural Exchange in Modern China

Afterword

Foreword

In eastern Asia lies a vast land, 9.6 million square kilometers in area, that
stretches from the heights of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau in the west, to the
boundless Pacific Ocean in the east. This is China, the cradle of Chinese
civilization and home to fifty-six different ethnic groups.

Chinese culture embodies the philosophy of holism. Ancient Chinese

philosophers believed that all things are interrelated, and that Heaven,
Earth, and Humanity form a unified whole. This holistic philosophy
influences every aspect of Chinese language, literature, and art, as well as
the daily lives and habits of the Chinese people. Chinese culture upholds the
central position of human beings within the unity of Heaven and Earth. It
emphasizes personal ethics and self-cultivation, and the pursuit of moral
perfection. Advocating moderation, it seeks balance and harmony in all things.

Two-part jade bi disk with carved chihu (dragon-tiger),

Warring States Period (475-221 BC)
(The chihu is a type of dragon with the head of a tiger. Chi (the dragon) represents yin, or
Earth, and hu (the tiger) represents yang, or Heaven. The chihu, or dragon-tiger,
therefore represents the union of Heaven and Earth and the balance between yin and
yang.)

Part 1: The Origins of Chinese Civilization

According to Chinese legend, a giant named Pangu used a great axe to

split Primordial Chaos and create Heaven and Earth. A goddess named
Nüwa then created animals and human beings over the course of six
days. Nüwa became responsible for human procreation, and her elder

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brother, Fuxi, became responsible for agriculture, hunting, and shelter.

Legend has it that four to five thousand years ago, a tribal leader known as
the Yellow Emperor battled for many years to defeat many other tribes. In the
end, he assimilated the tribe of Yan Di and established the Huaxia, or Han
Chinese people. For this reason, Han Chinese people all over the world refer
to themselves as the "descendents of Yan Di and the Yellow Emperor."

Nüwa and Fuxi, Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD)

1. Early Civilization

When humanity's ancestors started to fashion tools out of stone, the curtain
slowly rose on human civilization.

China's Stone Age lasted for at least one million years. The Chinese
ancestors started to make pottery during the late Neolithic Period,
around 5000 BC. This period is represented by Yangshao Culture, on the
middle reaches of the Yellow River, and Hemudu Culture, on the lower
reaches of the Changjiang River.

Yangshao Culture flourished from approximately 5000 to 3000 BC. Its

exquisite painted pottery represents the height of early Chinese ceramic art. A
variety of beautifully painted vessels have been excavated, typically
decorated with figures of fish. Various explanations have been given as to the
meaning of these unique decorations. Some scholars believe that they
represented totemic deities, others think they were prayers for abundant
harvest, while still others say that they were good luck charms to invoke
fruitful procreation.

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 Painted pottery vessel with human faces and fish,
Yangshao Culture (c. 5000-3000 BC)

Carbonized traces of large amounts of rice have been excavated from the
ruins of a 7000 year-old Hemudu Culture site. This is a sign of the abundant
harvests and affluence enjoyed by these early Chinese ancestors. The
Hemudu people also invented mortise and tenon joinery, which they used to
construct China's earliest wooden post and beam buildings. These
characteristic interlocking joints are used to connect two pieces of lumber.
They consist of a protrusion (the tenon) on one piece, which fits into a
corresponding slot (the mortise) on another. This technique is still used in
China today to construct wooden buildings and furniture.

2. Jade Culture

The late Neolithic Age saw the advent of China's unique "jade culture."

The Chinese people have always considered jade to be foremost among the
infinite treasures that Nature has bestowed upon humanity. During the
Neolithic Age, stone working gradually gave rise to the production of jade
articles. Jade was first used to make ornaments, and later for ritual objects
used in sacrificial ceremonies.

Jade cong with carved animal face, Liangzhu Culture (c. 3300-2200 BC)

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The dragon is the totem of the Chinese ancestors. The early Chinese people
had no rational explanations for many natural phenomena. As a result, they
imagined that there must be some supernatural animal that controlled all other
animals, as well as celestial phenomena, in the same way that there must be
a leader for every clan. They combined characteristics of various animals to
create the dragon: the head of a camel, body of a snake, horns of a stag,
eyes of a tortoise, scales of a fish, paws of a tiger, claws of an eagle, and ears
of a cow. This combination of features indicated the dragon's status an
omnipotent deity and chief of all the animals. Many exquisitely carved jade
dragons have been excavated from Neolithic sites. Among them is a jade
dragon discovered in 1971. It is 26 cm tall, and carved out of a single piece of
dark green jade. The head, carved in bas-relief, resembles the head of a pig,
while the body is curved into the shape of a "C." The entire piece is highly
polished to a smooth and lustrous finish. Because it is the earliest example of
a Chinese jade dragon found to date, it is referred to as "China's first jade
dragon."

Jade dragon, Hongshan Culture (c. 3500 BC)

During the 6th century BC, the Confucian school of philosophy held that
ritual jade objects were symbolic of human nature. Their soft luster
represented serenity, while their flawless clarity represented refinement
of character. As Confucianism developed, ritual jade objects were
appropriated by the nobility as emblems of rank and status. Even more
importantly, they came to be seen as symbols of evolved character and
moral perfection.

3. Bronze Culture

China's Bronze Culture reached its peak in the 16th century BC and
flourished for 1000 years. Bronze was used primarily to craft ritual
objects and musical instruments, rather than the agricultural tools and
weapons characteristic of other Bronze Age cultures. Many cast bronze
objects bearing accounts of sacrificial rites and historical incidents were

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made during this time, providing important records of the period.

Bronze Simuwu ding (cooking vessel), Shang Dynasty (c. 1600-1046 BC)

Bronze rhinoceros zun (wine vessel) with inlaid gold and silver cloud
design,
Western Han (202 BC-9 AD)

Legend has it that the Ancient Kingdom of Shu existed in the Sichuan Basin
during the Shang-Zhou period. Although historical records provide no definite
dates for this ancient kingdom, its existence was confirmed by the discovery
of the Sanxingdui archeological site in Guanghan, Sichuan. The Sanxingdui
site is located in Guanghan, Sichuan Province, in Nanxing Township. The
surrounding terrain consists of three loess promontories rising out of the
Chengdu plain. The name Sanxingdui literally means "three promontories."
Most of the artifacts unearthed at Sanxingdui are bronze objects that are
approximately 5000 years old. They include a 262 centimeters tall standing
human figure, a bronze mask that is 65 centimeters tall, and bronze human
figures. Interestingly, these figures have characteristically Western features,
with high noses and large eyes, quite unlike the features that were common in
Central China at the time. A sacred bronze tree with nine mythical birds and
one dragon perched in its branches stands 395 centimeters tall. It is the tallest
single ancient bronze artifact in existence.

These human and animal figures are quite atypical of Central China's Bronze
Culture. No written records could be found on these bronze objects, so the
origins of Sanxingdui culture remains a mystery. The disappearance of the

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Ancient Kingdom of Shu also remains unexplained. The excavation of
numerous ritual objects, as well as golden staffs inscribed with indecipherable
symbols, only adds to the riddle of Sanxingdui civilization.

Bronze standing figure from Sanxingdui, Ancient Kingdom of Shu, Xia-

Shang-Zhou period (c. 2070-256 BC)

Part 2: Writing and Language

Chinese characters are China's principal form of writing. The history of

Chinese characters spans over 3000 years, making them one of the
world's oldest forms of written communication. Qin Shihuang, China's
first emperor, standardized Chinese characters in 221 BC. China's ethnic
minorities also have a number of unique writing systems. Spoken
Chinese has many different dialects and pronunciations. In 1955, the Chinese
government established Mandarin Chinese as the standard pronunciation.

1. Chinese Characters

Chinese characters are written within a square framework, so they are

sometimes referred to in Chinese as "square writing." The earliest form of
the Chinese character for “sun” was a circle with a black dot in the middle,
representing the sun in the sky. The modern character for “net” still resembles
interwoven strands of rope. The characters for “fish” and “horse” started out
as pictographic representations, and gradually evolved into today's simplified
characters. This type of pictographic writing, which uses symbols to directly
represent objects, was the basis for Chinese characters.

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 Evolution of the character "日 " (ri, sun)

Evolution of the characters “鱼” (yu, fish) and“马” (ma, horse)

The evolution of Chinese characters and calligraphy provides insight

into the development of human society. The earliest form of Chinese
characters was oracle bone script, which was carved into tortoise shells and
animal bones. This was followed by metal script, which was cast or engraved
on bronze vessels. Next came seal script and official script, which were
written on bamboo slips, wood, and silk. Later developments included regular
script, semi-cursive, and cursive script, which were written on paper. Most
recently, new computer coding systems for Chinese characters have ushered
Chinese writing into the Information Age.

Fragments of oracle bone script, Shang Dynasty (c. 1600-1046 BC)

Bronze tallies of Lord Qi of E, Warring States Period (475-221 BC)

(The bronze tallies of Lord Qi date from the State of Chu, during China's Warring States
Period. They are made of bronze and shaped like sections of bamboo. The tallies were
given to Lord Qi, ruler of the city of E in today's Hubei Province, by King Huai of Chu

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 (reigned 328-299 BC). They gave the holder permission to travel by land and water
routes. The inscriptions on the tallies are China's oldest existing written records
concerning safety regulations for water transportation.)

2. Chinese Dialects

China is a vast land with a huge population. Different regions have their own
dialects and pronunciations. There are seven main dialects in China, each
of which provides the foundation for its local culture. The northern
dialect, characterized by Beijing Mandarin Chinese, has the largest range of
any of China's language groups. It accounts for three-quarters of the country's
spoken Chinese, and is used by over 70% of Han Chinese people. In 1955,
the Chinese government officially established Mandarin Chinese as "the
modern common language of the Han Chinese people, utilizing Beijing
pronunciation as its standard, based on the northern Chinese dialect, and
employing the grammar of modern vernacular written Chinese." Standard
Mandarin Chinese has become the fundamental means of communication
among the Chinese people.

Part 3: Chinese Philosophy

Great differences exist between traditional Chinese and Western thought.

Traditional Chinese philosophy puts great importance on personal
ethics and morality, holding that only a person of superior character can
achieve domestic harmony and national progress.

The 6th through 3rd centuries BC saw the flourishing of traditional

Chinese philosophy. Numerous schools of thought advanced their ideas
during this time. Among them, Confucianism and Daoism had the
greatest influence on the development of Chinese culture.

1. Confucianism

Confucianism emerged between the 6th through 5th century BC. Its
founder, Confucius, expanded upon ancient Chinese concepts of
humanism. He emphasized the value of the individual, the cultivation of
personal ethics, and the importance of moral character. The concepts of
benevolence (ren) and propriety (li) were the central tenants of
Confuciansim, and became the foundation of mainstream Chinese
culture.

Confucius believed that benevolence (ren) may be expressed in four ways.

First, it is embodied in human beings, not in supernatural deities. Second, it
should mediate and harmonize personal and social relationships. Third, it

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should be the highest moral standard of the individual. Fourth, people who
possess benevolence feel love for all of humanity. This spirit of benevolent
humanism had a profound influence on the development of Chinese culture. It
is the foundation that underlies the qualities of moderation, courtesy, and
respect for others that so deeply characterize the Chinese people.

If the concept of benevolence (ren) manifests in the individual, then propriety

(li) is a function of society. The Confucian concept of propriety holds that when
the populace conforms to social order and morality, then personal, social, and
political relationships will approach ideal harmony.

Portrait of Confucius (551-479 BC)

2. Daoism

Daoism emerged between the 6th and 3rd centuries BC. The Daoist
philosophers Laozi and Zhuangzi taught that by withdrawing from the world,
people could avoid the chaos of society and achieve inner peace. Daoism
holds that it is possible to apply reason to transcend emotion and achieve
spiritual freedom. This viewpoint was later echoed by the Dutch philosopher
Baruch Spinoza.

Daoist philosophy teaches that although all things exist in a state of

transformation, they also possess an underlying order. This constantly
changing, self-balancing order is known as the Dao, or the Way.
Understanding the Dao enables one to live with grace, regardless of the
vicissitudes of Nature or society, because change is to be expected.

The Daoist concept of constant transformation deeply informed the political

life of ancient China. The proponents of Daoism believed that although a
country's rulers may wield ultimate political power, they cannot improve the
people's lives or control the fate of the nation. Laozi therefore advocated a

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laissez-faire approach to government that did not interfere with personal
freedom, and allowed the populace to develop naturally. Laozi's policies were
implemented in the 2nd century BC during the Han Dynasty, resulting in
peace and prosperity for the Chinese people and the nation.

Stone carving of Laozi, Spring and Autumn Period (770-476 BC)

3. Chinese Buddhism

Buddhism was brought to China from India during the last years of the
Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-9 AD). As it was gradually assimilated by
Chinese culture, a new form of uniquely Chinese Buddhism arose. The
difference between Chinese and Indian Buddhism is as great as that
between Catholicism and Protestantism.

Indian Buddhism advocates strict asceticism. Practitioners often retreat to caves

to undertake prolonged solitary mediation on the Buddhist scriptures. Even
though this form of arduous self-cultivation gained quite a few adherents in
China, it was so removed from daily life that not many people really understood
its doctrines.

During the 7th century AD, a Chinese Buddhist monk named Hui Neng
transformed this situation. Hui Neng originated the school of Buddhism known
in China as Chan, and in the West as Zen Buddhism. Zen is the most
representative school of Chinese Buddhism. The term chan is a homonym of
the Sanskrit word dhyana, which means deep contemplation. This new form
of Buddhism cast off the restrictions of doctrine, encouraging free thinking and
debate by its adherents. It held that anyone, whether emperor or farmer, could
achieve enlightenment through labor and daily life. The Zen process of self-
cultivation has been described as "searching for the camel upon which one is
riding." That is, one must first transcend the material plane in order to discover
its true nature. Although Chinese Buddhism continued to emphasize the
importance of the Buddhist scriptures, it gradually combined with native
Chinese Confucian and Daoist thought, and eventually became completely
integrated with Chinese culture.

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 Baima Temple, Luoyang, Henan Province (construction started 1st
century AD)

4. Historical Scholarship

History provides the coordinates of culture. Only by understanding

China's tradition of historical scholarship can the larger picture of
Chinese culture be brought into focus.

As early as the 10th century BC, the Western Zhou Dynasty instituted the
position of official historian. Great importance was placed on the keeping of
historical records. Most early Chinese histories were chronological collections
of political and historical essays or records of major historical events. The
Spring and Autumn Annals, compiled by Confucius, was China's first such
chronological history. During the 2nd century BC, the Western Han Dynasty
historian Sima Qian compiled The Historical Records. This work established
biographies as the standard form for recording history. Biographic histories
focused on dynastic personages, rather than events, and took a
comprehensive view of history. A total of twenty-five biographic histories were
produced, known collectively as The Twenty-five Histories.

During the Northern Song Dynasty (960-1127 AD), historian Sima Guang and
his assistants labored for nineteen years to compile a comprehensive history
of China. This record, The Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government, was
written in the chronological style and spanned 1362 years. The
Comprehensive Mirror both compiled and analyzed copious historical
material. It provided government officials with an overview of Chinese history,
as well as an opportunity to learn from the lessons of the past. This work
embodies the importance of historical scholarship to Chinese culture.

Part 4. Literature

The classical literature of the West is often colored by religious

concerns. Classical Chinese literature, on the other hand, is deeply

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concerned with human relationships, the affairs of society, and everyday
life.

1. Poetry

In order to understand Western literature, it is necessary to read its

ancient epics and dramatic works. To understand Chinese literature, one
must turn to its poetry. Poetry is the most representative genre of classical
Chinese literature. It exemplifies the lyricism of the Chinese literary tradition.

China's earliest collections of poetry were The Book of Songs (Shi Jing),
and Poetry of the South (Chu Ci). The Book of Songs was compiled
between the 8th and 5th centuries BC. One section describes the work, life,
and loves of the common people. Another section records the rites and
ceremonies of the nobility. During the Warring States Period, the poet Qu
Yuan (340-278 BC) created a new form of deeply personal verse called
"poetry of the south." The Lament (Li Sao), Qu Yuan's most famous work,
established the lyric school of Chinese poetry.

Later ages saw the emergence of the romantic and realist schools of Chinese
poetry. This development reached its peak during the 8th century Tang
Dynasty, exemplified by the poets Li Bai and Du Fu. The poetry of this period
was highly structured.

After the 10th century AD, a new poetic genre emerged. Consisting of both
long and short lines, it was freer than previous forms. Story-song (shuochang)
was a popular form of folk entertainment. After the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368
AD), it gave rise to a new form of poetry known as qu, verse that was sung.
Today's free verse is written in the vernacular. It has no set format and
encompasses numerous styles, while still preserving the lyricism of classical
Chinese poetry.

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Portrait of Li Bai (701-762 AD)

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2. Essay Writing

Confucius (551 － 479 BC) held that essay writing was the ideal way to
disseminate ethics and ideology.

The language of China's pre-Qin Dynasty classical essays may be somewhat

difficult for modern readers to decipher. But the ideas they express are quite
profound. Understanding this style of writing is as important to Chinese
essayists as Latin is to modern Western philosophers. By the time of the
Southern Dynasty in the 5th to 6th century AD, essay writing had become
increasingly removed from real life. It adhered to a rigid format fraught with
literary embellishments, extensive quotations, and vague generalities. Around
the middle of the Tang Dynasty in the 8th century, a movement arose to
reform essay writing. Writers rejected the restrictions of the traditional form
while retaining the best aspects of classical essay writing, creating a style
suitable for reflecting real life. Han Yu (768-824 AD) of the Tang Dynasty (618-
907 AD) and Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072 AD) of the Song Dynasty (960-1276AD)
were the most prominent essayists of the time.

Detail of Nymph of the Luo River (Luoshen Futu), by Gu Kaizhi (348-409

AD)
Nymph of the Luo River (Luoshen Futu), by Eastern Jin Dynasty (317-420 AD) artist Gu
Kaizhi (345-406 AD), was inspired by the essay of the same name by the poet Cao Zhi
(192-232 AD). In his essay, Cao Zhi describes a dream in which he meets and falls in
love with the nymph of the Luo River, but loses her in the end.

Although contemporary Chinese essayists no longer use classical literary

forms and language, much of the vocabulary and technique of classical essay
writing has been retained. The elegance of this form can still be enjoyed in the
work of modern writers.

3. The Novel

The Chinese novel draws its material from the lives of the people. It was
from the people that the Chinese novel emerged, to eventually become
one of China's most important literary forms.

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From the 14th century to the early 20th century, Yuan-Ming-Qing period saw
the flourishing of the Chinese novel. Representative works of the period
include Romance of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi), Outlaws of the
Marsh (Shuihu Zhuan), Journey to the West (Xiyou Ji), and Dream of the Red
Chamber (Honglou Meng). These novels are collectively known as the Four
Masterpieces of classical Chinese literature.

Romance of the Three Kingdoms describes the political upheaval and military
struggles of the Three Kingdoms period. Outlaws of the Marsh tells the story
of a 12th century peasant uprising. Journey to the West recounts the
legendary journey of the eminent Tang Dynasty monk Xuan Zang (c.600-664
AD) to India to bring the Buddhist scriptures back to China.

Dream of the Red Chamber, by Cao Xueqin (1715-1763 AD), is primarily a

love story about its protagonists, Jia Baoyu and Lin Daiyu. Written against the
backdrop of the rise and fall of four families, it offers a vivid description of
society and daily life during this period. Today, numerous scholars and groups
are devoted to studying the politics, literature, religion, economics, and
cultural mores depicted in this novel.

Block print from Honglou Meng (Dream of the Red Chamber),

Qing Dynasty (1636-1911 AD)

After 1919, Chinese authors started to use modern, rather than classical,
language in their writing. This marked the start of a dialogue between the
modern Chinese novel and world literature, and gave rise to a number of new
genres. These new styles initiated the integration of the traditional Chinese
novel and world literary trends.

Part 5. Art

The art of ancient Egypt, India, and Babylon has receded into the mists of the

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past. That of China, on the other hand, has developed without interruption for
thousands of years. Chinese art is richly diverse and highly comprehensive,
encompassing many forms and styles. Chinese art includes calligraphy,
painting, sculpture, architecture, music, dance, drama, film, crafts and
folk art.

1. Calligraphy

In China, a person who can produce beautiful calligraphy is considered

to be highly cultured.

Traditional Chinese calligraphy uses brushes made from animal hair to

apply ink to paper, producing uniquely graceful brushstrokes.

The earliest Chinese calligraphy was extremely controlled and formal, much
like the strict rites and ceremonies that defined the society of the time. Seal
script (zhuanshu), came into use during the Qin Dynasty (221-207 BC). It
used heavy, intricate brush strokes, while also prizing a balanced and
harmonious structure. Official script (lishu), introduced during the Qin-Han
period (221 BC-220 AD), had a more relaxed style and used variable brush
strokes. This development offered calligraphers more creative latitude, and
diverse new styles of calligraphy started to appear.

Wang Xizhi (303-361 AD), known as the Sage of Calligraphy, was a master
calligrapher of the Eastern Jin Dynasty. His calligraphy, with its concise
structure and refined brushwork, was famous for its elegance and scholarly
quality. It is said that Wang Xizhi once wrote a passage on a wooden board
for an engraver to carve. The ink permeated the wood to a depth of one
centimeter. As a result, the phrase "one centimeter into the wood" came to
describe elegant calligraphy, and later became a metaphor for profound ideas
or penetrating views.

Wang Xizhi's work Preface to the Orchid Pavilion (Lanting Xu), written in
expressive cursive script (xingshu), is considered to be the epitome of
classical Chinese calligraphy. In 353 AD, on the third day of the third lunar
month, Wang Xizhi and some friends visited the Lanting Orchid Pavilion in
Shaoxing. The friends drank wine and wrote improvised poems, which they
compiled into a book. Wang Xizhi's famous Preface to the Orchid Pavilion,
which he wrote on the spot, became known as the "greatest cursive
calligraphy under Heaven." Many romantic stories have been passed down
about this work, further embellishing its reputation. It is said that the original
calligraphy was buried in the tomb of Emperor Tang Taizong (reigned 626-649
AD). Today, all that remains of Wang Xizhi's masterpiece are reproductions of
the original created by calligraphers through the ages. The most famous, by

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Tang Dynasty calligrapher Feng Chengsu, is in the collection of the Palace
Museum in Beijing.

Copy of Preface to the Orchid Pavilion (Lanting Xu), by Feng Chengsu,

c. Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD)
Original by Wang Xizhi (303-361 AD)

Modern writing implements have gradually supplanted the brush, and

simplified Chinese characters have joined traditional complex forms. But
Chinese people still practice calligraphy and seal cutting as a means of self-
cultivation and self-expression. Traditional calligraphic techniques have been
applied to writing with fountain pens and ballpoint pens, preserving the form
and beauty of brush writing in a new style known as "hard calligraphy."

2. Painting

Traditional Chinese painting uses brushes to apply ink and pigment to

thin silk or paper, which is then mounted on scrolls. Great importance is
placed on fluidity and expressiveness of line. Chinese painting holds
that revealing essence is more important than representing form.

Early Chinese painting was primarily religiously oriented. After the 7th century
AD, Chinese painting was influenced by the holistic concept of seeking
harmony between Humanity and Nature. A new school of painting arose that
advocated breaking the bonds of concrete imagery and using symbolism to
represent the interior world. As a result, subject matter gradually changed
from religious figures to natural scenery, including landscape and "bird and
flower" painting.

Unlike Western painting, traditional Chinese painting does not employ a single
focal point. Rather, most Chinese landscapes utilize a panoramic perspective
to portray a sweep of connected views, such as mountains and rivers or a
long city street. These paintings, mounted on long scrolls, allow the viewer to
appreciate vistas that cannot be seen from a single perspective.

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 Winter Forest in Snow (Xuejing Hanlin Tu) by Fan Kuan, c. Northern
Song Dynasty (960-1127 AD)

A new school of contemporary Chinese ink painting, influenced by the ideas

and techniques of Western art, is represented by the works of the late 19th
century artist Xu Beihong. Chinese artists have also created new styles of oil
painting that integrate the spirit of Western art while also preserving the
unique features of traditional Chinese art. The waterscapes of contemporary
painter Wu Guanzhong (b. 1919) are a case in point. These pieces bring
classical beauty to the eyes of the modern viewer.

Galloping Horse (Ben Ma Tu) by Xu Beihong

Southern Waterside Village (Jiangnan Shuixiang) by Wu Guanzhong

3. Sculpture

"Sculpture is the forerunner of all art." This saying truly describes the
Chinese sculptural arts. Jade carvings of people, pottery figurines of

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young women, and sculptures and carvings of animals appeared in
China as early as the Neolithic Age (c. 12,000-2000 BC). As Chinese
civilization flourished, so did Chinese sculpture.

The great underground terracotta army of Emperor Qin Shihuang was first
unearthed in 1974. The army includes a wide variety of soldiers, no two alike,
all with highly realistic carved faces and unique expressions. These figures
must have been created by a large number of artisans in order to display such
diverse technique.

Terracotta warriors of Qin Shihuang, Pit 2, Xi'an, Shaanxi Province,

Qin Dynasty (221-207 BC)

Terracotta warrior, Xi'an, Shaanxi Province, Qin Dynasty (221-207 BC)

The Buddhist statues found in China's grottoes and temples represent the
epitome of traditional Chinese sculpture. The massive and majestic Buddhas
of the Yungang and Longmen Grottoes have brought China's extraordinary
sculptural tradition to the eyes of the world. These sculptures often feature
beautifully carved clothing. They skillfully portray the form and dynamism of
their subjects.

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 Buddhist Statue, Longmen Grottoes (post-5th century AD)

4. Architecture

Traditional Chinese architecture emphasizes harmony between structure

and surroundings. Whether palace, temple, garden, or residence,
traditional Chinese buildings blend with the surrounding landscape into
an integrated whole. Even inside a building, human beings and nature
are not separate, but rather form a unified whole.

Chinese architecture is consistent with social status and class. It is said that
the Lord of Heaven, the ruler of the spiritual realm, lives in a palace of 10,000
rooms. Therefore, the residence the Emperor of China, who is merely the
ruler of the temporal realm, may have no more than 9,999 ½ rooms. The
Forbidden City, the imperial residence of the emperors of China, is laid out in
a symmetrical pattern along a central axis. The southern section, or Outer
Court, is where the emperor exercised his supreme political power and carried
out government activities. The northern section, or Inner Court, is where the
emperor and members of the imperial family lived. At the center of the
Forbidden City is a huge square. In the center of the square stands the
enormous Hall of Supreme Harmony, the seat and symbol of imperial power.
The Forbidden City is an awesome expression of imperial grandeur and
might.

Many modern Chinese cities still follow traditional architectural models. They
are often laid out along a central axis and emphasize unity and balance.
Modern Chinese architects and city planners strive for a unified design
concept that incorporates both traditional and modern concepts.

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 Forbidden City, Beijing

The residences of court officials and nobles in southern China were small but
exquisite. They included buildings, hills, ponds, and plantings that offered a
realistic reproduction of Nature in miniature. Upon entering the gates, the
visitor's line of sight is interrupted by artfully placed rises, so the entire estate
is not visible in one glance. Only as one strolls along are vistas of distant
mountains and intimate water gradually revealed, like a long scroll painting of
a panoramic landscape.

Jichang Garden, Wuxi, Jiangsu Province

5. Music

Music has existed in different forms throughout Chinese history. The

earliest Chinese music was primarily instrumental accompaniment to
dance. After the Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD), a new form of vocal
music and dance became popular. After the 12th century AD, regional
opera became China's most representative form of music.

The history of music and the development of musical instruments are

inseparable. As early as the Neolithic Age, the Chinese ancestors invented
the bone flute and the xun, a pottery wind instrument. A set of bells dating
from the Warring States Period (475-221 BC) was unearthed in 1978. It
consists of 64 bells, and weighs more than 2,500 kilograms. The bells cover a
wide register and have a beautiful tone. They can be used to perform Chinese

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and foreign compositions in both seven-tone and five-tone scales. Traditional
Chinese instruments, like those of the West, encompass many types. They
include bowed string instruments, such as the erhu and banhu; plucked string
instruments, such as the pipa and zheng; wind instruments, such as the flute
and suona; and percussion instruments, such as the drum and gong.

Bronze bells of Marquis Yi of Zeng, Warring States Period (475-221 BC)

Traditional Chinese music ensemble

Contemporary Chinese musicians have preserved and adapted a large body

of traditional Chinese music. They have also drawn from Western harmonic
theory to create many new works, bringing Chinese music into the
mainstream of the international music world.

6. Dance

Prehistoric Chinese dance had its origins in labor. It was often used to
recreate the motions of hunting and planting.

Around the 21st century BC, dance started to appear as a formal component
of religious rituals, palace ceremonies, and banquets. Over the following
centuries it gradually evolved from popular entertainment into performing art.
The Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD) saw the rapid development of dance as
an art form and a major increase in the number of professional performers.
During this time, an official Conservatory of Music was established. This
government bureau not only collected and arranged popular music and
dance, but also selected outstanding artists from among the populace to

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perform at court. Some palace troupes had over one thousand members.
Further developments in palace dance occurred during the Tang Dynasty
(618-907 AD).

Extensive material has been collected concerning ancient Chinese dance.

There have even been modern revivals of some of these ancient dance forms.
Flying Apsaras (Feitian), a duet for two women by dancer and choreographer
Dai Ailian (1916 -2006 ), was adapted from ancient murals of dancers at the
Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang. This piece integrates elements of "ribbon
dancing" from the Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD), using long silk streamers to
express the dancers' bold and unconstrained spirit.

Flying Apsaras (Feitian), mural from Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang,

c. post-4th century AD

7. Drama

The Chinese dramatic tradition includes both traditional opera and modern
theater.

Traditional Chinese opera first appeared during the Han Dynasty (202
BC-220 AD). By the time of the Yuan Dynasty in the 13th century AD,
there were regional opera troupes established throughout China. Unlike
Western theater, which relies primarily on a single form of expression,
traditional Chinese opera combines dance, vocal and instrumental
music, dialogue, acrobatics, and martial arts, to create a uniquely
diverse dramatic form.

During the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368 AD), theater flourished as never

before, ushering in the golden age of classical Chinese drama. This
period produced numerous outstanding dramatists. Among them, the great
playwright Guan Hanqing (c. 1225-1300 AD) produced works on a par with
those of William Shakespeare. His representative work, Dou E Wronged (Dou
E Yuan), is still performed today. Playwright Wang Shifu was a contemporary

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of Guan Hanqing. His work Romance of the Western Chamber (Xixiang Ji) is
a complex and moving love story that is known throughout China.

Differences in location and dialect gave rise to many regional forms of

traditional Chinese opera. Kunqu opera originated in the Changjiang River
delta region. With its beautiful arias, elegant lyrics, and subtle acting, Kunqu
opera has great historical, cultural, and artistic value. In 2001, Kunqu opera
was first designated by UNESCO as a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible
Heritage of Humanity.

Beijing opera emerged during the 18th to 19th century. With the widest
geographical range and largest audience of any form of traditional Chinese
opera, Beijing opera is said to embody the essence of Chinese culture. Mei
Lanfang is the most famous star of Beijing opera. He was the first Chinese
artist to perform traditional Chinese opera abroad and to introduce it to an
international audience. Traditional Chinese opera, represented by the art of
Mei Lanfang, is known as one of the world's three great theatrical traditions,
along with the method acting of Russia's Konstantin Stanislavsky and the epic
theater of Germany's Bertolt Brecht.

Photograph from Beijing opera Legend of White Snake (Bai She Zhuan),
with Mei Lanfang as White Snake

During the 20th century, Chinese playwrights started to draw from the literary
techniques and theories of the West to create a new form of modern Chinese
theater. The Thunderstorm (Leiyu) by Cao Yu, Teahouse (Chaguan) by Lao
She, and Qu Yuan by Guo Moruo may all be included on the list of modern
Chinese dramatic masterpieces.

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 Photograph from Teahouse (Chaguan) by Lao She (1899-1966)

8. Crafts

Crafts integrate art and life, aesthetics and practicality. Ceramics, silk
textiles, and lacquerware represent the epitome of Chinese crafts. These
and other Chinese crafts spread throughout Asia, Africa, and Europe
early in human history.

• Ceramics

The Chinese ancestors first started to make fired earthenware pottery during
the Neolithic Age. Chinese pottery production reached its peak during Tang
Dynasty (618-907 AD) with the invention of tri-color pottery. Tang tri-color
pottery used yellow, green, and white glazes to create beautiful and vibrant
works of art. Representative pieces include lifelike figures of camels, horses,
and people that were used as funerary objects. Many of these human figures
had central Asian features and clothing, reflecting the extensive cultural
exchange that took place during this period.

Tang tri-color figurine of musicians on camelback,

Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD)

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By the time of the Song Dynasty in the 10th century AD, ceramics production
was flourishing as never before. Jingdezhen in Jiangxi Province became an
important center of porcelain stoneware production during this time. It became
known as the "porcelain capital" of China, and was famous for its blue and
white glazed pieces.

Double-handled flask with blue and white cloud-dragon design,

Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368 AD)

• Silk Textiles

China has the world's oldest tradition of sericulture and silk production. As a
result, China was known throughout the ancient world as the "Land of Silk."
One of the oldest existing pieces of Chinese silk was found in the Mawangdui
tombs at Changsha, Hunan Province. Dating from the Western Han Dynasty
(202 BC-9 AD), this painted silk funeral banner is 160 cm long and weighs
only 49 grams. Ancient Chinese artisans also combined standard and
jacquard weaving techniques to produce silk brocade. These textiles used
gold, silver, and colored silk thread to create beautiful raised patterns.

Fragment of Chu brocade, Warring States Period (475-221 BC)

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 • Lacquerware

Lacquerware was another important Chinese invention. Lacquerware is made

by applying different colors of lacquer to wooden vessels. Ancient
lacquerware vessels were often engraved with various designs, embossed
with gold leaf, or inlaid with precious stones. Lacquerware entered its golden
age during the Han Dynasty, from the 2nd century BC through the 2nd century
AD. Pieces became increasingly intricate, with more colorful and lustrous
finishes and more refined designs. A number of advanced production
techniques were introduced to Japan during this period.

Lacquerware ding (food container) with cloud pattern,

Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-9 AD)

9. Folk Art

Chinese folk art encompasses a wide range of performing and vocal

arts, visual arts, dance, music, and literature.

• Acrobatics

Acrobatics is a unique type of performing art characterized by extraordinary

physical skills. Acrobatics was first used as a form of cultural exchange in 108
AD, when Han Dynasty Emperor Wudi assembled a group of outstanding
Chinese acrobats to entertain visiting dignitaries from Anxi (present-day Iran).
The great performance was attended by the emperor, his ministers, and
foreign guests, as well as members of the populace from hundreds of
kilometers around. Today, acrobatics has developed into an integrated
performing art. Chinese acrobatic troupes have won numerous awards at
major international competitions. By introducing this distinctive aspect of
Chinese culture to audiences around the world, they have made a great
contribution to international cultural exchange.

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 Distinctively Chinese "hanging ribbon" acrobatics

• Miscellaneous Arts and Crafts

Shadow puppetry uses two dimensional cutout figures, made from leather or
heavy paper, to present a play. A spotlight is shone onto the cutouts,
projecting their silhouettes onto a white screen. As the puppeteer manipulates
the figures, the audience watches the moving images from the other side of
the screen. With a history reaching back over 1,000 years, shadow puppetry
is the world's most ancient form of moving pictures. French film historian
Georges Sadoul states in his General History of the Cinema (Histoire
générale du cinéma) that China's shadow puppetry is the "forerunner of film."

Shadow puppetry

There are many other Chinese folk arts. Paper cutting uses scissors and
paper to create beautiful, intricate patterns. Doll making uses clay and paint to
make realistic human figurines. Embroidery uses needles and colored thread
to create various designs on silk or cotton textiles. Kites are made by weaving
thin bamboo strips into various forms, pasting silk or paper on the framework,
and then painting the kite with various designs. Sent aloft on the wind, the kite
soars through the sky, controlled by a long string. Each of these traditional folk
arts has many devoted followers.

Part 6. Cultural Exchange

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The river of Chinese culture has flowed without a break for thousands of
years. Extensive exchange with the outside world enabled ancient
China to draw from the cultures of Central Asia, Persia, India, the Arab
world, Europe, and Africa. At the same time, these foreign cultures were
nourished and stimulated by their contact with China. Sino-foreign
cultural exchange continues to be mutually beneficial and illuminating,
and has no end in sight.

1. Cultural Exchange in Ancient China

China's first large-scale diplomatic missions to other countries occurred

during the Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD). In 138 BC, Zhang Qian
undertook a diplomatic mission to the Western Regions, raising the curtain on
Sino-foreign cultural exchange. Numerous envoys and merchants from the
Western Regions later made the trek to China to pay their respects. They
returned to their homes loaded with Chinese trade goods, primarily silk. As a
result, the critical overland route between China and the West came to be
known as the Silk Road. The opening of the Silk Road provided the bridge
necessary for cultural exchange between East and West.

Mogao Grottoes at Dunhuang, c. post-fourth century AD

During the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD), the eminent monk Xuan Zang (600-
664 AD) undertook the arduous journey to distant India. His goal was to clarify
inaccurately translated portions of the Buddhist scriptures. Xuan Zang studied
at India's most renowned center of Buddhist learning, Nalanda Monastery. He
translated seventy-five Buddhist sutras and systematically introduced
Buddhism to China. The story of Xuan Zang's journey to retrieve the Buddhist
scriptures is known throughout China. During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644
AD) it became the basis for the famous novel Journey to the West (Xiyou Ji).

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 Portrait of Xuan Zang (600-664 AD)

Another noteworthy figure in the history of Sino-foreign cultural exchange was

Marco Polo (c. 1254-1324 AD). Marco Polo was a Venetian explorer who
served at the court of the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368 AD). His book, The
Travels of Marco Polo, provided European readers with an introduction to
China, and stimulated Western interest in Chinese culture.

Portrait of Marco Polo (c. 1254-1324 AD)

Development of a maritime Silk Route started during the Han Dynasty. By the
time of the Song-Yuan period (960-1368 AD), maritime expeditions launched
from the port of Quanzhou, on China's southeast coast, had reached south to
Thailand, the Philippines, and the Malay Peninsula in southeast Asia, and
west to the shores of the Indian Ocean, the Persian Gulf, and the Red Sea
region. Chinese voyagers eventually reached Egypt and even Europe. Early
in the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 AD), the great navigator and explorer Zheng
He commanded an enormous fleet that completed seven major maritime
expeditions. The scale of these voyages was unprecedented in the history of
the world.

During the later Ming Dynasty, a number of Catholic missionaries arrived in

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China via maritime and overland routes. They brought with them the scientific
achievements of the European Renaissance. Among them were Matteo Ricci
(1552-1610 AD) and Adam Schall von Bell (1591-1666). These missionary-
scholars introduced Western science to China by translating numerous
European books into Chinese, including works on astronomy, geography,
water conservancy, physics, and mathematics.

Qingjing Mosque, Quanzhou, Fujian Province

Underwater archeological site

2. Cultural Exchange in Modern China

The modern era has seen an influx of progressive Western ideas into
China, giving rise to major changes in Chinese society. At the same
time, the Chinese people have actively studied a wide range of cultural
advancements, in order to more rapidly develop and transform their
country.

The government of China has always placed great importance on learning

from the achievements of other countries. Only in this way may Chinese
culture continue to become stronger and more vital. In his work "On the Ten
Major Relationships," Chairman Mao Zedong states, "Our policy is to learn
from the strong points of all nations and all countries, learn all that is
genuinely good in the political, economic, scientific and technological fields
and in literature and art."

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Various Chinese cultural organizations and performing troupes have
organized major events around the world, introducing Chinese culture to the
international stage. At the same time, many internationally famous performers
have been invited to China, where they have introduced the classical and
modern art and music of their countries to the Chinese people. China has
initiated Culture Years with a number of countries, starting with the China-
France Culture Year in 2005. The 2008 Beijing Olympics, hosted by China,
was a great worldwide sports event – but even more importantly, it was an
incomparable opportunity for cultural exchange.

With the growth of the Chinese economy and tourist industry, international
travel has increased rapidly. As of June, 2007, 86 of 132 countries and
regions have been finalized as tourist destinations for Chinese citizens. Over
the last five years, the number of Chinese citizens who have traveled abroad
has increased by an average of 22.7% per year. The United Nations World
Tourism Organization estimates that by 2015, China will become the world's
most popular tourist destination, and the fourth largest source of tourists to
other countries.

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Afterword

Chinese culture emphasizes harmony. It respects the differences

between cultures and civilizations, in accordance with the traditional
Chinese philosophy of "seeking unity in diversity." Chinese culture
provides a unique foundation from which to learn from other cultures,
maximize creativity, and pursue self-improvement. Like the Changjiang
and Yellow Rivers, which have their sources on the heights of the Qinghai-
Tibetan Plateau, Chinese culture has flowed through many twists and turns
over the ages. But it has always maintained its own course. It is this
indomitable spirit that is the driving force behind China's continuing advance
into the future.

Beijing

Thank you very much.

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