PRINCIPLES OF STEADY-STATE HEAT TRANSFER HEAT TRANSFER It is defined as the transfer of heat because of a temperature difference.

Heat flows from the highto the low-temperature region. General Equation for Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer Mechanisms 1. Conduction Heat can be conducted through solids, liquids, and gases. The heat is conducted by the transfer of the energy of motion between adjacent molecules. In the gas, the hotter molecules, which have greater energy and motions, impart energy to the adjacent molecules at lower energy levels. Examples of heat transfer by conduction are heat transfer through walls of exchangers or a refrigerator, touching a stove and being burned, heat treatment of steel forgings, and so on. 2. Convection Heat is transferred by bulk transport and mixing of macroscopic elements of warmer portions with cooler portions of a gas or a liquid. Whenever a solid body is exposed to a moving fluid having a temperature different from that of the body, energy is carried or convected from or to the body by the fluid. Examples are hot air rising, cooling and falling; blowing on your hands to warm them; cooking of foods in a vessel being stirred, cooling of a hot cup of coffee by blowing over the surface and so on. Forced Convection - fluid is forced to flow past a solid surface by a pump, fan or other mechanical means. Natural Convection warmer or cooler fluid next to the solid surface causes a circulation because of a density difference resulting from the temperature differences in the fluid. 3. Radiation It is the transfer of energy through space by means of electromagnetic waves. Examples are the transport of heat to the earth from the sun; cooking of food when passed below red-hot electric heaters, heating of fluids in coils of tubing inside a combustion furnace; and so on. FOURIERS LAW OF HEAT CONDUCTION The basic equation for heat transfer is as follows:

This equation states that in order to transfer a property such as heat or mass, a driving force is needed to overcome the resistance. The transfer of heat by conduction follows this basic equation and is written as Fouriers law (Joseph Fourier, 1768-1830) for heat conduction in fluids or solids.

Where: qx = heat transfer rate in the x direction in watts A = cross-sectional area normal to the direction of flow of heat in m2 T = temperature in K x = distance in m k = thermal conductivity in W/m-K

Fouriers law can be integrated for the case of steady-state heat transfer through a flat wall of constant cross-sectional area A, where the inside temperature at point 1 is T1 and T2 at point 2 at a distance of x2 x1 away. Hence,

Thermal Conductivity The thermal conductivity k is an experimental constant for the medium involved, and it may depend upon other properties, such as temperature and pressure. Convective-Heat-Transfer Coefficient When a fluid outside a solid surface is in forced or natural convective motion, the rate of heat transfer from the solid to the fluid, or vice versa, is expressed by the following equation: q = hA(Tw Tf) where: q = heat-transfer rate in W 2 A = area in m Tw = temperature of the solid surface in K Tf = average or bulk temperature of the fluid flowing by in K h = convective heat-transfer coefficient in W/m 2-K CONDUCTION HEAT TRANSFER Conduction Through a Flat Slab or Wall For a flat slab or wall where the cross-sectional area A and k are constant,

The equation above can also be rewritten in the form:

If the thermal conductivity is not constant but varies linearly with temperature, then

Conduction Through a Hollow Cylinder Consider a hollow cylinder with an inside radium of r1, where the temperature is T1, an outside radius of r2 having a temperature of T2, and a length of L. Heat is flowing radially from the inside surface to the outside. Rewriting Fouriers law, The cross-sectional area normal to the heat flow is A = 2rL Rearranging and intergrating,

Multiplying numerator and denominator by (r2 r1),

Where