Performance Improvement Techniques CCPP and FBC Boiler

ABSTRACT
The aim of the project is to improve the performance of Power Plant i.e. combined cycle power plant for power generation and also improve the FBC boiler performance.
Now a days CCPP (combined cycle power plant) is the way for power generation efficiently. In Arvind Ltd., both Ahmedabad & Santej plant have the same power generation of 24.5 MW is a CCPP cogeneration plant. The Plant is upgraded to compressed natural gas (CNG) which is replacing Naphtha having its cost & other benefits. Its performance and cost reduction can further be improved. Economic and technical considerations for combined-cycle performance enhancement options further described in this report.
FBC (Fluidized Bed Combustion) Boiler is not used for power generation in Arvind Limited but is used for steam generation which is used in further chemical process. Fluidized bed boiler is the newest and cleanest way of generating steam. The traditional grate fuel firing systems have got limitations and are technoeconomically unviable to meet the challenges of future. Fluidized bed combustion has emerged as a viable alternative and has significant advantages over conventional firing system and offers multiple benefits compact boiler design, fuel flexibility, higher combustion efficiency and reduced emission of noxious pollutants such as SOx and NOx It having great efficiency (upto 85%)and is also uses both coal & biomass. Its performance and cost reduction can further be improved. Economic and technical considerations FBC boiler performance enhancement options further described in this report.
Arvind Limited, Ahmedabad
We visited in Arvind Ltd., Naroda Road, Ahmadabad. We have learned many things about Power Plant generation and how it works. We have also learned the basics of applications of thermodynamics in Power plant. We shall collect more information about this Project in future.
Keywords : CCPP,FBC Boiler, CNG, Cost reduction and improve efficiency of CCPP & FBC.
List of Figures Fig. No. 1.4.1.1 Figure Title Cogeneration (Bottom) Compared with Conventional Generation (Top) Simplified CCPP diagram Schematic of Combined Cycle Power Plant (CCGT) Simplified Flow Diagram of a Combined Cycle Auxiliary Systems in a Gas Turbine Power Plant The brayton-Rankine Combined Cycle The performance map of a typical combined cycle power plant Comparison of net work output of various cycles Comparison of thermal efficiency of various cycles temperature Energy distribution in a combined cycle power plant Load sharing between prime movers over the entire operating range of a combine cycle power plant A typical large combined cycle power plant HRSG Cost Components of Different Plant Areas in a Combined Cycle Power Plant Page No. 21
1.4.2.1 1.4.2.2 2.1.1.1 2.1.2.1 2.1.4.1 2.1.5.1
24 25 30 33 38 40
2.1.5.2 2.1.5.3
40 41
2.1.6.1 2.1.6.2
44 45
2.1.6.3 2.1.7.1
46 52
2.1.7.2
Plant Life Cycle Cost for a Combined Cycle Power Plant CFBC Power Generation Unit : Working Diagram Principle Of Fluidization Relation between Gas Velocity and Solid Velocity Circulating Bed Boiler Design
53
2.2.2.1 2.2.3.1 2.2.3.2 2.2.4.1
56 59 60 62 70 71
3.1.2.1.1 Psychometric chart, simplified 3.1.2.1.2 Effect of evaporative cooler on available output85 percent effective 3.2.2.1 When Dp Drop Is Less Bed Coarse Partices Settle At Bottom Of Bed Bed Area Reduction To Suit The Reduced Steam Generation Requirement Bed Height & Airbox Instrumentation idle dg bed airbox dg Bed Material Spillage To Idle Compartment Caustic Gouging Attack In Idle Compartment Tube Fuel Line Air Eroding Away Bed Coil In Idle Compartment fuel Fuel Line Air Eroding Away Bed Coil In Idle Compartment fuel
80
3.2.2.2
81
3.2.2.3
82
3.2.2. 4 3.2.2. 5 3.2.2.6
83 84 85
3.2.2.7
87
3.2.2.8
Fuel Spillage And Leakage Air In Idle Compartment Causing Clinkers clinker Coarse Particles Settling Around Fuel Nozzle And Pa Jet Hitting Bed Coil Sealing strips from circular dampers
88
3.2.2.9
89
3.2.2.10
90
3.2.2.11
Improper Power Cylinder Erection Causes Leakage
91
3.2.2.12
Leakage Between Support Frame And Dp Plate
92
3.2.2.13
Failed Air Nozzles Disturb Fluidisation And Cause Bed Coil Erosion
93
3.2.2.14
Coil Spacing In Hair Pin Type Bed Coils
95
3.2.4.2.1 Effects of Air Temperature on Excess Air Level
103
LIST OF TABELS
Table No. 3.1.2.3.1
Table Name Effect on Performance of Power Enhancement Option on Combined Cycles Compared with the Base Case Oxygen content and excess air
Page No. 77
3.2.3.1.1
97 105 117 119 120 124 126 127 127
3.2.4.3.1.1 Burning Characteristics for Fluidized Bed 4.1.2.1 4.2.1.1 4.2.2.1 5.1.1.1 5.1.2 5.2.1.1.1 5.2.1.1.2 Efficiency of Each Components of CCPP Principle Losses Parameters for Boiler Efficiency Calculation Peak Power Enhancement Gas Turbine Upgrade option Economics : Air-Fuel Ratio Optimization Traps & Tricks : Air-Fuel Ratio Optimization
LIST OF ABBRIVATIONS
Symbol Name Btu HHV LHV NOx SOx Pc CCPP IGV STG GTG HRSG STG TDS TPH CHP VAHP FBC CFBC mw mg Cpw Cpg Cps ms DCS
Abbreviations
British thermal units higher heating value Lower heating value Nitrogen oxides, (NO2 and NO) Sulfur oxides, expressed as SO2 Power Co-efficient Combined Cycle Power Plant Inlet Guide Vane Steam Turbine Generator Gas Turbine Generator Heat recovery steam generator Steam Turbine Generator Total Dissolved Solids Tons Per Hour Combined Heat and Power Vapour Absorption Heat pump Fludised Bed Combustion Circulating Fludised Bed Combustion mass flowrate of water in kg/s mass flowrate of fluegases kg/s Specific heat of water kj/kg.k Specific heat of gases kj/kg.k Specific heat of steam Kj/Kg.K mass flowrate of steam Kg/s Distributed Control System
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgement Abstract List of Figures List of Tables List of Abbreviations Table of Contents 3 4 6 9 10 11
Chapter : 1
Introduction 1.1 About Arvind Ltd. 1.2 Product Profile 1.3 Project Site Overview 1.3.1 Map 1 : Naroda, Ahmedabad 1.3.2 Map 2 : Santej ,Kalol 1.4 Introduction to the Power Plant 1.4.1 Meaning of Combined Cycle Cogeneration Power Plant 1.4.2 Combined Cycle Power Plant : Schematic 1.5 Introduction to the FBC boiler 1.5.1 Types of Fluidised Bed Combustion Boilers 1.5.2 AFBC 1.5.3 CFBC 1.5.4 PFBC
15 16
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Chapter: 2
Brief History of the work 2.1 Combined Cycle Power Plants 2.1.1 The Basics : CCPP 2.1.2 Gas Turbine Power Plant Working : The Auxiliary Systems 2.1.3 Gas Turbine Power Plant Work The Main Equipment 2.1.4 The Brayton-Rankine Cycle
29 29
2.1.5 Summation of Cycle Analysis 2.1.6 A General Overview of Combined Cycle Plants
Arvind Limited, Ahmedabad 8
2.1.7 Cost Components of a combined cycle plant 2.2 Circulating Fluidised Bed Combustion (CFBC) boiler 2.2.1 Basics 2.2.2 CFBC Power Generation Unit : Construction with Working Diagram 2.2.3 Mechanism of Fluidised Bed Combustion 2.2.4 Circulating Fluidised Bed Combustion Working 2.2.5 Characteristics of FBC Boilers: 2.2.6Performance Evaluation of Boilers 2.2.6.1 Thermal efficiency 2.2.6.2 Evaporation ratio 2.2.7 Boiler Water Treatment 54
Chapter: 3
Expected Outcome 3.1 Combined Cycle Power Plant
67 67
3.1.1 Economic and Technical Considerations for Combined-Cycle Performance-Enhancement Options : 3.1.2 Output Enhancement 3.1.2.1 Gas Turbine Inlet Air Cooling 3.1.2.2 Power Augmentation 3.1.2.3 Efficiency Enhancement 3.2 Improve Availability and Efficiency of FBC Boilers : 3.2.1 Fine Tuning The Fluidised Bed Combustion Boilers : 3.2.2 Tips for Improvement in Operations / Modifications for FBC Boilers 3.2.3 Energy Efficiency Opportunities In Boilers 3.2.3.1 Reduce excess air 3.2.3.2 Minimize stack temperature 3.2.3.3 Feed water preheating from waste heat of stack gases 3.2.3.4 Combustion air preheating from waste heat of stack gases 3.2.3.5 Avoid incomplete combustion 3.2.3.6 Reduce scaling and soot losses 96 78
3.2.3.7 Minimize radiation and convection losses 3.2.3.8 Adopt automatic blowdown controls 3.2.3.9 Optimize boiler steam pressure 3.2.3.10 Variable speed control for fans, blowers, and pumps 3.2.3.11 Effect of boilder loading on efficiency 3.2.3.12 Boiler replacement 3.2.4 Approach to Optimum Combustion Control 3.2.4.1 Draft Control 3.2.4.3 Optimize The Air-Fuel Ratio 3.2.4.2 Air-Fuel Ratio 3.2.4.3.1 The Optimum Air-Fuel Ratio 3.2.4.3.2 Efficiency Loss from Incorrect Air-Fuel Ratio : 3.2.4.3.3 General Procedure for Adjusting Air-Fuel Ratio : 3.2.4.3.4 Adjust the Air-Fuel Ratio Mechanically : 102
Chapter 4
Energy Efficiency Calculations 4.1 Combined Cycle Power Plant
108 108
4.1.1 Efficiencies of Different Elements of Combined CycIe Power Plant 4.1.2 Summary of Calculations : 4.2 FBC Boiler 118
4.2.1 Indirect method of determining boiler efficiency methodology 4.2.2 Direct method of determining boiler efficiency methodology 4.2.2.1 Calculation for Boiler Efficiency :
Chapter 5
Result Analysis 5.1 Combined Cycle Power Plant
123 123
5.1.1 List of Performance Enhancements (Peak Power Enhancement) 5.1.2 Gas Turbine Upgrade 5.2 FBC Boiler 5.2.1 Air : Fuel Optimization : 5.2.1.1 Economics 126
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5.2.1.2 Traps & Tricks 5.2.2 Improve Efficiency in Boiler 5.2.2.1 Reduce Excess Air 5.2.2.2 Install an Economizer 5.2.2.3 Install a Condensing Economizer 5.2.2.4 Upgrade Fan Controls 5.2.2.5 Consider Installing a Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) System 5.2.2.6 Perform Proper Water Treatment 5.2.2.7 Reduce Boiler Pressure 5.2.2.8 Consider Boiler Blowdown Heat Recovery 5.2.2.9 Upgrade to a High Turndown Burner and Controls 5.2.2.10 Implement an Energy-Efficiency Program 5.2.3 Tips For Energy Efficiency In Boilers 5.2.4 Cost-Effective Components 5.2.5 General rules (Rules of Thumb)
Chapter 6
Conclusion 6.1 Combined Cycle Power Plant 6.2 FBC Boiler
135 135 136
Chaper 7 :
References 7.1 Combined Cycle Power Plant 7.2 FBC Boiler
137 137 138
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Chapter : 1
Introduction
1.1 About Arvind Ltd.

The Arvind Mills was set up with the pioneering effort of the Lalbhai rothers in 1931. With the best of technology and business acumen, Arvind has become a true Indian multinational, having chosen to invest strategically, where demand has been high and quality required has been superlative. Today, The Arvind Mills Limited is the flagship company of Rs.20 billion (US$ 500 million) Lalbhai Group. Arvind Mills has set the pace for changing global customer demands for textiles and has focused its attention on select core products. Such a focus has enabled the company to play a dominant role in the global textile arena. With its presence across the textile value chain, the company endeavors to be a one-stop shop for leading garment brands. Fore vision and Technology has brought Arvind to be one of the top three producers of Denim in the world, and on its way becoming the Global Textile Conglomerate. Arvind is already making its presence felt in Shirtings, Knits and Khakhis fabrics apart from being all set to create ripples in the ready to wear Garments world over. Arvind Mills started with a share capital of Rs. 2,525,000 ($55,000) in the year 1931. With the aim of manufacturing the high-end superfine fabrics Arvind invested in very sophisticated technology. With 52,560 ring spindles, 2552 doubling spindles and 1122 looms it was one of the few companies in those days to start along with spinning and weaving facilities in addition to full-fledged facilities for dyeing, bleaching, finishing and mercerizing. The sales in the year 1934, three years after establishment were Rs. 45.76 lakhs and profits were Rs. 2.82 lakhs. Steadily producing high quality fabrics, year after year, Arvind took its place amongst the foremost textile units in the country.
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1.2 Product Profile

In 1997 Arvind set up a state-of-the-art shirting, gabardine and knits facility, the largest of its kind in India, at Santej. With Arvinds concern for environment a most modern affluent treatment facility with zero affluent discharge capability was also established. Year 2005 is a watershed year for textiles. With the mulitifiber agreement getting phased out and the disbanding of quotas, international textile trade is poised for a quantum leap. In the domestic market too, the rationalizing of the cenvat chain and the growth of the organized retail industry is likely to make textiles and apparel see an explosive growth. Arvind has carved out an aggressive strategy to verticalize its current operations by setting up world-scale garmenting facilities and offering a one-stop shop service, of offering garment packages, to its international and domestic customers. With the Indian economy poised for rapid growth, Arvind brands with its international licenses of Lee, Wrangler, Arrow and Tommy Hilfiger and its own domestic brands of Flying Machine, Newport, Excalibur and Ruf & Tuf, is setting its vision on becoming the largest apparel brands company in India. List of Products listed below: Fabric Denim Shirtings Khakis Knitwear Voiles
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Garment Exports Shirts Jeans Arvind Brands (owned) Flying Machine Newport Ruf & Tuf Excalibur Arvind Brands (licensed) Arrow Lee Levis Wrangler Gant U.S.A. Sansabelt Izod Cherokee
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1.3 Introduction Cogeneration CCPP Power Plant 1.3.1 Map 1: Overview of the Project Site : Naroda Road, Ahmedabad
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1.3.2 Map 2: Overview of the Project Site : Santej Road , Kalol, Gandhinagar
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1.4 Introduction to the Power Plant : 1.4.1 Meaning of Combined Cycle Cogeneration Power Plant : Cogeneration: Cogeneration is on-site generation and utilization of energy in different forms simultaneously by utilizing fuel energy at optimum efficiency in a cost-effective and environmentally responsible way. Cogeneration systems are of several types and almost all types primarily generate electricity along with making the best practical use of the heat, which is an inevitable by-product. Cogeneration mainly divided into three categories: (i) Industrial power stations supplying heat to an industrial process (ii) District-heating power plants (iii) Power Plants coupled to seawater desalination plants The most prevalent example of cogeneration is the generation of electric power and heat. The heat may be used for generating steam, hot water, or for cooling through absorption chillers. In a broad sense, the system, that produces useful energy in several forms by utilizing the energy in the fuel such that overall efficiency of the system is very high, can be classified as Cogeneration System or as a Total Energy System. The concept is very simple to understand as can be seen from following points. Conventional utility power plants utilize the high potential energy available in the fuels at the end of combustion process to generate electric power. However, substantial portion of the low-end residual energy goes to waste by rejection to cooling tower and in the form of high temperature flue gases.
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On the other hand, a cogeneration process utilizes first the highend potential energy to generate electric power and then capitalizes on the low-end residual energy to work for heating process, equipment or such similar use. Consider the following scenario. A plant requires 24 units of electrical energy and 34 units of steam for its processes. If the electricity requirement is to be met from a centralized power plant (grid power) and steam from a fuel fired steam boiler, the total fuel input needed is 100 units. Refer figure-1.4.1 (top)
Fig. 1.4.1.1 Cogeneration (Bottom) Compared with Conventional Generation (Top)
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If the same end use of 24 units of electricity and 34 units of heat, by opting for the cogeneration route , as in fig 1.4.1 ( bottom), fuel input requirement would be only 68 units compared to 100 units with conventional generation. For the industries in need of energy in different forms such as electricity and steam, (most widely used form of heat energy), the cogeneration is the right solution due to its viability from technical, economical as well as environmental angle. The following two questions describe whole meaning of combined-cycle power plant: (iv) What is combined cycle power plant? (v) Why are combined-cycle plants among the leading technologies for large power plants? Combined cycle can be defined as a combination of two thermal cycles in one Plant. When two cycles are combined, the efficiency that can be achieved is higher than that of one cycle alone. Thermal cycles with the same or with different working media can be combined; however, a combination of cycles with different working media is more interesting because their advantages can complement one another. Normally, when two cycles are combined, the cycle operating at the higher temperature level is called the topping cycle.1he waste heat it produces is then used in a second process that operates at a lower temperature level, and is therefore called the bottoming cycle. Careful selection of the working media means that an overall process can be created, which makes optimum thermodynamic use of the heat in the upper range of temperatures and returns waste heat to the environment at the lowest temperature level possible. Normally the topping and bottoming cycles are coupled in a heat exchanger. The combination used today for commercial power generation is that of a gas topping cycle with a water/steam bottoming cycle.
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1.4.2. Combined Cycle Power Plant: Schematic Combined cycle gas turbine power plant is essentially an electrical power plant in which a gas turbine and a steam turbine are used in combination to achieve greater efficiency than would be possible independently. The gas turbine drives an electrical generator while the gas turbine exhaust is used to produce steam in a heat exchanger (called a Heat Recovery Steam Generator, HRSG) to supply a steam turbine whose output provides the means to generate more electricity. If the steam is used for heat (e.g. heating buildings) then the plant would be referred to as a cogeneration plant Figure 1.4.2.1 shows a simplified diagram of CCPP and figure 1.4.2.2 is simple representation of a CCGT system. It demonstrates the fact that a CCGT system is two heat engines in series. The upper engine is the gas turbine. The gas turbine exhaust is the input to the lower engine (a steam turbine). The steam turbine exhausts heat via a steam condenser to the atmosphere. The combine cycle efficiency (cc) can be derived by the equation .
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Fig. 1.4.2.1 Simplified CCPP diagram
Equation states that the sum of the individual efficiencies minus the product of the individual efficiencies equals the combine cycle efficiency. This simple equation gives significant insight to why combine cycle systems are successful.
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Fig.1.4.2.2 Schematic of Combined Cycle Power Plant (CCGT) 1.5 Introduction to The FBC Boiler: Fluidized bed combustion (FBC) has emerged as a viable alternative and has significant advantages over a conventional firing system and offers multiple benefits compact boiler design, fuel flexibility, higher combustion efficiency and reduced emission of noxious pollutants such as SOx and NOx. The fuels burnt in these boilers include coal, washery
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rejects, rice husk, bagasse & other agricultural wastes. The fluidized bed boilers have a wide capacity range- 0.5 T/hr to over 100 T/hr. When an evenly distributed air or gas is passed upward through a finely divided bed of solid particles such as sand supported on a fine mesh, the particles are undisturbed at low velocity. As air velocity is gradually increased, a stage is reached when the individual particles are suspended in the air stream the bed is called fluidized. With further increase in air velocity, there is bubble formation, vigorous turbulence, rapid mixing and formation of dense defined bed surface. The bed of solid particles exhibits the properties of a boiling liquid and assumes the appearance of a fluid bubbling fluidized bed. If sand particles in a fluidized state are heated to the ignition temperatures of coal, and coal is injected continuously into the bed, the coal will burn rapidly and the bed attains a uniform temperature. The fluidized bed combustion (FBC) takes place at about 840OC to 950OC. Since this temperature is much below the ash fusion temperature, melting of ash and associated problems are avoided. The lower combustion temperature is achieved because of high coefficient of heat transfer due to rapid mixing in the fluidized bed and effective extraction of heat from the bed through in-bed heat transfer tubes and walls of the bed. The gas velocity is maintained between minimum fluidization velocity and particle entrainment velocity. This ensures stable operation of the bed and avoids particle entrainment in the gas stream. 1.5.1 Types of Fluidised Bed Combustion Boilers There are three basic types of fluidised bed combustion boilers: (i) (ii) (iii) Atmospheric classic Fluidised Bed Combustion System (AFBC) Atmospheric circulating (fast) Fluidised Bed Combustion system(CFBC) Pressurised Fluidised Bed Combustion System (PFBC)
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1.5.2 Atmospheric Fluidized Bed Combustion (AFBC) Boiler Most operational boiler of this type is of the Atmospheric Fluidized Bed Combustion.(AFBC). This involves little more than adding a fluidized bed combustor to a conventional shell boiler. Such systems have similarly being installed in conjunction with conventional water tube boiler. Coal is crushed to a size of 1 10 mm depending on the rank of coal, type of fuel fed to the combustion chamber. The atmospheric air, which acts as both the fluidization and combustion air, is delivered at a pressure, after being preheated by the exhaust fuel gases. The in-bed tubes carrying water generally act as the evaporator. The gaseous products of combustion pass over the super heater sections of the boiler flowing past the economizer, the dust collectors and the air pre-heater before being exhausted to atmosphere. 1.5.3 Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combustion (PFBC) Boiler In Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combustion (PFBC) type, a compressor supplies the Forced Draft (FD) air and the combustor is a pressure vessel. The heat release rate in the bed is proportional to the bed pressure and hence a deep bed is used to extract large amounts of heat. This will improve the combustion efficiency and sulphur dioxide absorption in the bed. The steam is generated in the two tube bundles, one in the bed and one above it. Hot flue gases drive a power generating gas turbine. The PFBC system can be used for cogeneration (steam and electricity) or combined cycle power generation. The combined cycle operation (gas turbine & steam turbine) improves the overall conversion efficiency by 5 to 8 percent. 1.5.4 Atmospheric Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion Boilers (CFBC) In a circulating system the bed parameters are maintained to promote solids elutriation from the bed. They are lifted in a relatively
dilute phase in a solids riser, and a down-comer with a cyclone provides a return path for the solids. There are no steam generation tubes immersed in the bed. Generation and super heating of steam takes place in the convection section, water walls, at the exit of the riser. CFBC boilers are generally more economical than AFBC boilers for industrial application requiring more than 75 100 T/hr of steam. For large units, the taller furnace characteristics of CFBC boilers offers better space utilization, greater fuel particle and sorbent residence time for efficient combustion and SO2 capture, and easier application of staged combustion techniques for NOx control than AFBC steam generators.
Chapter: 2
Brief History Of the Work :

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2.1 Combined Cycle Power Plants 2.1.1 The Basics : CCPP First step is the same as the simple cycle gas turbine plant. Burning of gas, the thrust rotating a gas turbine and the coupled generator produces Electricity. In the second step the hot gases leaving the gas turbine passes into boiler to produce steam. This boiler is called the Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG). The steam then rotates the steam turbine and coupled generator to produce Electricity. The hot gases leave the HRSG at around 140 degrees centigrade and are discharged into the atmosphere. The steam condensing, and water recycling system is the same as in the steam power plant. Roughly the steam turbine cycle produces one third of the power and gas turbine cycle produces two thirds of the power output of the CCPP. Normally there will be two generators, one driven by the gas turbine and one driven by the steam turbine. There are also systems with one generator connected through a single shaft to both the gas turbine and steam turbine. Even though this system is having the best efficiency, it has limitations. The gas turbine can only use Natural gas or high grade oils like aviation or diesel fuel. Because of this the combined cycle can be operated only in locations where these fuels are available and cost effective.
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Fig. 2.1.1.1 Simplified Flow Diagram of a Combined Cycle Developments for gasification of coal and use in the gas turbine are in advanced stages. Once this is proven, Coal as the main fuel can also be used in the combined cycle power plant. 2.1.2 Gas Turbine Power Plant Working : The Auxiliary Systems Gas Turbines are one of the most efficient equipment for converting fuel energy to mechanical energy. How does a Gas Turbine work? What are the auxiliary systems for the Gas Turbine? This article explains in simple terms the working of the Auxiliary Systems in the Gas Turbine Power Plant.
The three main sections of a Gas Turbine are the Compressor, Combustor and Turbine. The gas turbine power plant has to work continuously for long period of time without output and performance decline. Apart from the main sections there are other important Auxiliaries systems which are required for operating a Gas Turbine Power Plant on a long term basis. Air Intake System Air Intake System provides clean air into the compressor. During continuous operation the impurities and dust in the air deposits on the compressor blades. This reduces the efficiency and output of the plant . The Air Filter in the Air Intake system prevents this. A blade cleaning system comprising of a high pressure pump provides on line cleaning facility for the compressor blades. The flow of the large amount of air into the compressor creates high noise levels. A Silencer in the intake duct reduces the noise to acceptable levels. Exhaust System Exhaust system discharges the hot gases to a level which is safe for the people and the environment. The exhaust gas that leaves the turbine is around 550 C. This includes an outlet stack high enough for the safe discharge of the gases. Silencer in the outlet stack reduces the noise to acceptable levels. In Combined Cycle power plants the exhaust system has a diverter damper to change the flow of gases to the Heat Recovery Boilers instead of the outlet stack.
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Starting System Starting system provides the initial momentum for the Gas Turbine to reach the operating speed. This is similar to the starter motor of your car. The gas turbine in a power plant runs at 3000 RPM (for the 50 Hz grid - 3600 RPM for the 60 Hz grid). During starting the speed has to reach at least 60 % for the turbine to work on its on inertia. The simple method is to have a starter motor with a torque converter to bring the heavy mass of the turbine to the required speed. For large turbines this means a big capacity motor. The latest trend is to use the generator itself as the starter motor with suitable electrics. In situations where there is no other start up power available, like a ship or an off-shore platform or a remote location, a small diesel or gas engine is used. Fuel System The Fuel system prepares a clean fuel for burning in the combustor. Gas Turbines normally burn Natural gas but can also fire diesel or distillate fuels. Many Gas Turbines have dual firing capabilities. A burner system and ignition system with the necessary safety interlocks are the most important items. A control valve regulates the amount of fuel burned . A filter prevents entry of any particles that may clog the burners. Natural gas directly from the wells is scrubbed and cleaned prior to admission into the turbine. External heaters heat the gas for better combustion. For liquid fuels high pressure pumps pump fuel to the pressure required for fine atomisation of the fuel for burning. These are the main Auxiliary systems in a Gas Turbine Power Plant. Many other systems and subsystems also form part of the complex system required for the operation of the Gas Turbine Power Plant.
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Fig 2.1.2.1 Auxiliary Systems in a Gas Turbine Power Plant
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2.1.3 Gas Turbine Power Plant Work The Main Equipment Gas Turbines are one of the most efficient equipment for converting fuel energy to mechanical energy. How does a Gas Turbine work? What are auxiliary systems ? This article explains in simple terms the working of the main parts of the Gas Turbine. Gas turbine functions in the same way as the Internal Combustion engine. It sucks in air from the atmosphere, compresses it. The fuel is injected and ignited. The gases expand doing work and finally exhausts outside. The only difference is instead of the reciprocating motion, gas turbine uses a rotary motion throughout. The three main sections of the Gas Turbine with details : Compressor The compressor sucks in air form the atmosphere and compresses it to pressures in the range of 15 to 20 bar. The compressor consists of a number of rows of blades mounted on a shaft. This is something like a series of fans placed one after the other. The pressurized air from the first row is further pressurised in the second row and so on. Stationary vanes between each of the blade rows guide the air flow from one section to the next section. The shaft is connected and rotates along with the main gas turbine.
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Combustor This is an annular chamber where the fuel burns and is similar to the furnace in a boiler. The air from the compressor is the Combustion air. Burners arranged circumferentially on the annular chamber control the fuel entry to the chamber. The hot gases in the range of 1400 to 1500C leave the chamber with high energy levels. The chamber and the subsequent sections are made of special alloys and designs that can withstand this high temperature.
Turbine The turbine does the main work of energy conversion. The turbine portion also consists of rows of blades fixed to the shaft. Stationary guide vanes direct the gases to the next set of blades. The kinetic energy of the hot gases impacting on the blades rotates the blades and the shaft. The blades and vanes are made of special alloys and designs that can withstand the very high temperature gas. The exhaust gases then exit to exhaust system through the diffuser. The gas temperature leaving the Turbine is in the range of 500 to 550 C.
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The gas turbine shaft connects to the generator to produce electric power. This is similar to generators used in conventional thermal power plants.
Performance More than Fifty percent of the energy converted is used by the compressor. Only around 35 % of the energy input is available for electric power generation in the generator. The rest of the energy is lost as heat of the exhaust gases to the atmosphere. Three parameters that affect the performance of a of gas turbine are
The pressure of the air leaving the compressor. The hot gas temperature leaving the Combustion chamber. The gas temperature of the exhaust gases leaving the turbine. The above is a simple description of the Gas Turbine. Actually it is very sophisticated and complex equipment which over the years have become one of the most reliable mechanical equipment. Used in Combined Cycle mode gives us the most efficient power plant. 2.1.4 The Brayton-Rankine Cycle
The combination of gas turbine with steam turbine is an attractive proposal, especially for electric utilities and process industries where steam is being used. In this cycle as shown in fig 2.5.1, the hot gases from the turbine exhaust are used in a supplementary fired boiler to produce superheated steam at high temperatures for a steam turbine. The computations of the gas turbine are the same as shown for the simple cycle. The steam turbine calculations are : Steam generator heat
The combined cycle work is equal to the sum of the net gas turbine work and the steam turbine work. About one-third to
one-half of the design output is available as energy in the exhaust gases. The exhaust gas from the turbine is used to provide heat to the recovery boiler. Thus. this heat must be credited to the overall cycle. The following equations show the overall cycle work and thermal efficiency: Overall cycle work ,
Fig. 2.1.4.1 The brayton-Rankine Combined Cycle
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Overall cycle efficiency
This system. as can be seen from Figure 2-27. indicates that the net work is about the same as one would expect in a steam injection cycle. but the efficiencies are much higher. The disadvantages of this system are its high initial cost. However, just as in the steam injection cycle, the NOx content of its exhaust remains the same and is dependent on the gas turbine used. This system is being used widely because of its high efficiency. 2.1.5 Summation of Cycle Analysis Figure 2.5.21and 2.5.2 gives a good comparison of the effect of the various cycles on the output work and thermal efficiency. The curves are drawn for a temperature. Turbine inlet temperature of 2400F (1316 C).which is a temperature presently being used by manufacturers. The output work of the regenerative cycle is very similar to the output work of the simple cycle, and the output work of the regenerative reheat cycle is very similar to that of the reheat cycle. The most work per pound of air can be expected from the intercooling, regenerative reheat cycle
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Figure 2.1.5.1 The performance map of a typical combined cycle power plant
Figure 2.1.5.2 Comparison of net work output of various cycles

The most effective cycle is the Brayton-Rankine cycle. This cycle has tremendous potential in power plants and in the process industries where steam turbines are in use in many areas. The initial cost of this system is high; however, in most cases where steam turbines are being used this initial cost can be greatly reduced.
Figure 2.1.5.3 Comparison of thermal efficiency of various cycles temperature Regenerative cycles are popular because of the high cost of fuel. Care should be observed not to indiscriminately attach regenerators to existing units. The regenerator is most efficient at low-pressure ratios. Cleansing turbines with abrasive agents may prove a problem in regenerative units, since the cleansers can get lodged in the regenerator and cause hot spots. Water injection, or steam injection systems, is being used extensively to augment power. Corrosion problems in the compressor diffuser and combustor have not been found to be major problems. The
increase in work and efficiency with a reduction in NOS makes the process very attractive. Split shaft cycles are attractive for use in variable-speed mechanical drives. The off-design characteristics of such an engine are high efficiency and high torque at low speeds.
2.1.6 A General Overview of Combined Cycle Plants There are many concepts of the combined cycle. These cycles range from the simple single pressure cycle, in which the steam for the turbine is generated at only one pressure, to the triple pressure cycles where the steam generated for the steam turbine is at three different levels. The energy flow diagram Figure 2-30 shows the distribution of the entering energy into its useful component and the energy losses which are associated with the condenser and the stack losses. This distribution will vary some with different cycles as the stack losses are decreased with more efficient multilevel pressure Heat Recovery Steam Generating units (HRSGs). The distribution in the energy produced by the power generation sections as a function of the total energy produced is shown in Figure 2-31. This diagram shows that the load characteristics of each of the major prime-movers changes drastically with off-design operation. The gas turbine at design conditions supplies 60% of the total energy delivered and the steam turbine delivers 40% of the energy while at offdesign conditions (below 50% of the design energy) the gas turbine delivers 40% of the energy while the steam turbine delivers 40% of the energy. To fully understand the various cycles, it is important to define a few major parameters of the combined cycle. In most combined cycle applications the gas turbine is the topping cycle and the steam turbine is the bottoming cycle. The major components that make up a combined
cycle are the gas turbine, the HRSG and the steam turbine as shown in Figure 2-32 a typical combined cycle power plant with a single pressure HRSG. Thermal efficiencies of the combined cycles can reach as high as 60%. In the typical combination the gas turbine produces about 60% of the power and the steam turbine about 40%. Individual unit thermal efficiencies of the gas turbine and the steam turbine are between 30-40 %. The steam turbine utilizes the energy in the exhaust gas of the gas turbine as its input energy. The energy transferred to the Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) by the gas turbine is usually equivalent to about the rated output of the gas turbine at design conditions. At off-design conditions the Inlet Guide Vanes (IGV) are used to regulate the air so as to maintain a high temperature to the HRSG.
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Figure 2.1.6.1 Energy distribution in a combined cycle power plant
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Figure 2.1.6.2 Load sharing between prime movers over the entire operating range of a combine cycle power plant The HRSG is where the energy from the gas turbine is transferred to the water to produce steam. There are many different configurations of the HRSG units. Most HRSG units are divided into the same amount of sections as the steam turbine, as seen in Figure 2-32. In most cases, each section of the HRSG has a pre-heater or economizer, an evaporator, and then one or two stages of superheaters. The steam entering the steam turbine is superheated.
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Figure 2.1.6.3 A typical large combined cycle power plant HRSG
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The condensate entering the HRSG goes through a Deaerator where the gases from the water or steam are removed. This is important because high oxygen content can cause corrosion of the piping and the components which would come into contact with the water/ steam medium. An oxygen content of about 7 -10 parts per billion (ppb) is recommended. The condensate is sprayed into the top of the Deaerator, which is normally placed on the top of the feedwater tank. Deaeration takes place when the water is sprayed and then heated, thus releasing the gases that are absorbed in the water/ steam medium. Deaeration must be done on a continuous basis because air is introduced into the system at the pump seals and piping flanges since they are under vacuum.
Dearation can be either vacuum or over pressure dearation. Most systems use vacuum dearation because all the feedwater heating can be done in the feedwater tank and there is no need for additional heat exchangers. The healing steam in the vacuum dearation process is a lower quality steam thus leas ing the steam in the steam cycle for expansion work through the steam turbine. This increases the output of the steam turbine and therefore the efficiency of the combined cycle. In the case of the over pressure dearation, the gases can be exhausted directly to the atmosphere independently of the condenser evacuation system. Dearation also takes place in the condenser. The process is similar to that in the Deaertor. The turbine exhaust steam condenses and collects in the condenser hotwell while the incondensable hot gases are extracted by means of evacuation equipment. A steam cushion separates the air and water so re-absorption of the air cannot take place. Condenser dearation can be as effector as Lite one in a Deaertor. This could lead to not utilizing a separate Dearator feedwater tank, and the condensate being fed directly into the IIRSG from the condenser. The amount of make-up water added
to Lite system is a factor since make-up water is fully saturated with oxygen. If the amount of make-up water is less than 25 % of the steam turbine exhaust flow, condenser dearation nay be employed. But in cases where there is steam extraction for process use and therefore the make-up water is large, a separate deaerator is needed. The economizer in the system is used to heat the water Close to its saturation point. If they are not carefully designed, economizers can generate steam, thus blocking the flow. To present this from occurring the feed-water at the outlet is slightly sub-cooled. The difference between the saturation temperature and the water temperature at the economizer exit is known as the approach temperature. The approach temperature is kept as small as possible between 10-20 F (5.5-11 C). To prevent steaming in the evaporator it is also useful to install a feedwater control valve downstream of the economizer, which keeps the pressure high, and steaming is prevented. Proper routing of the tubes to the drum also prevents blockage if it occurs in the economizer. Another important parameter is the temperature difference between the evaporator outlet temperature on the steams side and on the exhaust gas side. This difference is known as the pinch point. Ideally, the lower the pinch point, the more heat recovered, but this calls for more surface area and. Consequently, increases the back pressure and cost. Also, excessively low pinch points can mean inadequate steam production if the exhaust gas is low in energy (low mass flow or low exhaust gas temperature). General guidelines call for a pinch point of 15-40 F(8 to 22C). The final choice is obviously based on economic considerations. The steam turbines in most of the large power plants are at a minimum divided into two major sections the High Pressure Section (HP) and the Low Pressure Section (LP). In some plants, the HP section is further divided into a High Pressure Section and an Intermediate Pressure
Section (IP). The HRSG is also divided into sections corresponding with the steam turbine. The LP steam turbine's performance is further dictated by the condenser back pressure, which is a function of the cooling and the fouling. The efficiency of the steam section in many of these plants varies from 30-40%. To ensure that the steam turbine is operating in at efficient mode, the gas turbine exhaust temperature is maintained user a wide range of operating conditions. This enables the HRSG to maintain a high degree of effectiveness over this wide range of operation. In a combined cycle plant, high steam pressures do not necessarily convert to a high thermal efficiency for a combined cycle power plant. Expanding the steam at higher steam pressure causes an increase in the moisture content at the exit of the steam turbine. The increase in moisture content creates major erosion and corrosion problems in the later stages of the turbine. A limit is set at about 10% (90% steam quality) moisture content. The advantages for a high steam pressure, is that the mass flow of the steam is reduced and that the turbine output is also reduced. The lower steam flow reduces the site of the exhaust steam section of the turbine thus reducing the site of the exhaust stage blades. The smaller steam flow also reduces the site of the condenser and the amount of water required for cooling. It also reduces the site of the steam piping and the valve dimensions. This all accounts for lower costs especially for power plants which use the expensive and high-energy consuming air-cooled condensers. Increasing the steam temperature at a given steam pressure lowers the steam output of the steam turbine slightly. This occurs because of two contradictory effects: first the increase in enthalpy drop, which increases
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the output: and second the decrease in now, which causes a loss in steam turbine output. The second effect is more predominant, which accounts for the lower steam turbine amount. Lowering the temperature of the steam also increases the moisture content. Understanding the design characteristics of the dual or triple pressure HRSG and its corresponding steam turbine sections (HP, IP, and LP turbines) is important. Increasing pressure of any section will increase the work output of the section for the same mass flow. However, at higher pressure, the mass flow of the steam generated is reduced. This effect is most significant for the LP Turbine. The pressure in the LP evaporator should not be below about 45 psia (3.1 Bar) because the enthalpy drop in the LP steam turbine becomes very small, and the volume flow of the steam becomes very large thus the size of the LP section becomes large, with long expensive blading. Increase in the steam temperature brings substantial improvement in the output. In the dual or triple pressure cycle, more energy is made available to the LP section if the steam team to the HP section is raised. There is a very small increase in the overall cycle efficiency between a dual pressure cycle and a triple pressure cycle. To maximize their efficiency, these cycles are operated at high temperatures, and extracting most heat from the system thus creating relatively low stack temperatures. This means that in most cases they must he only operated with natural gas as the fuel, as this fuel contains a very low to no sulfur content. Users have found that in the presence of even low levels of sulfur. such as when firing diesel fuel (No. 2 fuel oil) stack temperatures must be kept above 300F (149 Celsius) to avoid acid gas corrosion. The increase in efficiency between the dual and triple pressure cycle is due to the steam being generated at the IP level than the LP level. The HP flow is slightly less than in the dual pressure cycle because the IP superheater
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is at a higher level than the LP superheater, thus removing energy from the HP section of the HRSG. In a triple pressure cycle the HP and IP section pressure must be increased together. Moisture at the steam turbine LP section exhaust plays a governing role. At inlet pressure of about 1500 psia (103.4 Bar), the optimum pressure of the IP section is about 250 psia (17 Bar). The maximum steam turbine output is clearly definable with the LI' steam turbine pressure. The effect of the LP pressure also effects the H RSG surface area, as the surface area increases with the decrease in LP steam pressure, because less heat exchange increases at the low temperature end of the HRSG. 2.1.7 Cost Components of a combined cycle plant The Availability of a power plant is the percent of time the plant is available to generate power in any given period at its acceptance load. The Acceptance Load or the Net Established Capacity would be the net electric power generating capacity of the Power Plant at design or reference conditions established as result of the Performance Tests conducted for acceptance of the plant. The actual power produced by the plant would be corrected to the design or reference conditions and is the actual net available capacity of the Power Plant. Thus it is necessary to calculate the effective forced outage hours which are based on the maximum load the plant can produce in a given time interval when the plant is unable to produce the power required of it. The effective forced
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outage hours is based on the following relationship:
Figure 2.1.7.1 Cost Components of Different Plant Areas in a Combined Cycle Power Plant
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Figure 2.1.7.2 Plant Life Cycle Cost for a Combined Cycle Power Plant The Availability of a plant can now be calculated by the following relationship, which takes into account the stoppage due to both forced and planed outages, as well as the forced effective outage hours:
where , PT = Time period (8760 hts/ycar) PM = Planned Maintenance hours FO = Forced Outage Hours EFH = Equivalent forced outage hours The reliability of the plant is the percentage of time between planed overhauls and is defined as:
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Availability and reliability have a very major impact on the plant economy. Reliability is essential in that when the power is needed, it must be there.
2.2 Circulating Fluidised Bed Combustion (CFBC) boiler 2.2.1 Basics The "CETHAR FLUIDIX" is an Atmospheric Bubbling Fluidised Bed Combustion (AFBC) Boiler with water cooled, fin welded membrane wall combustion chamber with under bed fuel feeding system. FBC in boilers at atmospheric pressure can be particularly useful for high ash coals, and/or those with variable characteristics. Relatively coarse particles at around 3 mm size are fed into the combustion chamber. Two formats are used, bubbling beds (BFBC) and circulating beds (CFBC). The boiler is designed for a variety of fuels such as Indian Coal, Imported Coal, Bio fuels such as Rice husk and Sawdust etc as main fuel for the generation of steam of high pressure and temperature. FD fan supplies the required combustion/fluidization air for the boiler. Air is heated in the air heater and is distributed to the fluidized grid through a compartmentalized air box. A part of combustion air is tapped from air heater outlet and further pressurized by a PA fan for pneumatic under bed fuel feeding. The distributor plate is fitted with well proven and time tested air nozzles to distribute the fluidizing air from air box uniformly over the entire bed. Bed tubes are immersed in the bed to maintain the required bed temperature. The fuel from the bunker is fed pneumatically into the bed through a set of pocket feeder and drag chain feeder and mixing nozzles located
below the bunker. The hot flue gas generated from the combustion chamber passes through convection superheater, boiler bank tubes, economizer, airheater and ESP. Furnace draft is maintained by FD and ID fans. Steam drum, boiler bank, mud drum (if provided), in-bed evaporator tubes, Down Comers, Riser etc forms part of evaporator system. There was rapid growth in the coal-fired power generation capacity using FBC between 1985 and 1995, but it still represents less than 2% of the world total.
2.2.2 CFBC Power Generation Unit : Construction Diagram 1. Fuel Input
with Working
Fuel and limestone are fed into the combustion chamber of the boiler while air (Prirnary and secondary) is blown in to fluidize the mixture. The fludized mixture burns at a relatively low temperature and produces heat. The limestone absorbs sulfur dioxide (SO2), and the lowburning temperature limits the formation of nitrogen oxide (NOx) -two gases associated with the combustion of solid fuels. 2. CFB Boiler Heat from the combustion process boils the water in the water tubes turning it into high-energy steam. Arnmonia is injected into the boiler outlet to further reduce NOx emissions.
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Figure 2.2.2.1 CFBC Power Generation Unit : Working Diagram
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3. Cyclone Collector The cyclone is used to return ash and unburned fuel to the combustion chamber for re-burning, making the process more efficient. 4. State-of-the-Art Air Quality Control System After combustion, lime is injected into the "polishing scrubber" to capture more of the SO2. A "baghouse (particulate control device collects dust particles (particulate matter) that escapes during the combustion process. 5. Stearn Turbine The high-pressure steam spins the turbine connected to the generator, which converts mechanical energy, into electricity. 6. Transmission Lines The electricity produced from the steam turbine/generator is routed through substations along transmission lines and delivered to distributed systems for customer use. 2.2.3 Mechanism of Fluidised Bed Combustion When an evenly distributed air or gas is passed upward through a finely divided bed of solid particles such as sand supported on a fine mesh, the particles are undisturbed at low velocity. As air velocity is gradually increased, a stage is reached when the individual particles are suspended in the air stream the bed is called fluidized. With further increase in air velocity, there is bubble formation, vigorous turbulence, rapid mixing and formation of dense defined bed surface. The bed of solid particles exhibits the properties of a boiling liquid and assumes the appearance of a fluid bubbling fluidized bed. At higher velocities, bubbles disappear, and particles are blown out
of the bed. Therefore, some amounts of particles have to be recirculated to maintain a stable system circulating fluidised bed. This principle of fluidisation is illustrated in Figure 2.2.3.1 Fluidization depends largely on the particle size and the air velocity. The mean solids velocity increases at a slower rate than does the gas velocity, as illustrated in Figure 2.2.3.2 The difference between the mean solid velocity and mean gas velocity is called as slip velocity. Maximum slip velocity between the solids and the gas is desirable for good heat transfer and intimate contact. If sand particles in a fluidized state is heated to the ignition temperatures of coal, and coal is injected continuously into the bed, the coal will burn rapidly and bed attains a uniform temperature. The fluidized bed combustion (FBC) takes place at about 840OC to 950OC. Since this temperature is much below the ash fusion temperature, melting of ash and associated problems are avoided. The lower combustion temperature is achieved because of high coefficient of heat transfer due to rapid mixing in the fluidized bed and effective extraction of heat from the bed through in-bed heat transfer tubes and walls of the bed. The gas velocity is maintained between minimum fluidisation velocity and particle entrainment velocity. This ensures stable operation of the bed and avoids particle entrainment in the gas stream. Combustion process requires the three Ts that is Time, Temperature and Turbulence. In FBC, turbulence is promoted by fluidisation. Improved mixing generates evenly distributed heat at lower temperature. Residence time is many times greater than conventional grate firing. Thus an FBC system releases heat more efficiently at lower temperatures. Since limestone is used as particle bed, control of sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxide emissions in the combustion chamber is achieved without any additional control equipment. This is one of the major advantages over conventional boilers.
Figure 2.2.3.1: Principle of Fluidization
Fixing, bubbling and fast fluidized beds : As the velocity of a gas flowing through a bed of particles increases, a value is reaches when the bed fluidises and bubbles form as in a boiling liquid. At higher velocities the bubbles disappear; and the solids are rapidly blown out of the bed and must be recycled to maintain a stable system.
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Figure 2.2.3.2 Relation between Gas Velocity and Solid Velocity
2.2.4 Circulating Fluidised Bed Combustion (CFBC) Working : Circulating Fluidised Bed Combustion (CFBC) technology has evolved from conventional bubbling bed combustion as a means to overcome some of the drawbacks associated with conventional bubbling bed combustion (see Figure 2.2.4.1). This CFBC technology utilizes the fluidized bed principle in which crushed (6 12 mm size) fuel and limestone are injected into the furnace or combustor. The particles are suspended in a stream of upwardly flowing air (60-70% of the total air), which enters the bottom of the furnace through air distribution nozzles. The fluidising velocity in circulating beds ranges from 3.7 to 9 m/sec. The balance of combustion air is admitted above the bottom of the furnace as secondary air. The combustion takes place at 840-900oC, and the fine particles (<450
microns) are elutriated out of the furnace with flue gas velocity of 4-6 m/s. The particles are then collected by the solids separators and circulated back into the furnace. Solid recycle is about 50 to 100 kg per kg of fuel burnt. There are no steam generation tubes immersed in the bed. The circulating bed is designed to move a lot more solids out of the furnace area and to achieve most of the heat transfer outside the combustion zone - convection section, water walls, and at the exit of the riser. Some circulating bed units even have external heat exchanges. The particles circulation provides efficient heat transfer to the furnace walls and longer residence time for carbon and limestone utilization. Similar to Pulverized Coal (PC) firing, the controlling parameters in the CFB combustion process are temperature, residence time and turbulence. For large units, the taller furnace characteristics of CFBC boiler offers better space utilization, greater fuel particle and sorbent residence time for efficient combustion and SO2 capture, and easier application of staged combustion techniques for NOx control than AFBC generators. CFBC boilers are said to achieve better calcium to sulphur utilization 1.5 to 1 vs. 3.2 to 1 for the AFBC boilers, although the furnace temperatures are almost the same. CFBC boilers are generally claimed to be more economical than AFBC boilers for industrial application requiring more than 75 100 T/hr of steam. CFBC requires huge mechanical cyclones to capture and recycle the large amount of bed material, which requires a tall boiler. Circulating bed boiler At high fluidizing gas velocities in which a fast recycling bed of fine material is superimposed on a bubbling bed of larger particles. The
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combustion temperature is controlled by rate of recycling of fine material. Hot fine material is separated from the flue gas by a cyclone and is partially cooled in a separate low velocity fluidized bed heat exchanger, where the heat is given up to the steam. The cooler fine material is then recycled to the dense bed.
Figure 2.2.4.1 Circulating Bed Boiler Design A CFBC could be good choice if the following conditions are met. Capacity of boiler is large to medium Sulphur emission and NOx control is important The boiler is required to fire low-grade fuel or fuel with highly fluctuating fuel quality. Major performance features of the circulating bed system are as follows:
a) It has a high processing capacity because of the high gas velocity through the system. b) The temperature of about 870oC is reasonably constant throughout the process because of the high turbulence and circulation of solids. The low combustion temperature also results in minimal NOx formation. c) Sulfur present in the fuel is retained in the circulating solids in the form of calcium sulphate and removed in solid form. The use of limestone or dolomite sorbents allows a higher sulfur retention rate, and limestone requirements have been demonstrated to be substantially less than with bubbling bed combustor. d) The combustion air is supplied at 1.5 to 2 psig rather than 3-5 psig as required by bubbling bed combustors. e) It has high combustion efficiency. f) It has a better turndown ratio than bubbling bed systems. g) Erosion of the heat transfer surface in the combustion chamber is reduced, since the surface is parallel to the flow. In a bubbling bed system, the surface generally is perpendicular to the flow. 2.2.5 Characteristics of FBC Boilers: Combustion takes place at temperatures from 800-900C. Bubbling beds use a low fluidizing velocity, so that the particles are held mainly in a bed which will have a depth of about 1 m, and has a definable surface. Sand is often used to improve bed stability, together with limestone for SO2 absorption. As the coal particles are burned away and become smaller, they are elutriated with the gases, and subsequently removed as fly ash. In-bed tubes are used to control the bed temperature and generate steam. The flue gases are normally cleaned using a cyclone, and then pass through further heat exchangers, raising steam. Unit size
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Atmospheric BFBC is mainly used for boilers up to about 25 MWe, although there are a few larger plants where it has been used to retrofit an existing unit. Thermal efficiency Overall thermal efficiency is around 30%. Flue gas cleaning/emissions Combustion takes place at temperatures from 800-900C resulting in reduced NOx formation compared with PCC. Air staging can further reduce NOx formation. N2O formation is, however, increased. SO2 emissions can be reduced by the injection of sorbent into the bed, and the subsequent removal of ash together with reacted sorbent. Limestone or dolomite are commonly used for this purpose. A disadvantage of BFBC is that in order to remove SO2, a much higher Ca/S ratio is needed than in atmospheric CFBC. This increases costs, and in particular the cost of residues disposal. Residues The residues consist of the original mineral matter, most of which does not melt at the combustion temperatures used. Where sorbent is added for SO2 removal, there will be additional CaO/MgO, CaSO4 and CaCO3 present. There may be a high free lime content and leachates will be strongly alkaline. Carbon-in-ash levels are higher in FBC residues that in those from PCC.
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2.2.6 Performance Evaluation of Boilers The performance of a boiler, which include thermal efficiency and evaporation ratio (or steam to fuel ratio), deteriorates over time for reasons that include poor combustion, fouling of heat transfer area, and inadequacies in operation and maintenance. Even for a new boiler, deteriorating fuel quality and water quality can result in poor boiler performance. Boiler efficiency tests help us to calculate deviations of boiler efficiency from the design value and identify areas for improvement. 2.2.6.1 Thermal efficiency Thermal efficiency of a boiler is defined as the percentage of heat input that is effectively utilized to generate steam. There are two methods of assessing boiler efficiency: direct and indirect. In the direct method, the ratio of heat output (heat gain by water to become steam) to heat input (energy content of fuel) is calculated. In the indirect method, all the heat losses of a boiler are measured and its efficiency computed by subtracting the losses from the maximum of 100.
2.2.6.2 Evaporation ratio Evaporation ratio, or steam to fuel ratio, is another simple, conventional parameter to track performance of boilers on-day-to-day basis. For small capacity boilers, direct method can be attempted, but it is preferable to conduct indirect efficiency evaluation, since an indirect method permits assessment of all losses and can be a tool for loss minimization. In the direct method, steam quality measurement poses uncertainties. Standards can be referred to for computations and methodology of evaluation. The audit worksheets given in APOs Energy Audit Manual can also be used for this purpose. 2.2.7 Boiler Water Treatment
Boiler water treatment is an important area for attention since water quality has a major influence on the efficiency of a boiler as well as on its safe operation. The higher the pressure rating, the more stringent the water quality requirements become. Boiler water quality is continuously monitored for buildup of total dissolved solids (TDS) and hardness, and blowdown is carried out (involving heat loss) to limit the same. Boiler water treatment methods are dependent upon quality limits specified for TDS and hardness by the manufacturers, the operating pressure of the boiler, the extent of make-up water used, and the quality of raw water at the site. For small-capacity and low-pressure boilers, water treatment is carried out by adding chemicals to the boiler to prevent the formation of scale, and by converting the scale-forming compounds to free-flowing sludge, which can be removed by blowdown. Limitations : Treatment is applicable to boilers where feed water is low in hardness salts, where low pressure high TDS content in boiler water is tolerated, and where only small quantities of water need to be treated. If these conditions are not met, then high rates of blowdown are required to dispose of the sludge, and treatment become uneconomical based on heat and water loss considerations. Chemicals Used : Sodium carbonate, sodium aluminate, sodium phosphate, sodium sulphite, and compounds of vegetable or inorganic origin are used for treatment. Internal treatment alone is not recommended.
Chapter: 3 EXPECTED OUTCOME

3.1 Combined Cycle Power Plant 3.1.1 Economic and Technical Considerations for Combined-Cycle Performance-Enhancement Options : The output and efficiency of combined-cycle plants can be increased during the design phase by selecting the following features:1 Higher steam pressure and temperature Multiple steam pressure levels Reheat cycles Additional factors are considered if there is a need for peak power production. They include gas turbine power augmentation by water or steam injection or a supplementary fired heat recovery steam generator (HRSG). If peak power demands occur on hot summer days, gas turbine inlet evaporative cooling or chilling should be considered. Fuel heating is another technique that has been used to increase the efficiency of combined-cycle plants. The ability of combined-cycle plants to generate additional power beyond their base capacity during peak periods has become an important design consideration. During the last decade, premiums were paid for power generated during the summer peak periods. The cost of electricity during the peak periods can be 70 times more expensive than off-peak periods. Since the cost during the peak periods is much higher, most of the plants profitability could be driven by the amount of power generated during these peak periods. Thus, plants that can generate large quantities of power during the peak periods can achieve the highest profits.
3.1.2 OUTPUT ENHANCEMENT
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The two major categories of plant output enhancements are (1) gas turbine inlet air cooling and (2) power augmentation. 3.1.2.1 Gas Turbine Inlet Air Cooling Industrial gas turbines operating at constant speed have a constant volumetric flow rate. Since the specific volume of air is directly proportional to temperature, cooler air has a higher mass flow rate. It generates more power in the turbine. Cooler air also requires less energy to be compressed to the same pressure as warmer air. Thus, gas turbines generate higher power output when the incoming air is cooler. A gas turbine inlet air cooling system is a good option for applications where electricity prices increase during the warm months. It increases the power output by decreasing the temperature of the incoming air. In combined-cycle applications, it also results in improvement in thermal efficiency. A decrease in the inlet dry-bulb temperature by 10F (5.6C) will normally result in around 2.7 percent power increase of a combined cycle using heavy-duty gas turbines. The output of simplecycle gas turbines is also increased by the same amount. The two methods used for reducing the gas turbine inlet temperature are (1) evaporative cooling and (2) chilling. Evaporative coolers rely on water evaporation to cool the inlet air to the turbine. Chilling of the inlet air is normally done by having cold water flowing through a heat exchanger located in the inlet duct. The wet-bulb temperature limits the effectiveness of evaporative cooling. However, chilling can reduce the inlet air temperature below the wet-bulb temperature. This provides additional output power, albeit at significantly higher costs. Evaporative Cooling. : Evaporative cooling is a cost-effective method to increase the power output of a gas turbine when the ambient temperature is high and the relative humidity is reasonably low. Evaporative Cooling Methods. : There are two methods for providing evaporative cooling.
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The first utilizes a wetted-honeycomb type of medium known as an evaporative cooler. The second is the inlet fogger. Evaporative Cooling Theory : Evaporative cooling uses water evaporation to cool the airstream. Energy is required to convert water from liquid to vapor. This energy is taken from the airstream. This results in cooler air having higher humidity. Figure 3.1.2.1.1 illustrates a psychometric chart. It is used to explore the limitations of evaporative cooling. In theory, the lowest temperature achieved by adding water to air is the ambient wet-bulb temperature. In reality, it is difficult to achieve this level of cooling. The actual temperature achieved depends on both the equipment design and atmospheric conditions. The evaporative cooler effectiveness depends on the surface area of the water exposed to the airstream and the residence time. The cooler effectiveness is defined as:
The typical effectiveness of a cooler is between 85 and 95 percent. If the effectiveness is 85 percent, the temperature drop will be
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Fig 3.1.2.1.1 Psychometric chart, simplified
For example, assume that the ambient temperature is 100F (37.8C) and the relative humidity is 32 percent. The cooling process is illustrated on the psychometric chart (Fig. 3.1.2.1.1). It follows a constant-enthalpy line as sensible heat is exchanged for latent heat of evaporation. The corresponding wet-bulb temperature is 75F (23.9C). The drop in temperature through the cooler is then 0.85 (100 75), or 21F (11.7C). Thus, the compressor inlet temperature is 79F (26C). The effectiveness of an evaporative cooler is normally around 85 percent and of the foggers is between 90 and 95 percent. The actual increase in
power from the gas turbine as a result of air cooling depends on the design of the machine, site altitude, as well as ambient temperature and humidity. However, the information provided in Fig. 3.1.2.1.2 can be used to make an estimate of the effect of evaporative coolers. The highest improvement is achieved in hot, dry weather.
Fig 3.1.2.1.2 Effect of evaporative cooler on available output85 percent effective Wetted-Honeycomb Evaporative Coolers : Conventional evaporative coolers use a wettedhoneycomblike medium to maximize the evaporative surface area and the cooling effectiveness. The medium used for gas turbines is typically _12 in thick .A controller is provided to prevent operation of the evaporative cooler system below60F (15.6C). Icing could form if the system is allowed to
operate below this temperature. The whole system must be deactivated and drained to avoid damage to the water tank and piping if the ambient temperature is expected to fall below freezing. Water Requirements for Evaporative Coolers : Evaporative coolers have the highest effectiveness in arid regions where water has a higher concentration of dissolved solids. As water evaporates and makeup water enters the tank, the amount of minerals present in the tank will increase. These minerals would precipitate out on the media, reducing the rate of evaporation. The hazard of having minerals getting entrained with the air entering the gas turbine will also increase. This hazard is minimized by continuously bleeding down the tank to reduce the concentration of minerals. This is known as blowdown. Water is added as makeup for evaporation and blowdown. The rate of evaporation depends on the ambient temperature and humidity, altitude, cooler effectiveness, and airflow through the gas turbine. Foggers : These systems atomize the supply of water into billions of tiny droplets. The size of the droplets plays an important role in determining the surface area of water exposed to the airstream and, therefore, to the speed of evaporation. For example, water atomized into 10-_m droplets produces 10 times more surface area than the same amount atomized to 100-_m droplets. Demineralized water is used to reduce compressor fouling or nozzle plugging. However, it necessitates the use of a high-grade stainless steel for all wetted parts. Two methods are used for water atomization. The first relies on compressor air in the nozzles to atomize the water. The second uses a high-pressure pump to force the water through a small orifice Evaporative Intercooling :
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Evaporative intercooling, also known as overspray or overcooling, consists of additional injection of fog into the inlet airstream beyond what can be evaporated by a given ambient climate condition. Non-evaporated fog droplets are carried into the airstream entering the compressor. The higher temperatures in the compressor evaporate the droplets. This cools the air and makes it denser, resulting in a decrease in the relative work of the compressor and an increase in the total mass flow of the air. The output power of the machine will increase. The power increase obtained from fog intercooling is higher than the amount obtained from a conventional evaporative cooling system. The only possible drawback of intercooling is that if the water droplets are too large, erosion of the compressor blade will occur due to liquid impaction. Intercooling is also done by fog-spraying atomized water between compressor sections. The atomization is done using high-pressure air taken from the eighth-stage bleed. The water injection reduces the outlet temperature of the compressor significantly, resulting in higher output and better efficiency. Inlet Chilling : The two types of inlet chilling systems are (1) direct chillers and (2) thermal storage. Liquefied natural gas (LNG) systems use the cooling generated by the vaporization of liquefied gas in the fuel supply. Thermal storage systems use off-peak power to store thermal energy in the form of ice. During peak power periods, the ice is used to perform inlet chilling. Direct chilling systems use mechanical or absorption chillers. All these options can be installed in new plants or retrofitted in older plants. The chilling achieved by using cooling coils depends on the design of the equipment and ambient conditions. Unlike evaporative coolers, cooling coils are capable of lowering the temperature below the wet-bulb temperature. The capacity of the inlet chilling device, the compressors acceptable temperature and humidity limits, and the effectiveness of the coils limit the actual reduction in temperature. Inlet Chilling Methods :
Direct cooling provides an almost instantaneous power increase by cooling the air at the inlet to the gas turbine. Large mechanical chillers driven by electricity are used with heat exchangers (chiller coils) in the inlet to the gas turbine. The pressure drop across these heat exchangers is around 1 in of water. Absorption chillers are also used if waste heat is available. The air temperature at the inlet to the gas turbine can be reduced to 45F (7.2C). The net gain of mechanical chillers is lower than absorption systems due to their high electrical consumption. Direct cooling is accomplished by two methods: (1) directexpansion and (2) chilled-water systems. Direct-expansion systems use a refrigerant in the cooling coil installed in the inlet air duct. Chilled-water systems use water or a mixture of water and glycol as a secondary heating fluid between the refrigerant and the air entering the gas turbine. It should be noted that these systems provide the maximum benefit on the hottest days. Their benefit decreases as ambient temperature is reduced. Also, these systems reduce the power output when the temperature drops below 45F (7.2C) due to an increase in pressure drop at the inlet to the gas turbine. Off-Peak Thermal Energy Storage : Off-peak thermal energy storage is used where the cost of electricity during daytime peak periods is very high. Ice or cold water is produced during off-peak hours and weekends by mechanical chillers and stored in large tanks. The power increase lasts for a few hours each day. The inlet air to the gas turbine is chilled during periods of peak power demand by the melted ice or cold water. The gas turbine inlet air temperature is reduced to between 50 and 60F by this system. However, large storage space is required for ice or cold water. Gas Vaporizers of Liquefied Petroleum Gases : Liquefied petroleum gases (LPGs) should be vaporized before use in gas turbines. They are normally delivered at 50F (10C) to the gas
turbine. The inlet air can provide the heat needed to vaporize the liquid fuel. Glycol is used as an intermediate fluid. The inlet air to the gas turbine heats the glycol. Its temperature drops during this process. The glycol heats the fuel. The typical drop in inlet air temperature is 10F (5.6C). Thus, the energy in the incoming air to the gas turbine is used in a useful manner. 3.1.2.2 Power Augmentation The three methods used for power augmentation are: (1) water or steam injection, (2) HRSG supplementary firing, and (3) peak firing. Gas Turbine Steam or Water Injection : The steam or water injection into the combustors for nitric oxide (NOX) control increases the mass flow of the air, resulting in increased power output. The amount of steam or water injected is normally limited by the amount required to control NOX. This is done to minimize the operating and maintenance costs and impact on inspection intervals. The steam injected is normally mixed with the fuel entering the combustors. It can also be injected into the compressor discharge casing of the gas turbine. In combined-cycle applications, the heat rate increases with steam or water injection. The reasons for this change are For water injection. Significant amount of heat is required to vaporize the water. For steam injection. Steam is taken from the bottoming cycle (HRSG/steam turbine) to be injected in the gas turbine. This reduces the efficiency of the steam cycle. Most machines allow up to 5 percent of the compressor airflow for steam injection. The steam must have at least 50F (28C) superheat and be at a similar pressure to the fuel gas. Most control systems allow only the steam flow required until the unit is fully loaded. At this stage, additional steam or water is admitted for further increase in power.
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Supplementary-Fired HRSG : Since only a small percentage of the air entering the gas turbine participates in the combustion process, the oxygen concentration in the discharge of the gas turbine allows supplementary firing in the HRSG. The definition of a supplementary-fired unit is an HRSG fired to an average temperature of, not exceeding, about 1800F (982C). Supplementary-fired HRSGs are installed in new units. However, it is not practical to retrofit them on existing installations due to the space requirements of duct burners and significant material changes. Peak Firing : Some gas turbines can be operated at a higher firing temperature than their base rating. This is called peak firing. The output of the simple cycle and combined cycle will increase. This mode of operation results in a shorter inspection interval and increased maintenance. Despite this penalty, operating at higher firing temperatures for short periods is costeffective due to the increase in power output. Output Enhancement Summary : Several output enhancement methods have been discussed. Table 3.1.2.2.1 shows the effect on performance for each method on a day that is 90F (32.2C), with 30 percent RH. The capability of each piece of equipment in the plant, including gas turbine, steam turbine, and generator, must be reviewed to ensure that the design limits will not be exceeded. For example, the capability of the generator may be limited on hot days due to inadequate cooling capability.
3.1.2.3 Efficiency Enhancement Fuel Heating
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Low-grade heat can be used to increase the temperature of gaseous fuels. These results in increasing the plant efficiency by reducing the amount of fuel consumed to increase the fuel temperature to the combustion temperature. This method has minimal impact on the output of gas turbines. However, it results in a limited reduction in the output of combined cycles due to using energy to heat the fuel rather than for steam production. The temperature of the fuel can be increased up to 700F (370C) if the fuel constituents are acceptable, before carbon deposits start to form on heat transfer surfaces and the remainder of the fuel delivery system. Fuel temperatures of between 300 and 450F (150 and 230C) are considered economically optimal for combined-cycle application. A typical gain in efficiency for a large combined cycle plant is around 0.3.
Table 3.1.2.3.1 Effect on Performance of Power Enhancement Option on Combined Cycles Compared with the Base Case
It is important to prevent the fuel from entering the steam system because the temperature of the steam is normally higher than the autoignition temperature of gas fuels. This can be accomplished by implementing the following modifications:
Maintaining the water pressure above the fuel pressure in direct fuel-to-steam heat exchangers to ensure that any leakage will occur into the fuel system. Design and operational requirements to prevent the fuel from entering the steam system when the steam pressure is low. Using an intermediate heat transport fluid so that any leak in the fuel heat exchanger will not affect the steam system. 3.2 Improve Availability and Efficiency of FBC Boilers : Basic boiler design has the largest impact on the systems efficiency and maintenance costs. First cost is a relatively small portion of investment in a boiler. Energy costs might represent 70-80 percent of the annual operating cost of boiler systems and 30-50 percent of the life-cycle cost. Since a boilers capital cost is a major component of its life -cycle cost, deferred maintenance that shortens equipment life hurts the bottom line. A typical boiler uses many times the initial capital expenditure in fuel annually, so to maximize the boiler investment, managers need to specify the most efficient boiler for the application. Among the replacement options are converting steam to hot-water boiler systems, using non-condensing type boilers and water heaters, and using condensing type boilers and water heaters. An efficiency increase of 11-15 percent is possible when comparing condensing equipment with non-condensing equipment. Managers can easily address the creation of sulfuric acid in flue gases by using stainless steel for flue piping and by collecting and draining condensate. Doing so can result in efficiencies of greater than 95 percent.
3.2.1 Fine Tuning The Fluidised Bed Combustion Boilers :

The design of Fluidised bed combustion boiler has lot to do with the fuel type and the fuel conditions. The fuel itself may change since the purchase of the boiler. A design based on certain fuel / fuel combinations is not at its optimum when it comes to other fuels. This is specifically true when the boiler is changed from agro fuels to coal. Similarly change in operating loads may also warrant fine tuning of the boiler operational parameters. There are cases where the boiler is specifically oversized considering the future expansion. In such a case the bed area and bed coil area may have to be covered up until the steam requirement increases. The air requirement and flue gas to be handled becomes less. Use of VFD / use of smaller capacity fans would benefit the user in terms of power saving and operational efficiency. Like this there are lot of possibilities for a review of the original design to present operating conditions.
3.2.2 Tips for Improvement in Operations / Modifications for FBC Boilers : In the following pages the tips are explained with illustrations as necessary. The tips are based in the operational experience of several make of FBC boilers in India. Some of the tips would certainly benefit some boiler users. In the continual improvement of the design / Operation of the FBC boilers there is always scope for additions to this list.
TIP 1 Measure and maintain adequate Distributor plate drop The quality of fluidisation should be good ensuring there are no defluidised zones. This cannot be ensured by visual means. The distributor plate pressure drop becomes a vital factor to ensure this. When the DP drop is less than 75 mmWC, the coarse particles begin to settle down at the bed bottom. In an ideal case, DP drop should be 1/3 rd of bed height. Defluidization or settlement of coarse particles will not be visible
from top of the bed, as the fine bed material would continue to fluidise. Settling of coarse particles can also damage bed coils. This leads to localised erosion of bed tubes. This can happen even in overfed FBC boilers. Providing studs does not help. Bed coil erosion continues. See figure 3.2.2.1
Fig. 3.2.2.1 When Dp Drop Is Less Bed Coarse Partices Settle At Bottom Of Bed
TIP 2 Check bed coil pitch for studded bed coils Studs can increase protection against gross erosion but not localised erosion. Studs decrease the clearance between adjacent bed coils. Spacing of coils is to be specially addressed if studding is opted for. The Increased fluidisation velocity at narrow clearances decreases the life of the bed coils.
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TIP 3- Consider reduction of bed size When the steam demand is less, the bed area becomes oversized. Maintaining a minimum pressure drop for fluidisation would be difficult. The boiler operators continue to maintain high excess air level to avoid bed slumping. In many process boilers this is the case due to oversized boiler (planned considering future steam requirement) See figure 3.2.2.2. It is necessary to reduce the bed area by blocking nozzles and by construction of refractory walls.
Fig. 3.2.2.2 Bed Area Reduction To Suit The Reduced Steam Generation Requirement
TIP 4 - Inadequate instrumentation Some manufacturers do not provide draft gauges / manometers for indication of bed pressure. In such cases, the operators do not get an idea on bed height. Knowing air box pressure alone does not tell what the bed height is. It may be possible that fluidising air is more and the bed height
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is less. More fluidising air leads to excess air operation. This affects the bed coil life. See figure 3.2.2.3.
Fig. 3.2.2.3 Bed Height & Airbox Instrumentationidledgbedairboxdg TIP 5 - Care of idle bed At times it may be necessary to reduce the steam production rate. This is done by slumping compartments. Continued operation of slumped bed may result in shallow bed height in the operating compartment and leads to defluidization. This happens particularly when bed size is smaller. The bed height in operating bed becomes less when it spills to adjacent slumped compartment. See figure 3.2.2.4. It becomes necessary to alternately activate the slumped bed to bring the bed height back to normal. There are other reasons as well. See the further tips.
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Fig 3.2.2.4 Bed Material Spillage To Idle Compartment
TIP 6 Provide additional drain points Heavy stones and heavy ash particles keep accumulating at the bottom of bed. Larger beds need more ash drain points in order to ensure coarse ash particles, which settle at the bottom can be effectively removed. If drain points are inadequate or if all the available drain points are not used, small clinkers would form and grow big. The ash draining will be effective in open bottom fluidised beds. The ash draining must be kept partially opened to allow gradual discharge of ash from the bed. This way it is found to remove most of the coarse particles that settle at the bottom. In overbed feeding arrangement coarser particles would settle near fuel feed points. Provide additional ash drain points at these locations to remove the stones / heavy particles.
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TIP 7- Care for idle bed Slumping of the bed is done to meet the steam demand. It is not correct to keep same compartment under slumped condition. In the slumped bed heat transfer to bed coil becomes less. The circulation of water ceases. This may result in high pH corrosion / caustic gouging/ settling of iron oxides / corrosion products in such bed coils, depending on boiler water chemistry. See figure 3.2.2.5, for appearance of tube inside on a caustic gouging failure.
Fig. 3.2.2.5 Caustic Gouging Attack In Idle Compartment Tube TIP -8 Use Optimum primary air pressure Primary air fans are required for underfeed system. The PA fans are selected with 15% - 25 % flow margins. It is necessary to keep the PA header pressure as low as possible so that the suction effect is just the minimum at the throat. The air leakage from the feeder must be taken as
a guide. Higher PA header pressure leads to more air flow through the fuel feed points. Higher air flow would erode the bed coils faster. It addition venturi erosion would be faster. TIP 9 Care for shutting PA damper in idle bed In underbed feeding arrangements there is no physical partition above the distributor plate. When a compartment is slumped for load control, particularly for longer duration, it is necessary to close the PA damper in slumped compartments. Leaving the primary air full open in idle compartment would lead to bed coil erosion. It is the tendency of many operators to leave open the PA line dampers, for the fear of line choking. The bed material is continuously thrown at bed coil.
Fig. 3.2.2.6 Fuel Line Air Eroding Away Bed Coil In Idle Compartment fuel
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TIP 10 Replace the Worn-out venturi / mixing nozzles promptly In underfeed arrangement the fuel is fed from bottom of the bed. As the pressure at the feed point inside the bed is 400 -500 mmWC, high pressure PA fan with mixing nozzles are used to transport the fuel inside. The air jet velocity at the throat of the mixing nozzle is of the order of 100 130 m/s. The fuel particles are accelerated at the mixing chamber and the diffuser ensures the gradual return to normal line velocity. The diffuser erodes over a period (1-2 year). As the pressure drop of mixing nozzle increases more and more air is required for generating suction at the throat. Naturally the erosion rate of bed coil will be more inside the bed. TIP 11- Care to use the air vent valve in idle compartment Slumping of a compartment is necessary to take care of load reduction and while start up of the combustor. There can be clinker formation if the fuel spillage is present in the idle compartment. In certain boilers, the fuel feed point may be close to the border of the adjacent compartment. For the clinker to take place there should be air flow in the idle compartment. The compartment dampers may not be leak proof. For this reason, automatic air vent valves are provided in compartment air box, to enable venting the passing air from compartment damper. If the valves are to be manually operated, the same must be done. Needless to say, that the leaky damper will have to be attended.
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Fig. 3.2.2.7 Fuel Line Air Eroding Away Bed Coil In Idle Compartment fuel TIP 10 Replace the Worn-out venturi / mixing nozzles promptly In underfeed arrangement the fuel is fed from bottom of the bed. As the pressure at the feed point inside the bed is 400 -500 mmWC, high pressure PA fan with mixing nozzles are used to transport the fuel inside. The air jet velocity at the throat of the mixing nozzle is of the order of 100 130 m/s. The fuel particles are accelerated at the mixing chamber and the diffuser ensures the gradual return to normal line velocity. The diffuser erodes over a period (1-2 year). As the pressure drop of mixing nozzle increases more and more air is required for generating suction at the throat. Naturally the erosion rate of bed coil will be more inside the bed.
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TIP 11- Care to use the air vent valve in idle compartment Slumping of a compartment is necessary to take care of load reduction and while startup of the combustor. There can be clinker formation if the fuel spillage is present in the idle compartment. In certain boilers, the fuel feed point may be close to the border of the adjacent compartment. For the clinker to take place there should be air flow in the idle compartment. The compartment dampers may not be leak proof. For this reason, automatic air vent valves are provided in compartment air box, to enable venting the passing air from compartment damper. If the valves are to be manually operated, the same must be done. Needless to say, that the leaky damper will have to be attended.
Fig. 3.2.2.8 Fuel Spillage And Leakage Air In Idle Compartment Causing Clinkersclinker TIP 12-Avoid continued operation with troubled bed A fluidised bed may get clinkered when there are disturbances in boiler operation. For example when there is no coal in bunker, the operator momentarily reduces the air flow in order to reduce the bed
quenching. At this time, it is likely the bed defludises at some zones. The average particle size is always high compared to start up bed material and hence defluidization chances are more when the air flow is reduced. Once the bed is known to have clinkered, steps are to be taken for immediate removal. This may be possible by increasing the drain rate from the clinkered bed. A bed clinkering can be figured out from the differences between the bottom and top bed temperature readings. TIP 13- Ensure proper fuel particle size Improper fuel sizing affects the bed particle size. Improper screen cloth sizing, coarse particle separation in bunker, worn out crusher hammers can lead to oversized fuel particles. Oversized fuel particles are found to accumulate near the fuel feed points leading to defluidization. The air jets upwards once this happens. Bed coils erode locally above the fuel feed point at this time. See figure 3.2.2.9.
Fig. 3.2.2.9 Coarse Particles Settling Around Fuel Nozzle And Pa Jet Hitting Bed Coil TIP 14 - Attend to Loose air nozzles
Some manufacturers adopt push fit nozzles over the distributor plate. Further a castable refractory is laid over the plate. The castable gets broken during service due to thermal expansion. This leads to leakage at the air nozzle base itself. Such leakages lead to not only bypassing of more air from such locations, but also lead to defluidised zones. This can happen near bed ash drain points. TIP 15 -Leaky compartment dampers Leaky compartment dampers lead to partial fluidisation. Spilled fuel from adjacent operating compartment would lead to clinker formation and further growth. Dampers will need replacement. Butterfly dampers with proper seals would be the ideal choice to solve the clinker problem. In ordinary flap type damper sealing strips would help bring down the leakage. See the figure 3.2.2.10, for the detail of sealing strip which prove useful.
Fig. 3.2.2.10 Sealing strips from circular dampers TIP 16- Improper setting of Power cylinder of compartment dampers Compartment dampers are to be set for closed conditions. At times it is found that the dampers do not close inside where as the power cylinder closes fully at the outside. See figure 3.2.2.11, which points out the defect, which is faced in many cases.
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Fig.3.2.2.11 Improper Power Cylinder Erection Causes Leakage TIP -17 Leaky distributor plates Some manufacturers adopt removable distributor plate design. This is adopted for ease of approach during bed coil maintenance. The leakage between distributor plate and supporting frame would lead to local fluidisation and keeps making clinkers. When the air bypasses at some place it is natural at some other location, the bed has settled. See figure 3.2.1.12. If the erection is improper this could be a serious matter disturbing the fluidised bed operation.
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Fig. 3.2.2.12 Leakage Between Support Frame And Dp Plate TIP -18 Replace all failed air nozzles at one go Air nozzles may be made from cast iron / stainless steel. The nozzles begin to oxidise at the top where it receives radiation and convection heat. Over a period the top opens up. Now the air jets from top hitting the coils above. Some experience cracking of air nozzles along the top row of nozzles. Failed air nozzles allow more air flow and hence the air flow through the good ones would come down (Preferential flow through least resistance path). This leads to defluidised zones.
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Fig. 3.2.2.13 Failed Air Nozzles Disturb Fluidisation And Cause Bed Coil Erosion TIP 19 Do not Operate the boiler with choked PA lines Primary air lines choke up when oversized fuel is fed or when compartment damper is opened before operating PA damper. Due to this the fuel nozzles get distorted. In running boiler no one can guess what the extent of distortion is. The fuel nozzle cap is distorted the fuel-air mixture may target the bed coil and lead to premature failure. Distorted nozzles are to be replaced immediately. SS fuel nozzles offer better protection when it comes to bed coil life. TIP 20 -Reduce the chances for start up clinkers Fluidised beds may be started compartment by compartment. When the first compartment is started one must ensure that there is a good mount of bed material to prevent the fuel spillage to adjacent compartment. The PA pressure should be bare minimum. Excess PA pressure spills more fuel to adjacent compartment. The PA pressure requirement will be less, since the bed height will be less during start up. When the fuel spill is more a border clinker is likely to form. Excess mixing air flow also leads to more spillage. It is necessary to keep the PA air line dampers of adjacent compartments in close condition.
TIP 21- More PA and less fluidizing air By virtue of design / operating load, bed material settles along the wall side. This leads to throwing of bed material along the wall to the coils. This happens where fuel feed points are close to wall. When the frequent load turn downs are expected the bed plate pressure drop has to be designed for ensuring a minimum bed plate pressure drop of 75 mmWC. Operating at lesser P would lead to pockets of defluidised zones. TIP 22 -Bed coil to fuel nozzle clearance The designer has to ensure a minimum clearance of 150 mm from fuel nozzle cap top to bed coil to safeguard the bed coil against erosion. At times due to faulty erection the clearance may be less leading to premature bed coil failure. TIP 23 Check the adequacy of instrumentation of fluidised bed In the absence of bed temperature indications and air box pressure, bed pressure, operation of the fluidised bed is risky. When such instruments are compromised, no one can vouch that the bed is perfectly OK at all places. It may be possible to assess from the bed material drained from ash drain pipe. But the same will not be proper for bigger beds. Failed thermocouples, burnt compensating cables, defective temperature indicators are to be replaced at the earliest opportunity to prevent bed coil erosion. TIP 24- Review Oversized fuel feeders In some cases, it is likely that the feeders are oversized. A feeder designed for agro fuel becomes oversized when it comes to changing over to coal. The fuel feeders are to be replaced with a smaller one or additional speed reduction mechanism needs to be added. For a small rpm
change the feeder may be dumping excess fuel. The clinker formation possibility is increased due to this. In the recent years many boiler users have started using high GCV imported coal. This may also lead to excess fuel dumping for a small rpm change. TIP 25- Change the bed coil configuration while replacement The pitch of the bed coil is a factor for erosion potential. At least one tube gap must be adopted while selecting the pitch. This is a reason for bend erosion in closely pitched hairpin type bed coils. Staggered bed coils would ensure sufficient gap between coils and thus fluidisation becomes more uniform at entire bed. Cross bed tubes are found to be better than the hairpin coils. While planning for replacement of bed coils, consider improvement of bed coil configurations. There are many possibilities for better configurations considering ease of replacement.
Fig. 3.2.2.14 Coil Spacing In Hair Pin Type Bed Coils
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3.2.3 ENERGY EFFICIENCY OPPORTUNITIES IN BOILERS The various energy efficiency opportunities in boiler systems can be related to combustion, heat transfer, avoidable losses, high auxiliary power consumption, water quality, and blowdown, and are discussed below. 3.2.3.1 Reduce excess air To minimize escape of heat through flue gases, reducing excess air (the air quantity over and above the theoretical amount needed for combustion) is one of the most important methods of improving boiler efficiency. Perfect combustion is achieved when all the fuel is burned using only the theoretical amount of air, but perfect combustion can rarely be achieved in practice. Good/complete combustion is achieved when all the fuel is burned using the minimal amount of excess air (over and above the theoretical amount of air needed to burn the fuel). Complete combustion with minimum excess air is always our goal since heat losses due to high excess air in flue gases are unaffordable and unacceptable from the point of view of efficiency. Incomplete combustion occurs when all the fuel is not completely burned and escapes as CO in flue gases or as unburnts in refuse, both of which result in higher losses and low efficiency. Flue gas analysis of combustion is important as it helps to achieve efficient combustion conditions by excess air control and reduction of CO in flue gases. Using gas analyzers, the excess air quantity can be established from measurement of oxygen or carbon dioxide. Based on oxygen value in flue gas, excess air is given as: % of excess air = 100 *% of O2 / (21-% of O2).
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The relation between % O2 and flue gas and excess air is illustrated in Table 2-1. The advantage of oxygen based analysis is that it is the same for any fuel or fuel combination: The effort, therefore, should be to operate the boiler with minimum % O2 in flue gases (excess air), eliminating all avenues of excess air used for combustion and in the flue gas path. % O2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 % excess air 5 10.52 16.67 23.53 31.25 40 50 61.7 77 90.9 110
Table 3.2.3.1.1 Oxygen content and excess air 3.2.3.2 Minimize stack temperature The stack temperature should be as low as possible, since it carries all the heat from the fuel. However, it should not be so low that water vapor from exhaust condenses on the stack walls. This is important in fuels containing significant sulphur, as low temperature can lead to sulphur dew point corrosion and acid attack effects on metallic parts in the flue gas path. A stack temperature greater than 200C indicates potential for recovery of waste heat. It also sometimes indicates the fouling and scaling of heat transfer/recovery equipment. Boiler users must monitor stack temperature and compare it with design value. When
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it has increased over time, maintenance of heat transfer surfaces is called for. If the design value itself is high, the stack temperature can be reduced by adopting one of the following waste heat recovery methods. Waste heat recovery systems are typically shell and tube type heat exchangers and heat transfer area, and other design features depend on flow rates, temperature drop considered, etc. 3.2.3.3 Feed water preheating from waste heat of stack gases Where feasible, adoption of feed water heating, using economizer from flue gases with economizer application, gives the highest fuel economy, as one can pre-heat feed water almost up to the saturation temperature of steam. The economizer is a pressure vessel. A lower order and cheaper alternative for achieving fuel economy through flue gas waste heat recovery would be a non-pressurized feed water heater, which allows feed water pre-heating up to a maximum of 100C only. Every rise of 6C in boiler feed water temperature through waste heat recovery would offer about 1% fuel savings. 3.2.3.4 Combustion air preheating from waste heat of stack gases Combustion air preheating is an alternative to feed water heating, and can be adopted, if no further scope for feed water pre-heating exists and where stack gases still have waste heat potential left to be tapped. Shell and tube type and rotary regenerative type air pre-heaters and regenerative burners are some of the options that can be adopted for waste heat recovery. For every reduction in flue gas temperature by 22C for heat recovery, fuel savings of about 1% can be achieved. The combustion air pre-heat temperature limiting value is decided by permissible exit flue gas temperature for avoiding chimney corrosion on the one hand, and recommended limits of pre-heat temperature by burner manufacturers on the other.
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3.2.3.5 Avoid incomplete combustion Incomplete combustion can arise from a shortage of air or sulphur of fuel or poor distribution of fuel. It is usually obvious from the color or smoke, and must be corrected immediately. In the case of oil and gasfired systems, CO or smoke (for oil-fired system only) with normal and high excess air indicates burner system problems like poor mixing of fuel air at the burner. Incomplete combustion can result from high viscosity, worn burner tips, carbonization on burner tips, and deterioration of diffusers or spinner plates. With coal firing, unburnt carbon can escape through fly ash or bottom ash and can lead to 2% to 3% heat loss. Coal preparation, sizing, and air supply should be looked into, in order to avoid this loss. 3.2.3.6 Reduce scaling and soot losses In oil and coal-fired boilers, soot buildup on tubes acts as an insulator against heat transfer. Any such deposits should be removed on a regular basis. Elevated stack temperatures may indicate excessive soot buildup. The same result will also occur due to scaling on the water side. High exit gas temperatures at normal excess air indicate poor heat transfer performance. This condition can result from a gradual build-up of gas-side or water-side deposits. Water-side deposits require a review of water treatment procedures and tube cleaning, to remove the deposits. Incorrect water treatment, poor combustion, and poor cleaning schedules can easily reduce overall thermal efficiency. However, the additional cost of maintenance and cleaning must be taken into consideration when assessing savings. Every millimeter thickness of soot coating increases the stack temperature by about 55C. A deposit of 3mm of soot can cause an increase in fuel consumption by 2.5%. A 1mm thick scale (deposit) on the water side could increase fuel consumption by 5% to 8%.
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Stack temperature should be checked and recorded regularly as an indicator of soot deposits and soot removal frequencies decided by trends of temperature rise of flue gas. Fire-side (fuel additives) and water-side additives may be judiciously adopted where justified. 3.2.3.7 Minimize radiation and convection losses The boilers exposed surfaces lose heat to the surroundings depending on the surface area and the difference in temperature between the surface and the surroundings. The heat loss from the boiler shell is normally assumed as fixed energy loss, irrespective of the boiler output. With modern boiler designs, this may represent only 1.5% of the gross calorific value at full rating, but it will increase to around 6% if the boiler operates at only 25% output. Repairing or augmenting insulation can reduce heat loss through boiler walls. 3.2.3.8 Adopt automatic blowdown controls As a first choice, ensure maximum condensate recovery, since condensate is the purest form of water, and this would help reduce dependence on make-up water and also blowdown requirements. Uncontrolled, continuous blowdown is very wasteful. For optimizing blowdown, automatic controls can be installed, which can sense and respond to boiler water conductivity and pH. Relate blowdown to TDS limits/Conductivity of boiler and feed water TDS/Conductivity, by online monitoring. 3.2.3.9 Optimize boiler steam pressure Wherever permissible, operating a boiler at lower steam pressure (a lower saturated steam temperature, higher latent heat of steam, and a similar reduction in the temperature of the flue gas temperature) helps to achieve fuel economy. In some cases, the process demands are not continuous, and there are periods when the boiler pressure could be
reduced. Pressure could be reduced in stages, and no more than a 20% reduction should be considered. Care should be taken that adverse effects, such as an increase in water carryover from the boiler owing to pressure reduction, do not negate any potential savings. 3.2.3.10 Variable speed control for fans, blowers, and pumps Generally, combustion air control in boilers is achieved by throttling dampers fitted at forced and induced draft fans. Though dampers are a simple means of control, they are an inefficient means of capacity control as they lack accuracy, giving poor control characteristics at the top and bottom of the operating range. If the steam demand characteristic of the boiler is variable, the possibility of replacing an inefficient damper and throttling controls by electronic Variable Speed Drives should be considered for reducing auxiliary power consumed in boiler fans and pumps. 3.2.3.11 Effect of boilder loading on efficiency Optimum boiler efficiency occurs at 65%85% of full load. As the steam demand falls, so does the value of the mass flow rate of the flue gases through the tubes. This reduction in flow rate for the available heat transfer area helps to reduce the exit flue gas temperature by a small extent, reducing the sensible heat loss. However, at below 50% load, most combustion appliances need more excess air to burn the fuel completely, and this would increase the sensible heat loss. Operation of a boiler at low loading should be avoided. 3.2.3.12 Boiler replacement If the existing boiler is old and inefficient, not capable of firing cheaper substitute fuels, over or under-sized for present requirements, not designed for ideal loading conditions, or not responsive to load changes, replacement by a more efficient one needs to be explored.
3.2.4 Approach to Optimum Combustion Control Usually the cause of excessive or deficient combustion is: 1) The Draft 2) Proper Air-Fuel Mix 3.2.4.1 Draft Control The major cause of boiler losses, both avoidable and unavoidable, is the boiler draft. Poor draft conditions alters the flame pattern thus inhibiting the fuel from burning properly and changing the air-fuel ratio. Insufficient draft prevents adequate air supply for the combustion process and results in smoky, incomplete combustion. Excessive draft allows increased volume of air into the boiler furnace. The larger amount of flue gas moves quickly through the boiler, allowing less time for heat transfer to the waterside. The result is that the exit temperature rises and this along with larger volume of flue gas leaving the stack contributes to the maximum heat loss. Ideally the draft conditions which allow the boiler to operate at 2% to 4% oxygen maintain the maximum combustion efficiency. If the boiler does not have a forced draft system, excess combustion air cannot be easily or properly controlled. Strong consideration should be given to installing a forced draft system under this situation. Even with a forced draft system, it still may not be feasible to closely regulate the amount of excess air because of burners that require proper air-fuel mix. If it fails to maintain the CO2 levels > 12%, it indicates a worn out burner or problem with the furnace draft. In these situations, the manufacturer's representative should be consulted to discuss upgrading the controls and equipment.
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3.2.4.2 Air-Fuel Ratio The efficiency of the boiler depends on the ability of the burner to provide the proper air to fuel mixture throughout the firing rate, day in and day out. The density of air and gaseous fuels changes with temperature and pressure, a fact that must be taken into account in controlling the air-tofuel ratio. For example, if pressure is fixed, the mass of air flowing in a duct will decrease when the temperature increases. The controls should therefore compensate for seasonal temperature variations and, optimally, for day and night variations too (especially during the spring and fall, when daily temperature variations are substantial). Usually the cause of improper Air-Fuel ratio is due to inadequate tolerance of the burner controls, a faulty burner or improper fuel delivery other than draft conditions. Often, the burner cannot provide repeatable air control and sometimes because of controller inconsistency itself, the burners are permanently set up at high excess air levels. The fact is you pay substantial dollars every time you fire the unit. The figure below shows, the effect of air temperature on excess air in the flue gas can be dramatic.
Fig. 3.2.4.2.1 Effects of Air Temperature on Excess Air Level
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If it fails to maintain the CO levels < 400 ppm, it indicates the poor mixing of fuel and air at the burner. Poor oil fires can result from improper viscosity, worn tips, carbonization of burner nozzle and deterioration of diffusers or spinner plates. 3.2.4.3 Optimize The Air-Fuel Ratio Air-fuel ratio is by far the most important routine adjustment that is made to boilers. Of all the adjustments that plant operators can make, it has the greatest influence on efficiency. Furthermore, failure to set the air-fuel ratio properly can create serious maintenance and environmental problems. If there is automatic combustion controls, adjusting the air-fuel ratio is easy. Using the several methods , measure combustion efficiency while setting the combustion controls to the optimum air-fuel ratio. The combustion controls will then maintain this ratio under all load conditions. Adjusting the air-fuel ratio is not much more difficult if there have burners that fire at one or more fixed firing rates. On the other hand, adjusting modulating burners can be tedious. The basic steps are described as follows : 3.2.4.3.1 The Optimum Air-Fuel Ratio : A perfect boiler would use just enough air to burn all the fuel completely, with no oxygen left over in the flue gas. (The ratio of air to fuel that achieves this ideal result is called a stoichiometric mixture by chemists and advanced boiler people.) With real boilers, achieving reasonably complete combustion requires a certain amount of air in excess of the stoichiometric ratio. The excess air is needed to ensure that all the fuel comes in contact with sufficient oxygen for complete combustion within the flame area. The minimum amount of excess air that is necessary for clean combustion depends on the type of fuel and on the type of burner.
Burner Characteristics for fluidized bed combustion boilers : Capacity Range Excess Air (percent) Standby Loss Turndown Ratio Operating Energy Maintenance Evolving type , large 2-10
low
evolving
very high
very high
Table 3.2.4.3.1.1 Burning Characteristics for Fluidized Bed : More excess air is needed for fuels that are heavier and dirtier. Also, burners in smaller equipment tend to have substantially higher excess air requirements. Modern, high-efficiency burners minimize the amount of excess air required. The best modern burners do a much better job of preparing the fuel for combustion and of bringing the proper amount of air into the combustion zone. The design of the boilers combustion chamber may also affect the excess air requirement. The design of the combustion chamber becomes an issue in existing boilers if you plan to retrofit a new burner. Determine the optimum air-fuel ratio for each of your boilers individually, using the tests recommended below.
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3.2.4.3.2 Efficiency Loss from Incorrect Air-Fuel Ratio : Efficiency suffers from too much air, and from too little. Efficiency declines rapidly as the amount of air is reduced below the point of best efficiency. Efficiency declines much more slowly above the point of best efficiency. This is because insufficient air and excess air waste energy in two different ways. With insufficient air, efficiency falls primarily because combustion is incomplete. The incompletely burned portion of the fuel is being thrown away through the flue, taking along its unused energy. With excess air, the fuel is being burned almost completely, but a portion of the combustion energy is wasted in heating the excess air. The heated excess air is carried through the boiler as useless baggage. Also, mixing the combustion gases with excess air lowers the temperature of the gases, which reduces heat transfer. See the effect in the graph of Figure 1 in Measure 1.2.1. If the amount of excess air is extreme, the large volume of cool air can quench the combustion process, causing fuel to be burned incompletely. However, this effect does not become significant until efficiency has already been lowered drastically by the previous effect. 3.2.4.3.3 General Procedure for Adjusting Air-Fuel Ratio : Adjusting the air-fuel ratio consists of testing the combustion efficiency of the boiler and adjusting the air-fuel ratio until you find the optimum air-fuel ratio. In summary, the test sequence is: Set the air-fuel ratio by using the oxygen test. Refine the adjustment by setting carbon monoxide. 3.2.4.3.4 Adjust the Air-Fuel Ratio Mechanically : If there are no automatic combustion controls available, there is a need to set the air-fuel ratio by making mechanical adjustments to the burners or the control linkages. There may be critical adjustments that do not seem important from their appearance. There is a need of combustion
efficiency tester for this job that provides a continuous, instantaneous readout. It helps to have two persons doing this work, especially if the burner adjustments are not close to the point where the flue gas sample is taken for the combustion efficiency tests. One person stays at the boiler breeching with the test equipment and calls out the readings, while the other person adjusts the burner. Try to hold the boiler load as steady as possible during the adjustments. If the burner operates at different firing rates, you may have to set the air-fuel ratio for each firing rate at different times, as the load changes. If the load on the boiler plant is light, it is practically impossible to set the fuel-air ratio for high firing rates. Do not create a load by warming up a cold boiler, because this would produce erroneous efficiency readings and air-fuel settings. Generally two types of burners are used : Atmospheric Gas Burners Modulating Burners
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Chapter 4 : Calculations 4.1 Combined Cycle Power Plant 4.1.1 Efficiencies of Different Elements of Combined CycIe Power Plant : GTG Parts:-The following are the parts of the GTG : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. Starting (Cranking) Motor Torque converter Accessories like gears & gear box Bearing 1 Inlet Guide Vane Compressor Bearing 2 Combustion Chamber High Pressure turbine Nozzle Control Vane (Element) Bearings 3 Low Pressure turbine Load Gear Permanent Magnet type Generator
Gas Turbine Related Specification : Axial Compressor:No. of Stages of Stator = 19 No. of Stages of Rotor = 17 Rotating Speed = 10,800 rpm Output Pressure of air = 14 ata Turbine of PGT-10:No. of stages in LP and HP = 2 each Rotating Speed of HP = 10,800 rpm Rotating Speed of LP = 07,900 rpm Below said calculation are based on current generation pattern of power plant. Reading is taken from sites as well as DCS.
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Compressor Efficiency : P1 = inlet pressure =1.01325 bar P2 = outlet pressure = 11.6 bar T1 = inlet temperature = 22 c = 295 k T2 = Outlet temperature = 392 c = 665 k T2/T1 = ( ) T2/295 = ( T2 = 592k Comp. Efficiency = = = 0.8027 =80.27%, Thermal efficiency of GT-1 )
n =1.4
T3 = Temp. Outlet of combustion chamber = 1080c =1080+273=1353k T4 =Temp. outlet of Turbine outlet = 490c =499+273 = 772k P3= Pressure of compressor outlet = 11.6 bar P3 = Pressure inlet to GT P4 = Pressure outlet of GT Pressure loss = 3 %,
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= 0.03 * 11.6 =0.348 P3 = 11.6- 0.348 =11.2 52 bar = 1.01325 + ( = 1.0260 bar n = 1.333=constant of the process =( ) )
P4
= T4= 743.5 K Efficiency of Turbine Efficiency of turbine = =

( )
= 0.9532 = 95.32 %
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Open cycle efficiency of GT-1 = =(
Mass flow rate of gas = 2250 C.V. of gas = 8900 Kcal/ Input = ( = 26395.54 Kw Generator output = 7500 Kw GT Efficiency = ( ) )
/hr
= 0.2842 = 28.42% Heat Recovery Steam Generator(HRSG): Pre heater(CPH) Efficiency: Heat gained by water Heat rejected by flue gases,
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Where, mw = mass flowrate of water in kg/s mg = mass flowrate of fluegases kg/s Cpw = Specific heat of water kj/kg.k Cpg = Specific heat of gases kj/kg.k
mw * Cpw * (91-35) mg * Cpg * (232-180)
3.61 * 4.2 * (91-35) 42.5 * 1.26 * (232-180) = = 0.32 32% Economiser 1,2 Efficiency : = = Heat gained by water Heat rejected by flue uses mw * Cpw * (206-106) mg * Cpg * (268-232) 3.61 * 4.2 * 100 42.5 * 1.26 * 36 0.825 82.5%
= = =
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Evaporator Efficiency :
Heat gained by water Heat rejected by flue gases mw * Enthalpy drop mg * Cpg * (232-180) 3.61 * (2799-1115.2) 42.5 * 1.26 * (400-268) 0.86 86%
= =
Superheater Efficiency: Here, Cps = specific heat of steam Kj/Kg.K ms = mass flowrate of steam Kg/s = = = = Heat pained by Steam Heat rejected by flue gases ms * Cps * (432-253) mg * Cpg * (494-400) 3.61 * 2.14 * (432-253) 42.5 * 1.2 * (494-400) 30%
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HRSG Efficiency:
Heat gained by water in HRSG_____ Heat rejected by flue gases in HRSG ms * Enthalpy gain of water mg * Cpg * (493-180) 3.61 * (3183.06-146.945) 42.5 * 1.26 * (493-180) 0.6538 65.38% Steam Turbine Generator(STG) Efficiency:
= =
=
Total Enthalpy drop in S T G Workdone by STG
Generator output = 1.4 Mw Assume Generator Efficiency = 97 % Generator Input = 1.4 / 0.97 =1.44 Mw Net Mechanical power supplied S T G = 1440 Kw Assume Mechanical Losses = 2 % Workdone by Turbine = (w)net * 1.02 = 1440 * 1.02 =1468.8Kw
Total Enthalpy drop in STG = Drop in H.P. stage + Drop in L. P. stage = 7.30 * (3208.23-3055.15)+ 0.083*(3208.23-2592) =1118.334 + 51.3525 =1169.6865 Kw
STG Efficiency = 1169.6865 / 1468.8 =0.80 = 80% GT-1 & HRSG-1 combined Efficiency Gas flow rate = 2500 /hr Calorific value of CNG = 8900 kcal/ Heat input = 2500 x 8900 x 4.187 / (3600) = 25.875 Mw GT Output =7500 Kw Here, h1 = Enthalpy of Steam at 432 C ,43 bar h2 = Enthalpy of water at 35C, atm HRSG Output = mw * Enthalpy gain of water = 3.61 * (h1-h2) = 3.61*(3183.06-146.945) = 10960 Kw
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Total output = 18460 Kw Efficiency = 18460 / 25875 = 0.7135 = 71.35% Overall Plant Efficiency: = Heat & power output Heat supplied Heat supplied = mg * c.v. = 5000 /hr x 8900 kcal/
= (5000 x 8900 x 4.187) /(3600) = 51.75 Mw GT Output = 7.5 x 2 = 15 MW STG Output = 1.6 Mw Steam extraction for process work = 20 TPH Enthalpy of steam supplied to STG at 8 bar & 320 c Hs = 3089 Kj/Kg Assume Heat losses = 15% Heat utilized for process = 20 * 1000 * 3089 * 0.85 / (3600) = 14.59 Mw Total Heat Output = 15 + 1.6 + 14.59 = 31.2 Mw Overall plant Efficiency = 31.2 / 51.75 = 0.603 = 60.3 %
4.1.2 Summary of Calculations : Elements Name Compressor Gas Turbine Gas Turbine Preheater Economiser Evaporator Superheater HRSG STG GT + HRSG Overall Plant Input Air at 1 ata288k Output Air at 11.6 bar 665K Efficiency (%) 80.27 95.32 Thermal
Gas at 11.252bar Gas at 1.026 bar 1353 k 772 K 26395.54 Kw Gas 7500 Kw Power 2784.6 Kw Flue Gases 1836 Kw Flue Gases 7068.6 Kw Flue Gases 4794 Kw Flue Gases 16761.15 Kw Flue Gases 1468.8 Kw Steam 25872 Kw CNG 51750 Kw CNG
28.42 Open Cycle 849.072 Kw Water 82.58 1516.2 Kw Water 6078.518 Kw Steam 1382.85 Kw Steam 10960.375 Kw Steam 1169.6865 Kw Power 18460 Kw Power + Steam 31200 Kw Power + Steam 82.58 86 30 65.38 80 71.35 60.3
Table 4.1.2.1 Efficiency of Each Components of CCPP
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4.2 FBC Boiler The performance parameters of boiler, like efficiency and evaporation ratio reduces with time due to poor combustion, heat transfer surface fouling and poor operation and maintenance. Even for a new boiler, reasons such as deteriorating fuel quality, water quality etc. can result in poor boiler performance. Boiler efficiency tests help us to find out the deviation of boiler efficiency from the best efficiency and target problem area for corrective action. Thermal efficiency of boiler is defined as the percentage of heat input that is effectively utilised to generate steam. There are two methods of assessing boiler efficiency. 1) The Direct Method: Where the energy gain of the working fluid (water and steam) is compared with the energy content of the boiler fuel. 2) The Indirect Method: Where the efficiency is the difference between the losses and the energy input.
4.2.1 Indirect method of determining boiler efficiency methodology The reference standards for Boiler Testing at Site using the indirect method are the British Standard, BS 845:1987 and the USA Standard ASME PTC-4-1 Power Test Code Steam Generating Units. The indirect method is also called the heat loss method. The efficiency can be calculated by subtracting the heat loss fractions from 100 as follows:
Efficiency of boiler () = 100 - (i + ii + iii + iv + v + vi + vii) Whereby the principle losses that occur in a boiler are loss of heat due to: i Dry flue gas ii Evaporation of water formed due to H2 in fuel iii Evaporation of moisture in fuel iv Moisture present in combustion air v Unburnt fuel in fly ash vi Unburnt fuel in bottom ash vii Radiation and other unaccounted losses Table 4.2.1.1 Principle Losses Losses due to moisture in fuel and due to combustion of hydrogen are dependent on the fuel, and cannot be controlled by design. The data required for calculation of boiler efficiency using the indirect method are: Ultimate analysis of fuel (H2, O2, S, C, moisture content, ash content) Percentage of oxygen or CO2 in the flue gas Flue gas temperature in (Tf) Ambient temperature in (Ta) and humidity of air in kg/kg of dry air GCV of fuel in kcal/kg Percentage combustible in ash (in case of solid fuels) GCV of ash in kcal/kg (in case of solid fuels) Since, Indirect Methodology for boiler efficiency has not been calculated here.
4.2.2 Direct method of determining boiler efficiency methodology
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This is also known as input-output method due to the fact that it needs only the useful output (steam) and the heat input (i.e. fuel) for evaluating the efficiency. This efficiency can be evaluated using the formula: Boiler Efficiency (),
Parameters to be monitored for the calculation of boiler efficiency by direct method are: Quantity of steam generated per hour (Q) in kg/hr. Quantity of fuel used per hour (q) in kg/hr. The working pressure (in kg/cm2(g)) and superheat temperature ( ), if any The temperature of feed water ( ) Type of fuel and gross calorific value of the fuel (GCV) in kcal/kg of fuel And where, hg Enthalpy of saturated steam in kcal/kg of steam hf Enthalpy of feed water in kcal/kg of water 4.2.2.1 Calculation for Boiler Efficiency : Find out the efficiency of the boiler by direct method with the data given below:
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Type of boiler Type of Coal Quantity of steam (dry) generated Steam pressure (gauge) Steam Temperature Quantity of coal consumed Feed water temperature GCV of Indian coal Enthalpy of steam at 11.3 bar Enthalpy of feed water
Coal fired Indian Coal / Imported Coal 23 TPH 11.5 Kg/ 200 95 Ton / day = 3.95 TPH 105 (Hot ) and 57 (Cold) (g) = 11.3 bar
4000 Kcal/kg 674.0972 Kcal/Kg 105.39 Kcal/Kg (at 105 57.30 Kcal/Kg (57 )
Table 4.2.2.1 Parameters for Boiler Efficiency Calculation Boiler Efficiency () at 105
Feed Water, * 100 . (i)
Boiler Efficiency () = 23 * (674.0972-105.39) * 1000 3.95 * 4000 * 1000 = 82.7864 % Boiler Efficiency () at 57 Feed Water,
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Boiler Efficiency () = 23 * (674.0972-57.30) * 1000 3.95 * 4000 * 1000 = 89.7857 %
* 100 .. (ii)
Equation ..(i) and ..(ii) shows , efficiency increases with decrease in Feed-Water Temperature i.e. cooled feed-water which is processed by deaerator having higher efficiency than the hot feed-water.
Chapter 5 : Result Analysis

5.1 Combined Cycle Power Plant 5.1.1 List of Performance Enhancements (Peak Power Enhancement)
Case No. Description: Peak Power Enhancement Method Case 1 GT Peak Firing (35F) Case 2 GT Steam Injection (3.5% of Compressor Inlet Air flow, CIA) Case 3 GT Steam Injection (5.0% of Compressor Inlet Air flow, CIA) Case 4 GT Peak Firing (35F) + Steam Injection to 3.5% CIA Case 5 GT Peak Firing (35F) + Steam Injection to 5.0% CIA Case 6 GT Evaporative Cooling (Ambient Relative Humidity45%) Case 7 GT Evaporative Cooling (Ambient Relative Humidity60%)-Sensitivity Case 8 GT Inlet Fogging (Ambient Relative Humidity-45%) Case 9 GT Inlet Fogging (Ambient Relative Humidity60%)Sensitivity Case 10 GT Inlet Chilling to 45F (Ambient RH-45%), Chiller with External Heat Sink. Case 11 GT Inlet Chilling to 45F (Ambient RH-45%), Chiller with Cooling Tower Sink Case 12 GT Inlet Chilling to 45F (Ambient RH-60%), Chiller with External Heat Sink. Case 13 GT Inlet Chilling to 45F (Ambient RH-60%), Chiller with Cooling Tower Sink Case 14 HRSG Duct Firing-Steam turbine sliding pressure mode of operation. Fired to approximately 45% increase in HP steam production. Case 15 HRSG Duct Firing-Steam turbine fixed-pressure mode of operation with HP throttle bypass to cold reheats. Fired to output achieved in Case 14.
Case 16 Case 17 Case 18 Case 19 Case 20 Case 21 Case 22 Case 23 Case 24 Case 25 Case 26 Case 27 Case 28 Case 29
HRSG Incremental Duct Firing-Firing from nominal throttle pressure to max HP inlet throttle pressure limit. GT Steam Injection (5.0% CIA) + Incremental HRSG Duct Firing GT Steam Injection (3.5% CIA) + Incremental HRSG Duct Firing GT Peak Firing + Steam Injection (5.0% CIA) + Incremental HRSG Duct Firing GT Steam Injection (3.5% CIA) + Evaporative Cooling (Amb. RH-45%) GT Steam Injection (3.5% CIA) + Evaporative Cooling (Amb. RH-45%) + Incremental HRSG Duct Firing. GT Inlet Chilling + GT Steam Injection (3.5% CIA) GT Inlet Chilling + GT Steam Injection (3.5% CIA) + Incremental HRSG Firing GT Inlet Chilling + GT Steam Injection (5.0% CIA) GT Inlet Fogging + GT Steam Injection (3.5% CIA) GT Water Injection GT Water Injection + Incremental HRSG Duct Firing GT Inlet Fogging-to saturation GT Steam Injection (3.5% CIA) with steam supply taken from the HP superheat discharge.
Table 5.1.1.1 Peak Power Enhancement (Note: All other steam injection cases assume steam taken from IP superheater with the balance made up from the HP superheater.) GT inlet fogging to saturation is presented for theoretical evaluation purposes only.
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5.1.2 Gas Turbine Upgrade Comprehensive Upgrades Comprehensive upgrades of gas turbine involve the replacement of flange-to-flange parts with more advanced designs. An upgrade can be applied to individual components or to the entire engine. Examples of components that can be upgraded include: Inlet guide vanes, which allow more air flow Improved seals, tighter clearances Combustion liners and transition pieces, enabling higher firing temperatures. Turbine blades and vanes, also enabling higher firing temperatures Hot Section Coatings Another option for upgrading gas turbine performance is to apply ceramic coatings to internal components. Thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) are applied to hot section parts in advanced gas turbines. These same coatings can be applied to the hot sections of older gas turbines in the field. The TBCs provide an insulating barrier between the hot combustion gases and the metal parts. TBCs will provide longer parts life at the same firing temperature, or will allow the user to increase firing temperature while maintaining the original design life of the hot section. Compressor Coatings Coatings can also be applied to gas turbine compressor blades (the cold end of the machine) to improve performance. Unlike hot section coatings, the purpose of compressor blade coatings is not to insulate the metal blades from the compressed air. Rather, the coatings are applied in order to provide smoother, more aerodynamic surfaces, which increase compressor efficiency. In addition, smoother surfaces tend to resist fouling because there are fewer nooks and crannies where dirt particles can attach. Some coatings are also designed to resist corrosion, which can
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be a significant source of performance degradation, particularly if a turbine is located near saltwater.
Table 5.1.2 Gas Turbine Upgrade option 5.2 FBC Boiler : 5.2.1 Air : Fuel Optimization : 5.2.1.1 Economics : SAVINGS POTENTIAL COST 1 to 10 percent of fuel cost, typically. A good chemical combustion efficiency test kit that measures oxygen, carbon dioxide, and smoke which is used to set Air:Fuel ratio for less than Rs. 25,000. Electronic testers of reasonable quality cost from about Rs. 50,000 to several thousand Rupees. Also, consider the cost of the actions that have to take to improve efficiency.
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PAYBACK PERIOD
The amount of labor required to set air-fuel ratio can be less than one man-hour for a boiler with a single-stage burner, to several man-days for a boiler with throttling burners and difficulty in maintaining a steady load. Immediate, to one year.
Table 5.2.1.1.1 Economics : Air-Fuel Ratio Optimization 5.2.1.2 Traps & Tricks SKILLS Adjusting air-fuel ratio requires two skills, efficiency testing and setting the boilers air-fuel controls. Make sure that the person adjusting the boiler knows how to do it correctly. The right test equipment makes the work much easier. It cant set the air-fuel ratio properly if the boilers controls are sloppy or defective. Repeat the procedure periodically. Make sure that you have an effective method of scheduling it.
TEST EQUIPMENT BOILER CONDITION
SCHEDULING
Table 5.2.1.1.2 Traps & Tricks : Air-Fuel Ratio Optimization
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5.2.2 Improve Efficiency in Boiler : 5.2.2.1 Reduce Excess Air One of the first considerations when trying to improve boiler efficiency is to look at how excess air levels are being controlled. An often-stated rule of thumb is that boiler efficiency can be increased by 1 percent for each 15 percent reduction in excess air. With a properly designed 02 trim system, the boiler will maximize combustion efficiency and minimize heat loss up the stack. In order to maintain excess air at optimum levels, ensure that boiler control systems are working properly and periodically have a qualified boiler/burner technician re-tune the boilers burner.
5.2.2.2 Install an Economizer In many boilers, useful amounts of energy still exist in the flue gases even after they have passed through the boiler. Economizers are designed to capture and transfer the exhaust heat of the flue gases to preheat incoming boiler feedwater. Extended-surface economizers are designed for maximum heat recovery and can decrease flue gas outlet stack temperature to as low as 250F (121C). In general, for each flue gas temperature decrease of 40F (22C), boiler efficiency is increased by 1 percent. 5.2.2.3 Install a Condensing Economizer Condensing economizers are designed to pick up both sensible and latent heat by condensing flue gas water vapor. They have been designed to decrease the flue gas outlet stack temperature to as low as 100F (38C). Before considering the installation of a condensing
economizer, be sure to determine how the condensed water from the flue gas will be disposed. Unlike a standard feedwater economizer, the low-grade heat produced cannot be used by the boiler system. A plant must have a need for constant low-grade heat (as with a hydronic heating or washdown application) for this to be a cost-effective option 5.2.2.4 Upgrade Fan Controls Variable-frequency drives (VFDs) adjust and control fan speed in response to the boiler load, so upgrading to VFD fan controls can help improve boiler efficiency. Standard constant-speed fan airflow is matched to the boiler load by the opening and closing of a damper so horsepower stays relatively constant, regardless of the load (depending on damper arrangements). With VFDs, the exerted horsepower vanes three times the fan speed. For example, if a fan operates at 75 percent of maximum operating speed, the required horsepower would only be 40 percent of full load compared to a constant speed fan. In addition to their energysaving benefits, VFDs also can increase the service life of the fan motor, decrease maintenance costs and significantly reduce noise levels. 5.2.2.5 Consider Installing a Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) System For applications requiring ultra-low NOx operation, an SCR system with a standard no flue gas recirculation (FGR) low-excess air burner can use considerably less fan horsepower than a high FGR, high excess air ultra-low NOx burner. An ultra-low NOx burner requires a significantly larger fan and generally has limited turndown and response to load swings. An SCR system with a standard burner can provide emission reductions to as low as 2.5 ppm NOx depending on the application. It also can reduce energy demands and is able to handle most plant load swings with reliable boiler performance.
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5.2.2.6 Perform Proper Water Treatment Another major problem that affects boiler efficiency is poor water quality or water treatment. The main objective of any boiler treatment program is to prevent deposits and corrosion on the water side of the boiler. It is important to ensure that any water treatment equipment is designed for the particular makeup water entering the system. It is always worth considering reverse osmosis (RO) for makeup water treatment. RO reduces blowdown, which increases boiler efficiency and reduces boiler treatment chemicals. Having high condensate return also increases overall plant efficiency and reduces makeup water requirements. 5.2.2.7 Reduce Boiler Pressure Any boiler that is operating at a pressure higher than the process requirements offers the potential to save energy by reducing boiler pressure. The boiler pressure directly corresponds to the water/saturation temperature in the boiler. A lower boiler operating pressure results in several efficiency gains, including higher LMTD (log mean temperature difference) between the flue gas and boiler saturation temperature, higher heat transfer, lower heat loss, lower outlet stack temperature and overall reduced fuel usage. 5.2.2.8 Consider Boiler Blowdown Heat Recovery There are two types of boiler blowdown: continuous and bottom. Continuous blowdown removes dissolved solids from the water surface and is continuously operating. Bottom blowdown removes sediment that has settled to the bottom of the boiler and generally is used several times a day. The energy contained in the continuous blowdown can be used to preheat feedwater and supply flash steam to a deaerator, reducing overall steam required by the deaerator. Flash tank systems or a blowdown heat
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recovery system with a flash tank and a heat exchanger are two methods for recuperating energy in the blowdown. 5.2.2.9 Upgrade to a High Turndown Burner and Controls Upgrading a boiler with a high turndown burner reduces boiler cycling and heat loss, and 02 trim controls provide feedback to the burner controls to optimize the air-to-fuel ratio. This controls excess air amounts and maximizes boiler efficiency gains. 5.2.2.10 Implement an Energy-Efficiency Program A boiler efficiency improvement program includes two aspects: the actions needed to bring a boiler to peak efficiency and the actions needed to maintain the efficiency at the maximum level. The general guidelines above provide several opportunities for energy and performance improvements; however, it is up to the plant operator to look past the immediate demands of the equipment and take a broad view of how the system parameters affect the plant systems as a whole. Many resources are available today to help operators develop a comprehensive strategy to increase efficiency, reduce emissions and boost productivity. Free plant assessments, training sessions offering by manufacturers, associations and industrial services, as well as software tools are readily available to help make decisions about implementing efficient practices in your facility a reality. 5.2.3 Tips For Energy Efficiency In Boilers Establish a boiler efficiency-maintenance program. Start with an energy audit and follow-up, then make a boiler efficiencymaintenance program a part of your continuous energy management program. Preheat combustion air with waste heat. Add an economizer to preheat boiler feed water using exhaust heat.
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(Every 22C reduction in flue gas temperature increases boiler efficiency by 1%.) Use variable speed drives on large boiler combustion air fans with variable flows instead of damper controls. Insulate exposed hot oil tanks. Clean burners, nozzles, and strainers regularly. Inspect oil heaters to ensure proper oil temperature. Close burner air and/or stack dampers when the burner is off, to minimize heat loss up the stack. Introduce oxygen trim controls (limit excess air to less than 10% on clean fuels). (Every 5% reduction in excess air increases boiler efficiency by 1%; every 1% reduction of residual oxygen in stack gas increases boiler efficiency by 1%.) Automate/optimize boiler blowdown. Recover boiler blowdown heat. Optimize de-aerator venting to minimize steam losses. Inspect door gaskets for leakage avoidance. Inspect for scale and sediment on the water side. (Every 1mm-thick scale (deposit) on the water side could increase fuel consumption by 5%8 %.) Inspect heating surfaces for soot, fly-ash, and slag deposits on the fire side. (A 3mm-thick soot deposition on the heat transfer surface can cause an increase in fuel consumption of 2.5%.) Optimize boiler water treatment. Recycle steam condensate to the maximum extent. Study partload characteristics and cycling costs to determine the most efficient combination for operating multiple boiler installations. Consider using multiple units instead of one or two large boilers, to avoid partial load inefficiencies.
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5.2.4 Cost-Effective Components Modern boilers include the following burner features: Re-circulated flue gases, which ensures optimal combustion with minimal excess air. Sophisticated electronic control systems that monitor flue-gas components and adjust fuel and air as needed. Greatly improved turndown ratios to improve efficiency at less than peak load. Powered or forced draft burners, instead of atmospheric burners. The number of passes a boiler is designed for affects its efficiency. Generally, the more passes, the higher the efficiency. Fire-tube boilers designed with turbulators inside the tubes with fewer passes improve efficiency.
5.2.5 General rules (Rules of Thumb) 5 percent reduction in excess air increases boiler efficiency by 1 percent (or 1 percent reduction of residual oxygen in stack gas increases boiler efficiency by 1 percent). 22C reduction in flue gas temperature increases the boiler efficiency by 1 percent. 6C rise in feed water temperature brought about by economizer/condensate recovery corresponds to a 1 percent savings in boiler fuel consumption. 20 C increase in combustion air temperature, pre-heated by waste heat recovery, results in a 1 percent fuel saving.
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A 3 mm diameter hole in a pipe carrying 7 kg/cm2 steam would waste 32,650 liters of fuel oil per year. 100 m of bare steam pipe with a diameter of 150 mm carrying saturated steam at 8 kg/cm2 would waste 25 000 litres furnace oil in a year. 70 percent of heat losses can be reduced by floating a layer of 45 mm diameter polypropylene (plastic) balls on the surface of a 90 C hot liquid/condensate. A 0.25 mm thick air film offers the same resistance to heat transfer as a 330 mm thick copper wall. A 3 mm thick soot deposit on a heat transfer surface can cause a 2.5 percent increase in fuel consumption. A 1 mm thick scale deposit on the waterside could increase fuel consumption by 5 to 8 percent.
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Chapter 6 : Conclusion 6.1 Combined Cycle Power Plant Economic analyses of combined-cycle performance enhancement options normally reveal that HRSG duct firing is the best option for the plant. It is followed by inlet fogging, evaporative cooling, and inlet air chilling. However, these analyses were focused on capacity-driven economics resulting from premiums paid for short periods of peak power generation. Efficiency enhancements can be achieved through fuel heating and spray intercooling. The final choice requires careful evaluation of many factors, including water availability, maintenance factors, capital cost, operating cost, operating duration and plant dispatch characteristics. These economic drivers exist in todays market environment. However, as the market condition changes due to an increase in the installed capacity, escalation of fuel prices, and deregulation in the power generation industry, the emphasis will shift to plant efficiency. Thus, plants designed with moderate increase in capacity and high efficiency could provide the highest life cycle profitability.
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6.2 FBC Boiler We conclude that fluidized bed boiler is the new generation method for production of steam. By this method we have seen that the efficiency of pressurized bed boilers is almost 50% more than that of a typical pulverized coal boiler. By this method we have seen that the pollutants emitted during combustion of coal is significantly reduced. Fluidized bed boilers can also burn very dirty coal and remove 90% or more of the sulphur and nitrogen pollutants .Since these boilers operate comparatively at a low temperature corrosion will be reduced and hence reduce boiler maintenance cost .
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Chapter 7 : REFERENCES 7.1 Combined Cycle Power Plant 1. Handbook for Cogeneration and Combined Cycle Power Plants by Meherwan P. Boyce 2. Combined-Cycle Gas and Steam Turbine Power Plants by Rolf Kehlhofer 3. Bureau of Energy Efficiency Guidebook 4. Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications by Neil Petchers 5. Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook by Meherwan P Boyce 6. Power Generation handbook 2nd edition by Philip Kiameh
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7.2
FBC Boiler
1. Energy Efficiency Manual by Donald R. Wulfinghoff 2. Power Line Volume 8, No. 3, December 2003
3.
Pressurized FBC Technology by W.F.Podolski, Noyes Data Corporation, U.S, 1983.
4. Venus Energy Audit System, Venus-boiler audit-Guidebook 5. Bureau of Energy Efficiency Guidebook 6. Document : Thermal Energy Equipment: Boilers & Thermic Fluid Heaters 7. Document : Improving Energy Efficiency of Boiler Systems by A. Bhatia 8. Document : PDH Course Content : Improving Energy Efficiency of Boiler Systems 9. Document : CIBO, Energy Efficiency & Industrial Boiler Efficiency An Industry Perspective
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Performance Improvement Techniques CCPP and FBC Boiler

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ABSTRACT

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1.4.2.1 1.4.2.2 2.1.1.1 2.1.2.1 2.1.4.1 2.1.5.1

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2.2.2.1 2.2.3.1 2.2.3.2 2.2.4.1

3.2.2. 4 3.2.2. 5 3.2.2.6

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Improper Power Cylinder Erection Causes Leakage

Leakage Between Support Frame And Dp Plate

Coil Spacing In Hair Pin Type Bed Coils

3.2.4.2.1 Effects of Air Temperature on Excess Air Level

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Table No. 3.1.2.3.1

97 105 117 119 120 124 126 127 127

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Arvind Limited, Ahmedabad

Expected Outcome 3.1 Combined Cycle Power Plant

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Energy Efficiency Calculations 4.1 Combined Cycle Power Plant

Result Analysis 5.1 Combined Cycle Power Plant

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Conclusion 6.1 Combined Cycle Power Plant 6.2 FBC Boiler

135 135 136

References 7.1 Combined Cycle Power Plant 7.2 FBC Boiler

137 137 138

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1.1 About Arvind Ltd.

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1.2 Product Profile

Arvind Limited, Ahmedabad

Arvind Limited, Ahmedabad

Arvind Limited, Ahmedabad

Arvind Limited, Ahmedabad

Arvind Limited, Ahmedabad

Fig. 1.4.1.1 Cogeneration (Bottom) Compared with Conventional Generation (Top)

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Arvind Limited, Ahmedabad

Arvind Limited, Ahmedabad

Fig. 1.4.2.1 Simplified CCPP diagram

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Arvind Limited, Ahmedabad

Arvind Limited, Ahmedabad

Brief History Of the Work :

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Arvind Limited, Ahmedabad

Arvind Limited, Ahmedabad

Arvind Limited, Ahmedabad

Fig 2.1.2.1 Auxiliary Systems in a Gas Turbine Power Plant

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Arvind Limited, Ahmedabad

Arvind Limited, Ahmedabad

Fig. 2.1.4.1 The brayton-Rankine Combined Cycle

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Overall cycle efficiency

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Figure 2.1.5.2 Comparison of net work output of various cycles

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Figure 2.1.6.1 Energy distribution in a combined cycle power plant

Arvind Limited, Ahmedabad

Arvind Limited, Ahmedabad

Figure 2.1.6.3 A typical large combined cycle power plant HRSG