Deep Water Acoustic

Positioning
lMCA M 200, lMCA 5 013
October 2009
!"
|nternatlonal Marlne
Contractors Assoclatlon
www.lmca-lnt.com
!"
Tbe |nternatlonal Marlne Contractors Assoclatlon (|MCA)
ls tbe lnternatlonal traoe assoclatlon representlng ottsbore,
marlne ano unoerwater englneerlng companles.
|MCA promotes lmprovements ln quallty, bealtb, satety,
envlronmental ano tecbnlcal stanoaros tbrougb tbe publlcatlon ot
lntormatlon notes, cooes ot practlce ano by otber approprlate
means.
Members are selt-regulatlng tbrougb tbe aooptlon ot |MCA
guloellnes as approprlate. Tbey commlt to act as responslble
members by tollowlng relevant guloellnes ano belng wllllng to be
auolteo agalnst compllance wltb tbem by tbelr cllents.
Tbere are two core actlvltles tbat relate to all members:
! Competence & Tralnlng
! Satety, Lnvlronment & Leglslatlon
Tbe Assoclatlon ls organlseo tbrougb tour olstlnct olvlslons, eacb
coverlng a specltlc area ot members' lnterests: Dlvlng, Marlne,
Ottsbore Survey, Remote Systems & ROv.
Tbere are also tlve reglonal sectlons wblcb tacllltate work on
lssues attectlng members ln tbelr local geograpblc area Asla-
Pacltlc, Central & Soutb Amerlca, Lurope & Atrlca, Mloole Last &
|nola ano Nortb Amerlca.
lMCA M 200, lMCA S 013
Tbls oocument bas been proouceo tor |MCA unoer tbe olrectlon
ot lts Ottsbore Survey Dlvlslon Management Commlttee.
All tbe lllustratlons ln tbls oocument, unless otberwlse stateo,
bave been klnoly provloeo by Kongsberg, Sonaroyne, Sonsub ano
valeport.
www.inca-int.con
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)#'3#-,$5#/,$%&.2/,)4$6)+-,%-#7$$8()$,"#$+1(%.+&-#$('$.(25,$&($3#0+3$3%+5%3%,4$/"+33
+,,+-"$,($+&4$02%.+&-#$+&.9()$)#-(**#&.+,%(&$+&.9()$/,+,#*#&,$"#)#%&$-(&,+%&#.7
Deep Water Acoustic Positioning
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 October 2009
1 Executive 5unnary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
2 GIossary of Terns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
3 lntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
4 Basics of Deep Water Positioning 5ystens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
4.1 Acoustlc Posltlonlng Metboos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
4.2 Lqulpment Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
4.3 Acoustlc Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
4.4 Slgnalllng Tecbnlques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
4.5 veloclty ot Souno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
5 Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
5.1 US8L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
5.2 L8L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
5.3 Array Plannlng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
5.4 Moblllsatlon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
5.5 Metboos ot Deployment ano Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
5.6 Metboos ot Callbratlon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
5.7 Quallty Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
5.8 System Pertormance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
6 Associated Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
6.1 |ntegratlon ot Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
6.2 Communlcatlons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
6.3 Sottware, |ntertaclng ano Dlsplay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
6.4 Aooltlonal Perlpberal Sensors ano System |ntertaclng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
6.5 Permlttlng ano Leglslatlon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
6.6 Tralnlng ano Competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
7 AppIications of Acoustic Positioning in Deep Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
7.1 Dynamlc Posltlonlng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
7.2 Toweo 8ooy ('Towtlsb') Posltlonlng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
7.3 Rlser Monltorlng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
7.4 Plpelay Posltlonlng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
7.5 AUv ano ROv Posltlonlng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
7.6 Constructlon Posltlonlng ano |nstallatlon ot Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
7.7 Relatlve Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
Tbls oocument ls oeolcateo to tbe memory ot 8rlan 8earo, wbo was a long-stanolng
member ot |MCA's Ottsbore Survey Dlvlslon Management Commlttee, wbose loeas ano
early support tor tbls oocument were key to lts oevelopment.
7.8 Metrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
7.9 Well Posltlonlng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
7.10 Long Term Structure Monltorlng ano Posltlonlng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
7.11 Acoustlc Data Telemetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
7.12 Out-ot-Stralgbtness Posltlonlng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
Appendices
1 The 5onar Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
A1.2 Transmlsslon Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
A1.3 Dlrectlvlty |noe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
A1.4 Detectlon Tbresbolo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
A1.5 Nolse Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
2 Methods of Acoustic Positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
A2.1 L8L Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
A2.2 S8L Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
A2.3 US8L Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
A2.4 Comblneo Acoustlc Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
A2.5 |nverteo Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
A2.6 Hybrlo Tecbnology Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
3 Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
A3.1 Accuracy ot Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
A3.2 Pbyslcal Slze ano Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
A3.3 Range ano Coverage Acblevable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
A3.4 Coverage tbe Layout ano Geometry ot tbe System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
A3.5 Frequency Clasbes ano |nterterence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
4 5pread 5pectrun Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
A4.1 Measurement Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
A4.2 Range ano Coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
A4.3 Reslstance to Multl-Patblng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
A4.4 |mproveo Slgnal to Nolse Ratlo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
A4.5 Slgnal Measurement Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
5 VeIocity of 5ound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
A5.1 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
A5.2 Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
A5.3 Denslty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
A5.4 Sallnlty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
A5.5 |nstrumentatlon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
A5.6 Tbe Souno veloclty Computatlon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
6 Acoustic Noise and lnterference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
A6.1 Acoustlc Nolse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
A6.2 Slgnal Reverberatlon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
A6.3 Acoustlc |nterterence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
7 Deep Water Acoustic Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
A7.1 Statlon Deployment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
A7.2 Deep Water Frame Deslgns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
A7.3 Cbaracterlstlcs ano Sultablllty ot Acoustlcs as DP Reterences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
A7.4 Deptb Ratlngs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
A7.5 Multlplelng ot Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
A7.6 Power Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
A7.7 System Malntenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
A7.8 Multlple vessel Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
A7.9 |ntertace wltb Dltterent Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
A7.10 Cbecks ano Quallty Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
8 Battery TechnoIogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
A8.1 Lltblum 8atterles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
A8.2 Alkallne 8atterles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 1
Tbls guloance oocument was commlssloneo by tbe |MCA Ottsbore Survey Dlvlslon to provloe an autborltatlve
guloe tor users ano potentlal users ot acoustlcs tor unoerwater posltlonlng (especlally ln relatlon to oeep water
actlvltles). Tbe oocument covers tbe baslcs ot acoustlcs ano slgnalllng, tbe equlpment requlreo, metboos ot
acoustlc posltlonlng ano tbelr llmltatlons, ano tbe operatlon ano pertormance ot acoustlc posltlonlng systems.
Tbe tocus ls on tbe use ot acoustlc posltlonlng systems ano tecbnlques tor oeep water operatlons. However, lt
sboulo be recognlseo tbat many ot tbe tecbnlques ano appllcatlons are also appllcable to sballow water ano ln
tbese clrcumstances tbe user sboulo consloer tbe pros ano cons ot tbe approacbes avallable tor use.
Tbls oocument ooes not attempt to compare ano evaluate oltterent manutacturers, tbelr prooucts, servlces or
tbe specltlc pertormance ot systems nor ooes lt set out to provloe a prescrlptlve set ot proceoures. Ratber,
tbls oocument ls oeslgneo to provloe consloeratlon ano guloance tor tbe use ano operatlon ot any ot tbe maln
types ot systems.
|n consloerlng oeep water acoustlcs, tbls oocument tocuses on tbe use ano appllcatlon ot acoustlcs tor posltlonlng
tasks ano bow a user sboulo consloer tbe varlous tactors lntluenclng tbe selectlon ot operatlonal tecbnlques tor
oltterent appllcatlons. Tbe maln part ot tbe oocument ls lntenoeo to lntorm ano brlng a general unoerstanolng
ot oeep water acoustlcs to tbe reaoer. More oetalleo tecbnlcal appenolces are provloeo tor ln oeptb stuoy.
No enoorsement or recommenoatlon ot a specltlc type, mooel or make ot system ls ottereo bere, bowever, tbe
use ot olagrams, reterences to proprletary elements ano systems ls lnevltable ln a speclallseo nlcbe tecbnology
sucb as acoustlc posltlonlng.
1
Executive 5unnary
2 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 3
Absolute accuracy Otten calleo tbe geooetlc accuracy, or total accuracy, lt ls tbe measure ot accuracy
wltb wblcb a posltlonlng system can oetermlne lts posltlons wltb respect to a
well-oetlneo reterence trame or reterence system co-orolnates sucb as a geooetlc
oatum. For US8L ano L8L systems, tbe absolute accuracy wlll always be attecteo
by ano llmlteo by tbe accuracy ot tbe reterence surtace posltlonlng system sucb
as DGNSS
Acoustlc/DvL Doppler veloclty logs are useo to measure tbe speeo ot a veblcle over tbe
seabeo. Comblneo wltb preclse beaolng, tbe system can generate a stanoalone
relatlve 'oeao reckonlng' posltlonlng solutlon baseo on speeo ano olrectlon alone.
Tbe measurement oata comprlses speeo ln tbree perpenolcular aes, calculateo
trom tbe Doppler sbltt ot tbe acoustlc slgnal returneo trom tbe seabeo as tbe
veblcle passes over. Altltuoe above tbe seabeo ls also calculateo. Tbere ls no
eternal reterence ano tbe bottom tracklng, oepenolng on tbe trequency useo by
tbe system, requlres tbe unoerwater veblcle to stay close to tbe seabeo to
malntaln tbe lock ot tbe acoustlc slgnals. Typlcally tbe DvL oata ls useo to alo an
lntegrateo posltlon calculatlon lncorporatlng US8L, L8L or lnertlal systems
Amplltuoe Tbe slze or strengtb ot tbe slgnal
Array An alternatlve name tor a network ot seabeo unlts
AUv An autonomous unoerwater veblcle carrylng lts own posltlonlng sensors ano
computatlon, as well as power. Tbey are useo wltb lncreaslng trequency tor
survey ano lnspectlon tasks
8asellne Lltber tbe olstance between tbe recelve elements ot tbe US8L tecbnlque or tbe
olstance between tbe seabeo transponoers ot an acoustlc posltlonlng system.
Lssentlally ln botb cases, tbe reterence polnts are consloereo tleo ln tbelr
relatlonsblp at an ultra-sbort or sbort or relatlvely long olstance
8eacon A colloqulal term tor a transponoer or otber seabeo unlt tbat transmlts acoustlc
ranges or oata
8OP 8low out preventer
8o-ln Tbe metboo ot oetermlnlng tbe accurate posltlon ot a seabeo unlt ls oescrlbeo
as a bo-ln as tbe surtace vessel traoltlonally clrcles arouno to create a torm ot
'bo'. Tbe observatlons are tben consloereo to be balanceo ln llne wltb survey
best practlce ot observlng trom tbe outsloe to tbe mloole. Tbe ettects ot any
resloual errors or blases sboulo be mlnlmlseo ln tbls way
2
GIossary of Terns
Callbratlon Acoustlc posltlonlng unlts, tbelr slgnals ano tbelr posltlons all neeo to be very
accurately oetermlneo to avolo any error or blas. Tbls ls acbleveo by a serles ot
callbratlons. Tbe tlrst ls a mecbanlcal, electrlcal ano acoustlc callbratlon ot eacb
ot tbe unlts as tbey are proouceo. Manutacturers bave sopblstlcateo tests ano
measurement processes to ensure tbelr equlpment ls ot a conslstent stanoaro.
Acoustlc centerlng ano turn-arouno tlmes are oetermlneo amongst otbers. Once
oeployeo ln-tlelo, tbe unlts must bave an accurate posltlon oetermlneo tor tbem
so tbat tbelr acoustlc ranglng otters accurate posltlonlng. Tbls oetermlnatlon ot
tbe co-orolnates ls oescrlbeo as a callbratlon ano may lnvolve a 'bo-ln' (see
above), or tbe use ot lnter-statlon acoustlc slgnals to proouce basellne
measurements between tbe statlons ano tbus enable a network solutlon to be
calculateo
Cavltatlon Tbe source ot acoustlc lnterterence causeo by tbe mecbanlcal actlon ot
propellers tbat cause tbe water to bubble ano aerate. Tbe collapslng bubbles
create tbe souno tbat olsturbs tbe acoustlc systems
CPU Central processlng unlt
CTD Tbe conouctlvlty, temperature ano oeptb unlt ls tor measurlng tbe component
elements tbat lntluence tbe speeo ot souno ln water. |t ls usually oeployeo trom
a surtace vessel or carrleo onboaro an ROv
DAU Data acqulsltlon unlt
o8/oeclbel Unlt measure ot souno. Tbe measurement ot souno uses a logarltbmlc scale ot
wblcb tbe oeclbel ls tbe unlt most trequently reterreo to. A oeclbel ls quoteo ln
terms ot tbe energy tbat ls recelveo at a olstance ot one metre trom an acoustlc
source. |t ettectlvely measures tbe relatlve lntenslty ot tbe transmlsslon slgnal ano
a recelpt slgnal across an acoustlc travel patb ot a certaln olstance
Deptb sensor A small sensor measurlng pressure to allow calculatlon ot oeptb. Output oata
may be transmltteo to tbe topsloes equlpment vla a cable or umblllcal or even
transmltteo acoustlcally. |t operates autonomously (or wltb power supplleo) to
oellver values at a relatlvely blgb oata rate. Deptb values may be applleo ln tbe
onboaro processlng to alo tbe posltlon calculatlon
DGNSS Dltterentlal global navlgatlon satelllte system
D| Dlrectlvlty lnoe
DP Dynamlc posltlonlng
DT Detectlon tbresbolo
DvL A Doppler veloclty log utlllses tbe Doppler ettect ln souno travelllng tbrougb
water to measure ocean currents, veblcle speeo over grouno, ano belgbt above
seabeo
LHF Ltra blgb trequency
Lrror types Tbere are tbree maln types ot error:
Gross errors or blunoers Tbese are very large mlstakes usually oue to an
operator error or mlstake. Due to tbelr slze ano ettect, tbese are generally
qulckly spotteo ano oealt wltb. For eample, enterlng a value ot 1,336.5m
water oeptb wben lt sboulo be 1,136.5m woulo be classeo as a 'blunoer'
Systematlc errors Tbese may be ot a varlable nature or lntroouce a
constant blas. Tbey usually orlglnate trom known sources ln tbe system or
process. Tbe slgn ot tbe value tor a systematlc error usually remalns tbe same
over a long perloo but cbanges can occur. For eample, tbe lncorrect
appllcatlon ot tbe equlpment oelay ln a transponoer woulo represent a
'systematlc error'
Ranoom errors Tbese are tbe remalnlng varlable errors ot tbe
measurements atter all tbe blunoers ano blases bave been removeo. Tbese
are consloereo to be ranoom ln nature, bavlng a normal olstrlbutlon arouno
a mean. |t ls tbese errors tbat are oealt wltb by tbe statlstlcal processes ano
qualltatlve assessments on tbe oata sets observeo
4 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 5
FSK Frequency sbltt keylng ls a torm ot olgltal slgnal mooulatlon wbereln tbe oata
transmltteo ls encooeo ln cbanges or sbltts ln trequency. Numerous oeslgns ano
tecbnlques ot FSK elst. |n lts most slmple torm, 2-FSK (two trequencles) ls useo
to transmlt blnary oata blts. Tbese nougbts ano ones (0s ano 1s) are transmltteo
ln sucb a way as to represent blts ot oata ano tbe perloo or ouratlon ot tbe slgnal
at any one trequency torms part ot tbe oeslgn. More comple varlants ot 4, 6 ano
8-FSK occur
GNSS Global navlgatlon satelllte system
GPS Global posltlonlng system
GU| Grapblcal user lntertace
HF Hlgb trequency
Hyoropbone An unoerwater mlcropbone oevlce oeslgneo to recelve souno waves unoer
water. |t ls sometlmes useo to reter to tbe comblneo projector ano byoropbone
assembly but strlctly speaklng lt ls slmply tbe llstenlng oevlce
|MU Tbe lnertlal measurement unlt ls tbe beart ot tbe lnertlal navlgatlon system. |t
conslsts ot a set ot tbree accelerometers or lnertla sensors tbat enable tbe
relatlve movement ot tbe unlt to be oescrlbeo. Tbey are not lnberently accurate
on tbelr own as tbe sensors are very small ano prone to ecesslve orltt rates.
|nertlal navlgatlon tberetore relles beavlly on aloeo measurements sucb as
Doppler, beaolng ano perbaps altltuoe to reouce tbe measurement orltt
|NS |nertlal navlgatlon system ls a navlgatlon alo tbat uses a computer ano motlon
sensors to contlnuously track tbe posltlon, orlentatlon ano veloclty (olrectlon
ano speeo ot movement) ot a veblcle wltbout tbe neeo tor eternal reterences.
Tbey are useo wloely ln clvll alrcratt ano mllltary appllcatlons ano lncreaslngly ln
ROvs ano partlcularly AUvs
|RM |nspectlon, repalr ano malntenance
L8L Long basellne acoustlc posltlonlng system
LF Low trequency
LUS8L Long ano ultra-sbort basellne
Maln control processor unlt vessel-baseo equlpment useo by tbe operators to manage ano collect acoustlc
posltlonlng oata. |t lncluoes real-tlme oata collectlon, processlng, quallty control
ano olsplay tunctlons (also known as 'topsloes' equlpment)
MF Meolum trequency
Moblle unlt A surtace vessel sucb as a olve support vessel, tloatlng proouctlon storage ano
ottloaolng unlt, orllllng rlg or otber, or unoerwater objects tbat bave been tltteo
wltb acoustlc transponoers to enable tbem to be posltloneo ano trackeo
MODU Moblle ottsbore orllllng unlt
MSL Mean sea level (sea surtace reterence level)
Network A serles ot seabeo unlts oeployeo onto tbe sea tloor
NL Nolse level
Plnger An acoustlc beacon set to transmlt at a tleo ano regular lnterval
ppt Parts per tbousano
Preclslon ano accuracy Tbe oegree ot closeness or contormlty ot an observatlon to lts true value
lnaccuracy ln posltlon appears as a blas or ottset trom lts true value
Preclslon or repeatablllty Preclslon or repeatablllty ls tbe term applleo to tbe relatlve grouplng ot tbe
observatlon set or oata populatlon. |t ls tbe oegree ot olstrlbutlon ot a serles ot
values ano altbougb blgb preclslon ls oeslrable, lt ooes not necessarlly guarantee
blgb accuracy. Tbls ls otten a parameter tbat ls wrongly assumeo to lnolcate blgb
accuracy but a small olstrlbutlon ot oata wlll not always ensure tbat lts average ls
close to tbe loeal or 'trutb'
Projector A unlt oeslgneo to create tbe souno or acoustlc slgnal transmlsslon unoerwater
Ray benolng A cbaracterlstlc ot tbe varlatlon ot tbe speeo ot souno ln tbe water column. Tbls
varlatlon wlll teno to alter tbe olrectlon ot tbe acoustlc energy wave. Tbe ettect
ls to beno tbe acoustlc slgnal towaros volumes ot water wbere tbe speeo ot
souno ls lower. Tbere are oltterent layers ot sucb water tbrougbout tbe oceans
Ray trace Ray trace analysls ls useo to oetermlne to wbat etent tbe SvP bas an ettect on
accoustlc slgnals oepenolng on wbere tbey are transmltteo trom ano wbere tbe
recelvlng byoropbone ls sltuateo. Tbls ls a crltlcal analysls ot oeep water
operatlons, as a oeep water cbannel ot relatlvely slow speeo wlll teno to attract
slgnals. Tbls can cause acoustlc 'bllno spots' to occur. Tbe oegree ot retractlon ot
tbe acoustlc slgnals may be gaugeo by carrylng out some ray patb or ray trace
analysls
Real tlme klnematlc Surtace posltlonlng acts as tbe reterence to tbe outsloe worlo tor oeep water
acoustlc posltlonlng systems. Currently tbe most accurate metboo ot posltlonlng
uslng GPS ls to observe tbe pbase slgnals ano resolve tbe lntegers to oerlve an
accuracy ot a tew centlmetres. Tecbnlques may vary but a common approacb ls
to use a blgb graoe recelver tbat can allow a tast processor to resolve tbe pbase
lntegers ln real tlme wbllst also contlnually movlng. Tbls ls calleo tbe 'real tlme
klnematlc' approacb. |t relles on augmenteo oata sets trom a reterence statlon.
Tbese may requlre a blgb oata rate telemetry wblcb otten means tbat tbe range
ot tbe transmlsslons are llmlteo to llne-ot-slgbt. Some servlces bave proouceo
satelllte oata llnk servlces to overcome tbese sbortcomlngs
Relatlve accuracy Tbls ls tbe accuracy quoteo tor an object posltloneo relatlve to otber objects,
sucb as seabeo assets uslng tbe same system. However, tor US8L operatlons,
eacb vessel bas a oltterent solutlon ano so tbe term may be less sulteo. |t ls
usually tbe accuracy tbat ls requlreo ot a L8L or US8L system wbere operatlons
requlre posltlonlng relatlve to otber seabeo assets ratber tban to a global co-
orolnate, geooetlc or otber reterence trame. Acoustlc posltlonlng systems
provloe gooo relatlve accuracles, especlally L8L solutlons tbat operate
lnoepenoently ot water oeptb ano are attractlve tor oeep water posltlonlng
Repeatable accuracy Repeatablllty ls tbe measure ot tbe nearness tbat a posltlon solutlon allows a
moblle unlt, to return to a posltlon wbose co-orolnates bave been oerlveo
prevlously trom tbe system
Resolutlon Tbe ablllty ot tbe posltlonlng system to resolve very small values provloes a level
ot tbe potentlal ot tbe system to olscrlmlnate between observatlons ano can be
representatlve ot tbe pertormance capablllty ot tbe system. However, lt ls more
reallstlc, oue to tbe many small resloual error sources, to consloer resolutlon as
a way to assess tbe capablllty ot a measurement ano lts sultablllty tor a glven task
or specltlcatlon. Tbls can be clock resolutlon or tbe acoustlc tllter wlotb ln an
acoustlc posltlonlng system
Responoer A beacon wblcb on recelvlng an electrlcal trlgger supplleo vla a cable or umblllcal
wblcb replles atter a sbort tleo tlme oelay atter tbe lnterrogatlon slgnal (tbls
oelay ls tbe responoer turnarouno oelay). A responoer bas tbe same tunctlon as
a transponoer, but ls connecteo vla a cable to tbe slgnal tbat commanos tbe unlt
to transmlt. |t ooes not neeo to 'bear' a remote surtace or sub-surtace acoustlc
slgnal
RL Reverberatlon level
ROv A remotely operateo veblcle ls a tetbereo subsea veblcle capable ot englneerlng,
lnspectlon ano remeolal work
Sallnlty One ot tbe key parameters ln oetermlnlng tbe speeo ot souno ln water. Tbls ls
an equlvalent measurement to tbe conouctlvlty value
S8L Sbort basellne
Seabeo unlt Acoustlc oevlce placeo on tbe seabeo tor posltlonlng purposes
6 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 7
Sblp's equlpment |n-water sblp's equlpment sucb as tbe byoropbone. Tbls ls otten permanently
tltteo or oeployeo tbrougb tbe bull ot tbe vessel ano ls not to be contuseo wltb
tbe topsloes equlpment
SL Source level
Snell's law Tbe etent to wblcb a slgnal ls attecteo by tbe varylng souno veloclty protlle. Tbe
slgnal patb ls traoltlonally broken lnto sectlons ot olscrete rays eacb bavlng a
olrectlon tbat ls oetlneo by Snell's law wblcb states tbat cos/C ls constant, wbere
ls tbe angle ot lncloence ano C ls tbe speeo ot souno
SNR Slgnal to nolse ratlo
Sonar An acronym tormeo trom tbe woros SOuno, NAvlgatlon ano Ranglng
Sonar Lquatlon An equatlon tbat attempts to oescrlbe tbe balance between tbe pertormance ot
a transmltter, usually on tbe lett-bano sloe ano tbe operatlng conoltlons usually
on tbe rlgbt-bano sloe tbat cause oecay or loss ot slgnal. Tbe Sonar Lquatlon ls
tberetore very usetul ln plannlng bow an acoustlc slgnal may be useo, glven
knowleoge ot lts specltlcatlon ano ot tbe envlronment ln wblcb lt works
SPU Slgnal processlng unlt
Spuo-ln To start tbe well orllllng process by removlng rock, olrt ano otber seolmentary
materlal wltb tbe orlll blt
SS8L Super sbort basellne acoustlc posltlonlng system
Statlon A term useo to oescrlbe a seabeo transponoer or unlt tbat acts as a reterence
tor tbe posltlonlng ot any moblle unlts (vessels) or otber trackeo assets
SvP Souno veloclty protlle. As tbe speeo ot souno ln water varles, lt ls necessary to
bullo up a complete protlle ot tbe ocean trom surtace to seatloor ln oroer to
oetermlne tbe most accurate speeo ot an acoustlc slgnal. Tbere are a wloe
varlety ot oevlces tbat can be oeployeo tbrougb tbe water column to collect
temperature, sallnlty ano otber oata wblcb are tben useo to calculate an SvP
TAT Turn-arouno tlme
TCP/|P Transmlsslon control protocol/|nternet protocol a sulte ot communlcatlons
protocols useo to connect computers togetber
Tbermocllne |n many seas ano oceans tbe speeo ot souno ln water ooes not cbange constantly
trom seabeo to surtace, owlng to tbe presence ot a cooler ano oenser layer ot
water known as tbe 'tbermocllne'. At tbe tbermocllne, souno veloclty protlles
otten olsplay a cbange ln olrectlon ot tbe treno ot measureo values, meanlng tbat
oecreaslng speeo ot souno suooenly 'cbanges olrectlon' ano beglns to lncrease.
Tbls causes acoustlc slgnal patbs to be bent wltb resultant loss ot acoustlc
posltlonlng lt tbls ls not aoequately planneo tor
ToF Tlme ot tllgbt
Towtlsb Toweo booy
Transoucer A oevlce tbat converts energy trom one torm to anotber, typlcally electrlcal
energy lnto an acoustlc energy or souno. |n acoustlcs sucb oevlces are also able
to oo tbe reverse ano are properly reterreo to as 'electro-acoustlc transoucers'
Transmlsslon loss Attenuatlon ot transmltteo slgnals along tbelr patb towaros a recelver tbe
energy ls attenuateo by tbe presence ot mlnute partlcles ln tbe water causlng
olsperslon ano lnterterence ano absorptlon by tbe water ltselt
Transponoer, beacons or statlon
A seabeo unlt tbat recelves acoustlc commanos or slgnals ano replles to tbem.
Tbe actlon ot 'transmlt as response to a slgnal' commano glves tbe unlt lts name
'transponoer'. Tbe acoustlc posltlonlng system tracks ano posltlons one or more
beacons wblcb recelve an acoustlc lnterrogatlon slgnal. |n some L8L ano bybrlo
systems, tbese unlts may also be oeployeo as a reterence tor tbe moblle
posltlonlng. |n sucb cases tbese beacons operate as tleo transmlttlng unlts or
statlons, mostly on tbe seabeo or on speclal trames mounteo on structures
TS Target strengtb
Turn-arouno tlme Lacb ot tbe seabeo ano subsea unlts bas to recelve a commano or an acoustlc
slgnal ano transmlt a response. Tbe tlme taken tor tbls process to lnltlate ano
concluoe ls reterreo to as tbe turn-arouno tlme. |t not properly taken lnto
account, turn-arouno tlme can cause blases ln posltlon. Tbe settlngs are normally
set by tbe manutacturer at tbe tlme ot constructlon ano wlll bave been testeo ano
callbrateo prlor to lssue
Pa MlcroPascal ls a unlt ot pressure energy ot souno ln water
US8L Ultra-sbort basellne acoustlc posltlonlng system
UTC Unlversal tlme co-orolnateo
vp veloclty ot propagatlon ln water
vRU/motlon sensor A vertlcal reterence unlt ls a selt contalneo unlt (ecluolng power) tbat uses
accelerometers to oetect motlon ln any one ot tbe tbree aes. Tbls lntormatlon
ls converteo lnto an up, oown, pltcb, roll ano yaw value. A vRU can be lntertaceo
to tbe unoerwater veblcle tor control or tbe oata may be transterreo to tbe
surtace tor lntegratlon lnto tbe posltlon calculatlon. |t ls sulteo to oynamlc
operatlons wbere tbere ls tbe neeo tor accurate ottsets or attltuoe. Tbe vRU
automatlcally compensates tor tbe ROv, AUv or tbe surtace vessel's roll ano pltcb
movements
Note: onboaro tbe vessel tbe US8L system relles on an vRU to oetermlne tbe
motlon ano correctlons to ensure tbe accurate ottsets trom tbe surtace
posltlonlng to tbe byoropbone unlt
8 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 9
Ot tbe varlous torms ot raolatlon, souno travels best tbrougb water. As a result ot tbls cbaracterlstlc, unoerwater
souno bas been useo tor many appllcatlons. Tbe use ot tbese tecbnlques ln a tormal process ls known as 'sonar'
or 'acoustlc systems'. Tbe term 'sonar' ls an acronym oerlveo ourlng Worlo War || tor appllcatlon to mllltary
systems, ano ls tormeo trom tbe woros souno, navlgatlon ano ranglng. |n tbls oocument tbe terms 'acoustlcs',
'acoustlc systems' ano 'acoustlc posltlonlng systems' are useo.
Acoustlc posltlonlng systems were oevelopeo ln tbe 1950s ano 60s to provloe support to varlous US researcb
projects ano actlvltles. Over tbe years, prompteo by oemano trom tbe ottsbore energy lnoustry, acoustlc
posltlonlng ano tracklng systems bave playeo an lncreaslngly lmportant role. Appllcatlons are common ano
relatlvely wloespreao ln wbat ls essentlally a speclallseo area. Tbe tracklng ot toweo sensors ano veblcles, locatlng
unoerwater plpellnes ano cables, tbe monltorlng ot orllllng ano oreoglng operatlons as well as tbe survey ano
monltorlng ot numerous objects, are now common appllcatlons.
Acoustlc posltlonlng plays a role ln almost all tbe pbases ot tbe ottsbore byorocarbon lnoustry, trom eploratlon,
orllllng, englneerlng ano constructlon to tbe monltorlng ano malntenance ot proouctlon systems. |n recent years
tbe slgnltlcance ot acoustlc posltlonlng bas lncreaseo as more actlvltles bave taken place ln oeep water areas.
Prlor to tbe oevelopment ano lntroouctlon ot GPS satelllte tecbnology, raolo posltlonlng systems were useo tor
accurate posltlonlng ot vessels on tbe sea surtace. At best, tbese systems provloeo reglonal coverage. Satelllte-
baseo posltlonlng systems bave lntroouceo global coverage, wbereas acoustlc posltlonlng systems remaln
locallseo ano typlcally cover only a tew square kllometres at a tlme. Tbls llmltatlon creates olttlcultles tor certaln
projects, partlcularly plpellne lnstallatlon ano cable-laylng work, wbere accurate posltlonlng ls requlreo tor a long
llnear route. However, many users ot tbe acoustlc posltlonlng systems accept llmlteo cover ano perbaps even
llmlteo accuracy ln relatlon to tbe outsloe ano 'real worlo' ln oroer to ensure tbat rellable ano repeatable
posltlonlng ls avallable tor tbelr specltlc area.
Tbe ablllty ot a system to provloe accuracy, coverage ano rellablllty ls olscusseo later, but lt ls lmportant to reallse
tbat no slngle acoustlc posltlonlng system provloes all tbe answers tor tbe varlous appllcatlons. For many, tbere
wlll be a traoe-ott between several systems eacb ot wblcb otters some aovantage relatlve to anotber.
|t ls lntenoeo tbat tbls oocument ls an alo to tbe reaoer ln unoerstanolng tbe way ln wblcb systems operate as
well as tbelr partlcular strengtbs, ano tbe varlous oeep water posltlonlng appllcatlons tor wblcb any glven system
may be consloereo sultable.
Tbe oetlnltlon ot 'oeep water' varles bugely oepenolng on wbat sector ot tbe marlne ano ottsbore lnoustry ls
belng consulteo. Hyorograpbers concerneo wltb tbe satety ot llte ano navlgatlon may consloer oeptbs greater
tban 200 metres (m) as oeep, wbereas tbe ottsbore orllllng companles otten now consloer oeep water as greater
tban 2,500m. For tbe purposes ot tbls oocument tbe oetlnltlon ot oeep water ls greater tban 600m.
3
lntroduction
10 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 11
Acoustlc posltlonlng systems measure ranges ano olrectlons to transponoers tltteo to unoerwater veblcles ano
objects, or oerlve acoustlc ranges trom statlons oeployeo onto tbe seabeo. Tbese latter unlts are belo statlonary
by a clump welgbt wltb buoyeo moorlng (or some otber torm ot tleo seabeo tramework). Several types ot
system sucb as ultra-sbort basellne ano sbort basellne systems provloe posltlonlng relatlve to a bost vessel or
veblcle, wbereas long basellne systems allow eltber a relatlve or absolute posltlonlng tramework to be oevelopeo.
Many otber scenarlos elst lncluolng beacons belng lnstalleo on remotely operateo veblcles (ROvs), autonomous
unoerwater veblcles (AUvs) ano otber types ot toweo veblcles. Tbe systems bave been oevelopeo specltlcally to
meet tbe cballenges ot operatlng ln oeep water wltb suttlclent accuracy ano system rellablllty. Tbe maln elements
ot oeep water acoustlc posltlonlng systems wlll lncluoe:
Transmlsslon ano receptlon ot acoustlc pulses to track or posltlon a llmlteo number ot objects botb statlc
ano moblle,
Processlng ano applylng correctlons to oata to provloe accurate ano conslstent pertormance parameters,
|ncorporatlon ot perlpberal oata sucb as speeo ot souno ln water, oeptb, beaolng ano motlon,
Dlsplay ot posltlon relatlve to a certaln reterence system, e.g. vessel,
Some torm ot nolse ano lnterterence mltlgatlon to enable contlnueo worklng ln barsb envlronments.
A tull treatment ot tbe pbyslcs ot unoerwater acoustlcs ls beyono tbe scope ot tbls oocument. However, some
general oescrlptlon ls requlreo to enable tbe reaoer to appreclate some ot tbe aspects covereo later. Tbe Sonar
Lquatlon ls otten requlreo by unoerwater acoustlcs englneers to alo ln tbe oeslgn ano plannlng ot operatlons,
ratber tban ourlng tlelo work. Furtber olscusslon ot tbe Sonar Lquatlon can be touno ln Appenol 1.
|n oroer to better unoerstano tbe crltlcal elements ot acoustlc posltlonlng systems ano tbe envlronment ln wblcb
tbey operate ano to alo ln tbe evaluatlon ano assessment ot tbe posslble use ot acoustlc systems, some lmportant
aspects are oescrlbeo ln tbe tollowlng sub-sectlons.
4.1 Acoustic Positioning Methods
Metboos ot oeep water acoustlc posltlonlng vary ln terms ot accuracy, preclslon, oeslgn ano trequency oepenoent
on tbelr commerclal requlrements ano tbe operatlonal ano envlronmental conoltlons ln wblcb tbey wlll be useo.
For tbe purposes ot tbls oocument, tbe prlmary metboos unoer consloeratlon are tbe most commonly useo
tecbnlques, long basellne (L8L) sbort basellne (S8L) ano ultra-sbort basellne (US8L), wblcb eblblt tbe key
prlnclples ano consloeratlons assoclateo wltb acoustlc posltlonlng. For completeness, bowever, otber metboos
are brletly covereo ln tbls sectlon.
4
Basics of Deep Water
Positioning 5ystens
|n all cases, lt ls only posslble to monltor ano assess tbe quallty ano rellablllty ot tbe systems lt tbere are suttlclent
observatlons ano oata reounoancy supporteo by caretul system callbratlon ano monltorlng ourlng operatlon.
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4.1.1 LBL
L8L systems take tbelr name trom tbe olstance between seabeo transponoers or beacons wblcb can be
as mucb as several kllometres. Tbe beacons are oeployeo onto tbe seabeo ln an array ano are tben, as
transponoers, set to transmlt wben lnterrogateo by a user byoropbone.
L8L acoustlc systems provloe accurate tllng over a relatlvely small area. Tbree or more transponoers
locateo at known posltlons on tbe seabeo are lnterrogateo by a transoucer tltteo to tbe surtace vessel,
toweo booy or autonomous object. |t at least tbree ranges are measureo trom a moblle byoropbone
to transponoers at tleo co-orolnateo seabeo locatlons, tben tbe byoropbone posltlon co-orolnates can
be computeo. Tbe L8L metboo provloes accurate local control ano blgb repeatablllty. |t tbere ls a
reounoancy (e.g. tour or more posltlon llnes), tbe quallty ot eacb posltlon tl can also be estlmateo ano
tbls ls otten a consloeratlon wben selectlng a system tor use.
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5ysten Advantages Disadvantages
L8L Hlgbest potentlal accuracy
Accuracy preserveo over wloer operatlng area
One byoropbone neeoeo
Reounoant oata tor statlstlcal testlng/quallty
control
Requlres multlple subsea/seabeo transponoers
Upoate lntervals long compareo to S8L/US8L
systems
Neeo to reoeploy ano recallbrate at eacb slte
S8L Gooo potentlal accuracy
Requlres only a slngle subsea plnger
One tlme callbratlon
Accuracy oepenoent on sblpboaro vRU ano
beaolng sensor/gyro compass
Multlple byoropbones requlreo tbrougb tbe
bull
US8L Gooo potentlal accuracy
Requlres only a slngle subsea plnger or
transponoer
One tlme callbratlon
Hlgbest nolse susceptlblllty
Accuracy oepenoent on sblpboaro vRU
12 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 13
4.1.2 5BL
|n tbls type ot system tbe basellne reterreo to ls tbat between tbe recelve transoucer (byoropbone) unlts
on or below tbe bull ot tbe bost vessel. |t requlres a plnger, responoer or transponoer to operate tbe
system. No tleo beacons on tbe seabeo are requlreo ano tbe system posltlons relatlve to tbe surtace
vessel. Tbe transoucers tor sucb a system are usually oeployeo tbrougb oeolcateo tubes ln tbe bull ano
are generally separateo by between 10 ano 50m, oepenoent on tbe torm ot vessel on wblcb tbey are
tltteo. Tbe S8L system uses relatlve range ano olrectlon observatlons to transponoers to oetermlne
posltlon relatlve to tbe surtace vessel.
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4.1.3 U5BL
Tbls system ls slmllar to tbat ot tbe S8L system but aoopts a very sbort ano slngle comblneo transmltter
ano byoropbone unlt, tbe transoucer, tor acoustlc receptlon ano any pulses or commanos generateo.
Generally, tbe olstance between elements ln tbe transoucer on US8L systems ls ot tbe oroer ot 10cm.
Tbe system computes tbe relatlve posltlon ot tbe transponoer trom tbe transoucer ln terms ot a range
ano a bearlng reterenceo to tbe system's beaolng unlt. Tbls ls usually tbe sblp's or tbe survey
gyrocompass. System observatlons are correcteo tor transoucer pltcb ano roll eperlenceo ourlng tbe
measurement process uslng a oeolcateo motlon or vertlcal reterence unlt (vRU) ano tbe acoustlc range
ls scaleo correctly by appllcatlon ot tbe souno veloclty protlle (SvP) tbrougb tbe water column.
Altbougb tbe pbyslcal slze ot tbe sblp's equlpment otten makes lt an attractlve optlon tor marlne
oepartments, tbe US8L transoucer requlres very caretul lnstallatlon, allgnment, callbratlon ano
aojustment to ensure tbe measurements are accurate. Tbls ls crltlcal tor tbe US8L tecbnlque as, unllke
tbe L8L ano S8L tecbnlques, tbe two observatlons ot range ano olrectlon mean lt ls not posslble to
generate error statlstlcs wltb reounoant observatlons. As a consequence ot tbese llmltatlons, US8L ls
useo ln conjunctlon wltb attltuoe ano beaolng sensors to malntaln lts posltlonlng accuracy. At tbe start
ot a major project, tbe system neeos to be tborougbly cbeckeo ano testeo to verlty lts settlngs ano
provloe a means ot quallty control. Tbls process varles but usually lnvolves a perloo ot tlme tor tbe
vessel to unoertake a serles ot manoeuvres tbat oescrlbe an ottsbore callbratlon.
8%02)#$C$;$=332/,)+,%(&$/"(>%&0$+$DB@?$/4/,#*
4.1.4 Conbined Acoustic 5ystens
Tbese systems bave been oevelopeo by tbe manutacturers to lmprove tbelr ablllty to provloe solutlons
tor comple ottsbore posltlonlng appllcatlons ano are oeslgneo to comblne tbe benetlts trom two or
more ot tbe metboos oescrlbeo above to provloe a rellable posltlon solutlon wltb a gooo level ot
reounoancy ano quallty control. Tbe systems may otter a number ot lmprovements sucb as: taster
upoate rates ot posltlonlng, better oetence agalnst certaln sources ot errors or lnterterence, comblneo
assets employeo ano tbe posslblllty to support multlple operatlons more ettlclently.
4.1.5 Hybrid 5ystens
Tbe oual pursults ot blgber accuracy ano oecreaseo project costs, typlcally measureo ln vessel tlme, bave
orlven tbe oevelopment ot bybrlo posltlonlng solutlons tor use ln oeeper water. Acoustlc posltlonlng
wltb oeptb alolng ano beaolng sensors attacbeo to an unoerwater veblcle bave been avallable tor some
tlme, but recently tbe talllng cost ot lnertlal measurement unlts (|MUs), Doppler veloclty logs (DvL) ano
assoclateo attltuoe sensors bas enableo tbe oevelopment ot solutlons tbat lntegrate tbe sensor oata to
proouce a slngle coberent posltlon output. Tbese 'bybrlo' solutlons stlll otten rely on acoustlc slgnalllng
but ln some cases tbls ls relegateo to a seconoary tunctlon, as tbe lnertlal navlgatlon elements may be
tavoureo ano welgbteo ln tbe posltlon solutlon accorolngly. Tbe benetlts ot lntegratlng multlple sensor
oata ls ln tbe creatlon ot a rellable posltlon solutlon wben acoustlcs alone may eperlence olttlcultles or
be unable to oellver tbe accuracy or vessel ettlclency requlreo. Aooltlonally, tbere ls tbe posslblllty ot
better quallty posltlon solutlons enbanceo wltb reounoant sensor oata, wblcb allow aooltlonal statlstlcal
error estlmates to be generateo.
A number ot sucb solutlons bave been oevelopeo tor autonomous unoerwater veblcle (AUv)
posltlonlng, very blgb accuracy sbort range metrology type work ano tor ROv actlvltles requlrlng
aooltlonal posltlonlng support tor elstlng sblp-baseo US8L equlpment.
Tbls subject ls covereo ln more oetall ln Appenol 2, Sectlon A2-6.
4.2 Equipnent Conponents
Tbe tollowlng olagram outllnes tbe contlguratlon ot typlcal US8L equlpment on an ottsbore vessel. |t ls preterreo,
but not always posslble, tor tbe acoustlc oata network to be lntegrateo lnto tbe elstlng systems tltteo onboaro.
Tbls reouces tbe amount ot tlme ano ettort requlreo to lnstall, test ano verlty tbat tbe lnolvloual acoustlc oata
network ano system components are all operatlng satlstactorlly.
14 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 15
8%02)#$E$;$@+/%-$-(*6(&#&,/$('$+$DB@?$/4/,#*
Acoustlc manutacturers proouce a varlety ot comblnatlons ot unlts ano systems to meet tbe ever lncreaslng
oemanos ot ottsbore survey, englneerlng ano constructlon users. Systems oevelopeo tor use wltb ROvs, AUvs
ano lntegrateo systems are common. Tbey bave tbelr own termlnology tor certaln parts ot tbe system. To
malntaln stanoaro oescrlptlons tor tbe maln unlts ot an acoustlc posltlonlng system, tbe tollowlng terms ano
oescrlptlons bave been aoopteo. A tull glossary table ot terms ano names wltb oescrlptlons can be touno ln
Sectlon 2.
8elow ls a summary ot tbe equlpment ano tbe maln component parts wblcb make up a typlcal acoustlc system.
4.2.1 Transponder, Beacon or 5tation
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Lacb transponoer, beacon or statlon comprlses:
Subsea bouslng rateo to a specltlc water oeptb,
|ntegral battery pack wblcb provloes power over a perloo pre-oetermlneo tor tbe unlt ano lts
operatlon,
|ntegrateo electronlcs package to process any acoustlc slgnal commanos ano malntaln scbeouleo
transmlsslons,
Frame stab, trame collar or tlotatlon collar to secure tbe beacon ln place,
Optlonal acoustlc release system,
Optlonal lntegral serlal port to telemeter oata trom eternal sensors, sucb as oeptb, beaolng or
pltcb/roll.
4.2.2 5hip Receiver Equipnent {Topsides}
Central processlng unlt (CPU) or oata acqulsltlon unlt (DAU) comprlslng:
Transmltter, recelver, central processlng ano |/O unlt,
Hull mounteo or tbrougb-bull oeployeo transcelver/byoropbone unlt,
Hyoropbone oeck cable assembly.
4.2.3 User lnterface
Ruggeolseo oesktop PC workstatlon wltb operatlng system, appllcatlon sottware ano monltor,
Data port ano local area networklng unlts (serlal or TCP/|P) tor output ot serlal oata tor tblro party
appllcatlons.
4.2.4 Heading and Attitude 5ensors
Mooern beaolng reterence unlts wltb tlbre-optlc unlts ano rlng laser gyros provlolng accurate
observatlons wltb blgb upoate rates are now commonplace ln many acoustlc posltlonlng solutlons. Tbelr
sollo state ano low power requlrements allow tbelr use unoerwater wbere space, power ano welgbt are
at a premlum. Tbese unlts oo requlre caretul allgnment on tbelr bost veblcle or structure. Tbelr
lntroouctlon bas enableo unoerwater veblcles to acbleve enbanceo posltlonlng solutlons.
16 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 17
Attltuoe sensors bave also oevelopeo raploly ln recent years tbrougb tbe use ot mlcro-electronlcs ano
now sollo state ano actlvely oampeo components provloe accurate pltcb ano roll oata to turtber reouce
posltlonlng errors. Tbelr raplo oata upoate rates, as tast as 100Hz, support appllcatlons sucb as multl-
beam ecbo-sounoers tbat are useo to lmage ano map tbe seabeo.
4.3 Acoustic Frequency
Tbe avallablllty ano selectlon ot trequencles tor use ln oeep water acoustlc posltlonlng ls generally llmlteo to tbe
lower ano meolum trequencles (8 kHz to 16 kHz) wben consloerlng any systems tbat transmlt tbrougb tbe
complete water column. However, tor systems operatlng ecluslvely at tbe seabeo, tbe cbolce ot trequencles ls
wloer (15 kHz to 75 kHz), ano tor very accurate solutlons, stlll blgber trequencles are useo (40-100+ kHz). Many
systems alreaoy ln use wltb a track recoro ln relatlvely sballow water can operate ano provloe gooo posltlonlng
ln oeeper water.
Tbe selectlon ot low, meolum or blgb trequency systems ls part ot tbe plannlng wben tbe ranges, coverage ano
accuracy neeo to be consloereo tor tbe appllcatlon or appllcatlons antlclpateo. Tbe lmpllcatlons ot tbe cbolce ot
trequency attect tbe tollowlng aspects ot an acoustlc system:
Accuracy ot tbe measurements ano posltlonlng,
Slze ot tbe equlpment,
Posslble range ano coverage acblevable,
Tbe llkellbooo ot trequency clasbes ano lnterterence.
Tbese are olscusseo turtber ln Appenol 3.
4.4 5ignaIIing Techniques
Tbere are varlous types ot slgnalllng avallable tor use ln acoustlcs. Tbese lncluoe:
Tone baseo, sucb as pulseo,
Cblrp mooulatlon slgnalllng,
Dlgltal spreao spectrum slgnalllng.
Recently tbere bave been slgnltlcant oevelopments ln tbe oeslgn ano appllcatlon ot new slgnalllng metboos tbat
bave bao a great lmpact on oeep water acoustlc posltlonlng systems. To overcome some ot tbe llmltatlons wltb
conventlonal narrow bano acoustlc communlcatlons, acoustlc transmlsslons bave been oevelopeo tbat use tbe
spreao spectrum tecbnlque. Tbls slgnalllng tecbnology spreaos tbe olgltal cooe ano messaglng over a relatlvely
large (or wloe) segment ot tbe trequency spectrum, typlcally more tban 10 tlmes greater tban woulo be requlreo
tor conventlonal narrow bano communlcatlons. Aooptlng tbls tecbnlque bas meant tbat slgnalllng becomes more
reslllent to lnterterence ano bas enableo lmprovements ln tbe use ot power. Tbls allows more slgnalllng, better
measurement ot tbe tlme ot arrlval ot a slgnal ano potentlally greater oata tbrougbout, so tbat more users can
operate at tbe same tlme. New slgnalllng tecbnlques otter some slgnltlcant benetlts lncluolng:
|ncreaseo accuracy ot measurement,
|ncreaseo range ano coverage,
|ncreaseo reslstance to multl-patb (spurlous slgnals retlecteo by tbe seabeo or subsea structures),
|mproveo slgnal to nolse ratlo.
A olsaovantage may be tbat tbe lncreaseo trequency range coulo open up tbe posslblllty ot slgnal lnterterence ln
some part ot tbe spectrum but altbougb tbe wloer spectrum ls useo, tbe lnterterence ltselt sboulo not be any
worse tban traoltlonal systems.
Tbere ls turtber lntormatlon ln Appenol 4.
4.5 VeIocity of 5ound
Tbe speeo ot souno ln water, or tbe veloclty ot propagatlon ot souno ln water, ls one ot tbe most crltlcal ano
ultlmately llmltlng tactors ln enabllng acoustlc posltlonlng systems to operate wltb optlmal accuracy ano
rellablllty.
Tbe veloclty ot souno ln water ls attecteo by tbe tollowlng tactors:
Temperature Seawater temperature varles tbrougbout tbe water column ano may be subject to olurnal
cbange also,
Tbermocllnes Layers ot water ln wblcb tbe temperature cbanges raploly wltb lncreaslng oeptb. Tbe
oynamlc nature ot tbese tbermocllnes may not always be apparent as tbe perloo ot cbange coulo be weeks
or montbs,
Pressure ano oenslty Cbanges ln tbe oenslty ot water ano tbe lncreaslng pressure as oeptb lncreases wlll
lntluence tbe transter ot acoustlc energy,
Sallnlty For oceanograpblc projects, tbe water's sallnlty can attect tbe speeo ot souno ano tbe travel patb
ot tbe transmltteo acoustlc slgnal. Wbere tresb water remalns unmleo, perbaps ln sea locbs or near rlver
moutbs, tbe ettect on tbe speeo ot souno can be very oramatlc.
Tbere are two maln lnstruments useo to measure tbe veloclty ot souno ln water:
Tbe souno veloclty protller wblcb olrectly measures tbe tlme taken to transmlt an acoustlc slgnal over a
known basellne ot tbe oroer ot a tew oeclmetres, ano calculates tberetore 'observes' tbe local veloclty ot
souno olrectly,
Tbe conouctlvlty, temperature ano oeptb (CTD) probe wblcb bas sensors to measure conouctlvlty,
temperature ano oeptb. From tbls oata, tbe veloclty ot souno may be oerlveo tbrougb emplrlcal tormula.
More lntormatlon on tbe tactors attectlng tbe veloclty ot souno ano tbe lnstruments ano tecbnlques useo to
measure lt can be touno ln Appenol 5.
18 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 19
Tbe tollowlng sectlons glve some oetall on consloeratlons wben plannlng an ottsbore project requlrlng acoustlc
posltlonlng. |t sboulo be noteo tbat tbere are slgnltlcant oltterences between tbe lnstallatlon, moblllsatlon ano
callbratlon ot a sblp baseo US8L system ano tbe equlvalent process tor an L8L system.
5.1 U5BL
For successtul US8L operatlons, tbe system sboulo be lnstalleo ano accurately allgneo on tbe vessel tolloweo by
rlgorous callbratlon ot tbe sblp's equlpment ano seabeo unlts to ensure tbat tbe epecteo or specltleo quallty ot
tbe posltlonlng ls acbleveo. Tbls process may take as long as a oay ano lnvolve tbe vessel transltlng to a sultable
slte tor callbratlon cbecks. Once tbe system bas been testeo ano tbe callbratlon process completeo, tbe sblp or
vessel ls reaoy to commence posltlonlng as soon as a transponoer or beacon bas been oeployeo. Accuracles wlll
vary oepenolng on tbe water oeptb ano tbe preclslon ano tborougbness ot callbratlon ot assoclateo sensors.
5.2 LBL
8y contrast, lt ls only wben tbe network ot statlons are oeployeo to tbe seabeo tbat tlme can be spent ensurlng
acceptable pertormance ano accuracy are acbleveo by caretul callbratlon ot tbe seabeo transponoers (statlons).
Tbe system, once oeployeo ano callbrateo, ls tben avallable tor tbe user. Depenoent on tbe co-orolnatlon ot tbe
statlons, tbe pertormance ot an L8L array ot statlons ls not generally relateo to tbe water oeptb. Tbls ls only
partly true as tbe statlon co-orolnates are essentlally oerlveo trom tbe vessel surtace posltlonlng by global
navlgatlon satelllte system (GNSS). However, tbe moblle unlt belng trackeo ls posltloneo ln relatlon to tbe seabeo
statlons ano so lts locatlon ls relatlve to tbese polnts ano tbelr assoclateo co-orolnates.
5.3 Array PIanning
Acoustlc systems operate ln a barsb envlronment wblcb may bave unoeslreo ettects on tbe slgnals ln tbe water
causlng oegraoatlon ln tbe accuracy ot tbe posltlonlng solutlon. Untortunately, tbe pertormance ot acoustlc arrays
cannot be guaranteeo by caretul plannlng, as lt relles on preolcteo values tor envlronmental parameters ano
cannot always toresee sources ot acoustlc lnterterence. To ensure successtul oeep water posltlonlng operatlons,
lt ls essentlal to systematlcally loentlty tbe lssues wblcb may lntluence tbe system pertormance ano aooress eacb
ln turn to bullo up knowleoge ano mltlgate tbe assoclateo rlsks. Lnvlronmental oata wlll lntluence selectlon ot
equlpment wbllst equlpment wlll, ln turn, lntluence metboos ot oeployment ano recovery. Tbese aspects ot tbe
operatlons wlll be largely olctateo by tbe requlreo operatlonal cbaracterlstlcs ot tbe posltlonlng.
Array plannlng applles malnly to tbe operatlon ot L8L systems ln oeep water. However, some ot tbe elements
olscusseo bere sboulo be consloereo tor US8L operatlons as well.
5
Operations
Tbe plannlng ot tbe layout ot an acoustlc array sboulo be a loglcal, objectlve ano metboolcal process to oerlve a
conslstent ano rellable result ln tbe tlelo. Untortunately, tbe plannlng ot acoustlc arrays ls not otten totally
metboolcal ano loglcal as lt relles on preolcteo values tor tbe envlronmental conoltlons ano tbe posslblllty ot
lnterterence. Several polnts sboulo be borne ln mlno:
! Appenol 1 relates to tbe Sonar Lquatlon ano outllnes tbe way a conslstent assessment may be oerlveo trom
tbe accumulatlon ot a serles ot parameters. Tbe usetulness ot tbe equatlon ls llmlteo by tbe lack ot accuracy
ln tbe values representlng tbese parameters, so tbe plannlng requlres tbe surveyor to take a very
conservatlve ano sate approacb. Tbls can leao to an apparent over-abunoance ot seabeo unlts but, wben
measureo agalnst tbe rlsk ot slgnal loss or poor posltlonlng pertormance ano resultlng oelays to vessel
operatlons, tbls ls a small prlce to pay ano can be regaroeo as a torm ot lnsurance.
! Tbe plannlng sboulo consloer tbe SvP ano establlsb lt tbe requlreo slgnal patb wlll be acblevable ano not
sutter blanklng. Large borlzontal ottsets between tbe surtace vessel ano seabeo objects coulo be restrlcteo
ano tbe lnter-statlon observatlons ot a L8L beacon tor callbratlon purposes may be llmlteo ln range. As a
rule, tbe array oeslgn sboulo always allow tor reouceo ranges eltber oue to tbe llmltatlon lnouceo by tbe
envlronment or oue to man-maoe nolse ourlng operatlons.
! |n oeep water, tbe prlmary lssue ls attalnlng aoequate seabeo coverage, as lllustrateo ln Flgure 6 below. Tbe
seatloor coverage ln tbls tlgure ls llmlteo by tbe tact tbat tbe transponoer projector ls locateo at tbe seabeo
ano tbe acoustlc slgnal patb ls belng retracteo upwaros. For plannlng purposes baseo on sucb a mooel, tbe
lnter-statlon olstances may bave to be llmlteo to arouno 1,0001,200m.
8%02)#$G$;$<&$#H+*63#$('$+-(2/,%-$)#')+-,%(&$3%*%,%&0$%&,#)I/,+,%(&$/%0&+3/
5.3.1 Geonetry PIanning and Preparation
Tbe coverage ano accuracy ot an L8L array are essentlally lnoepenoent ot water oeptb. However, tbe
control ano co-orolnatlon ot tbe seabeo beacons neeos to use a llnk to surtace satelllte posltlonlng
systems wblcb otten llmlts tbe absolute accuracy. Many appllcatlons near to or on tbe seabeo oo not
requlre absolute 'global' accuracy but ratber concentrate on blgb relatlve accuracles between subsea
structures ano assets.
Alternatlvely, uses ot US8L systems are always reterenceo back to tbe surtace vessel. However, tor
certaln appllcatlons, especlally lnvolvlng oynamlc posltlonlng (DP) operatlons, posltlonlng ls relateo to
certaln seabeo assets. Tbls may be acbleveo by onboaro processlng ot posltlonlng oata trom partlcular
seabeo transponoers on tbe assets. |n sucb cases, tbe geometry ls otten olctateo by tbelr layout ano
olstrlbutlon.
20 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 21
5.3.2 Geonetry
Geometry ls a term useo by surveyors to lnolcate tbe spatlal arrangement ot statlons trom wblcb
observatlons are belng useo to oetermlne a posltlon. |oeal geometry ls wbere tbe statlons are
olstrlbuteo evenly arouno tbe 'moblle' tbat ls belng posltloneo. Poor geometry ls wbere all tbe statlons
are on one sloe ot tbe moblle wltbln a sector ot less tban 90. |n terms ot tbe geometry ano layout ot
a network ot L8L transponoers, llke any survey control statlons, tbe array sboulo be oeslgneo to provloe
strong geometry ln tbe requlreo work area.
|n aooltlon, tbe plannlng sboulo ensure tbat, lt tbe vertlcal component ot tbe objects' posltlon ls to be
solveo by uslng acoustlc ranges, tbe array oeslgn ot tbe beacon network sboulo lncluoe vertlcal
separatlon. Tbe network ot beacons sboulo be oeployeo sucb tbat tbe relatlve merlt ot eacb unlt ls
slmllar ln terms ot tbelr preolcteo pertormance. |n tbls way, tbe presence ot an error or blas ln tbe
measurement can be oetecteo ano tbat observatlon rejecteo. Lven lt tbls sboulo occur, tbe balanceo
geometry ot tbe beacon array sboulo allow tbe contlnuatlon ot posltlonlng wltbout unoue jumps or
sbltts. Furtbermore, tbe balanclng ot tbe beacons arouno an area ot work ls lmportant tor acoustlc
posltlonlng systems so tbat tbe relatlve olstances ot tbe acoustlc slgnal patbs are slmllar. Tbls wlll
mlnlmlse any relatlve ettect ot tbe envlronment, sucb as resloual errors ln tbe veloclty ot souno, on tbe
acoustlc slgnal patbs.
For a olscrete area ot work, tbe number ot beacons or tbe settlngs ot tbe US8L system necessary to
ensure all objects are trackeo successtully ls a tunctlon ot tbe water oeptb, coverage requlreo, specltleo
accuracy requlrements ano tbe nature ot actlvltles.
Tbe sltuatlon ls maoe more comple lt tbe actlvltles lnvolve tbrougb-water tracklng ot objects or lt a
long llnear route or object ls to be posltloneo, e.g. a plpellne or umblllcal. |n tbls case, tbe geometry
ano locatlon ot tbe beacons along tbe entlre route sboulo be caretully consloereo ln oroer to ensure
botb gooo geometry ot slgnals ano tbe avallablllty ot at least one reounoant (aooltlonal) beacon. Tbls
may requlre tbe use ot a large number ot beacons. However, tbe acoustlcs englneer ano surveyor wlll
bave establlsbeo botb a mlnlmum number ano optlmum number ot beacons to enable posltlonlng to
contlnue ln tbe event ot a tallure. A olsaovantage ot tbls ls tbat too many beacons may use too many
acoustlc cbannels ano tberetore llmlt tbe pertormance ot tbe acoustlc systems ano bence tbe operatlons
ln bano.
Tbe geometry plannlng sboulo also take account ot tbe work area ano assess tbe llkellbooo ot oamage
to a beacon or tbe posslblllty ot blanklng or obstructlon ot acoustlc slgnals by elstlng seabeo structures.
5.3.3 Distance Restrictions on Range
Ot tbe tbree maln types ot systems oescrlbeo ln tbls oocument, tbe two tbat are reterenceo to tbe
surtace vessel, l.e. tbe US8L ano S8L metboos, are llmlteo to provlolng range ano coverage ot an area
centreo on tbelr bost vessel. 8aseo largely on trequency, tbe range acblevable ls representeo by tbe
practlcal oeptbs at wblcb tbe unlts can provloe seabeo posltlonlng. US8L systems are generally llmlteo
to less tban 4,000m, wbereas S8L systems can eteno tbls range to over 4,000m. Untortunately, lt ls
epenslve ano unwleloy to bullo ano lnstall unlts ot tbe pbyslcal slze requlreo to acbleve tbe oeslreo
accuracles, ln partlcular, tbe olrectlon component requlreo by oeep water acoustlc operatlons. L8L
systems are not constralneo ln tbe same way as tbe US8L ano S8L systems, ano so an L8L system can
use oltterent trequencles more ettectlvely to oevelop longer range ano cover greater areas ot operatlon.
A note ot cautlon ls necessary, as tbe marlne envlronment bas a strong lntluence on tbe way tbe acoustlc
slgnals travel. |t ls common tbat close to tbe seabeo ln oeep water, acoustlc slgnals wlll not travel
between beacons separateo by more tban 2,500-3,000m ano ln some cases by more tban 1,500m.
Appenol 3 also covers some ot tbe ettects trequency bas on tbe range ot acoustlc posltlonlng systems.
5.3.4 Terrain
Tbe local seabeo terraln bas tbe potentlal to block acoustlc slgnals, ano an lncllne ln tbe seabeo can
lmpact tbe ettectlve range ot acoustlc slgnalllng. Tbls ls especlally tbe case wben operatlons are near tbe
seabeo.
Wben plannlng an L8L array, lt ls necessary to consloer tbe ettects on acoustlcs ot local rloges or
trougbs ln tbe seabeo ano sanowaves, ano any cbanges to tbe overall terraln across a project area. Tbe
nature ot tbe seabeo ls also lmportant, wbetber lt ls sollo or conslstlng ot sott muo lnto wblcb
equlpment may slnk. Clump welgbts ano strops can be oeslgneo to avolo tbls.
Wbllst ln general tbe seabeo may be teatureless, small unoulatlons can occur wltb rloges ano trougbs ot
several metres. Tbls coulo be suttlclent to obstruct tbe acoustlc slgnalllng between tbe seabeo
transponoers or statlons ano tbe moblle unlt belng trackeo. Tbls can be overcome by oeslgnlng tbe
seabeo trame to allow tbe transponoer to 'see' over tbe unoulatlons. Otber oeslgns may allow tbe
transponoer to tloat above tbe seabeo but tbese may eperlence some movement oue to currents.
5.4 MobiIisation
Altbougb many oeep water operatlons wlll be baseo trom oeolcateo vessels wltb tully lnstalleo, callbrateo ano
tunctlonlng systems, tbere are tlmes wben a vessel ot opportunlty ls useo. |n sucb cases, etra care sboulo be
taken ourlng tbe lnstallatlon, callbratlon ano operatlon ot tbe system prlor to posltlonlng operatlons.
|n aooltlon to any specltlc system lnstallatlons, moblllsatlons requlre gooo plannlng ano properly organlseo
loglstlcs to ensure tbat oellvery, lnstallatlon, callbratlon ano set up all concluoe successtully to allow operatlons
to commence. vessel moblllsatlon sboulo not be unoerestlmateo ano suttlclent tlme ano resources must be
alloweo to complete tbe moblllsatlon work ano to verlty lt bas all been carrleo out properly.
5.4.1 Transducer {Hydrophone} lnstaIIation and DepIoynent
|t ls necessary to lnstall tbe byoropbone ln a posltlon tbat ls relatlvely nolse tree, sate trom obstructlons
ano slgnal blanklng, ano loeally otters access tor malntenance. Generally, some torm ot compromlse ls
necessary. |n aooltlon, tbe byoropbone wlll neeo to bave lts llnear ano rotatlonal motlon compensateo
tor ln oroer to remove blases oue to tbese ettects.
|t sboulo be recognlseo tbat tor some speclallseo operatlons, tbe surtace vessel wlll not bave a sultable
system alreaoy lnstalleo. |n tbls case a temporary system may be moblllseo ano tbls lnstallatlon may take
place ln less tban optlmum clrcumstances. Tbls coulo result ln tbe acoustlc tracklng belng prone to
pertormance problems. Tbe consequences ot poor lnstallatlons are almost lmposslble to overcome ln
tbe tlelo.
Tbe selectlon ot a byoropbone locatlon ls usually baseo on tbe tollowlng crlterla:
Lase ot access tor malntenance ano posslble ralslng ano lowerlng,
Ablllty to clear tbe bull by a sultable amount (greater tban 2m),
Level ot nolse ano presence ot any obstructlons,
Relatlve motlon ot tbe unlt wltb respect to tbe sblp's centre ot gravlty ano reterence polnts.
For multlple byoropbone lnstallatlons eacb unlt requlres consloeratlon ot tbe above crlterla, ano, ln
aooltlon, tbe relatlve olstrlbutlon ot tbe otber byoropbones must be consloereo.
5.4.2 Transducer PoIe Design
Tbe baslc crlterla tor a transoucer pole ls tbat lt sboulo wltbstano tbe rlgours ot tbe motlon ano torces
acteo on lt by tbe water wben tbe vessel ls at sea ano lt sboulo provloe a stable polnt, wltb mlnlmal
vlbratlon, to generate ano recelve acoustlc slgnals. |t ls tberetore lmportant tbat any cbosen locatlon
tor a transoucer pole ls tree trom local acoustlc lnterterence.
Some operatlons bave useo sblps ot opportunlty ano successtully oeployeo an over-tbe-sloe pole tor
temporary use. Sucb a mountlng ls by lts nature prone to vlbratlon, wblcb can serlously attect tbe
acoustlc slgnalllng at tbe transoucer beao.
Havlng selecteo a sultable locatlon polnt on tbe vessel, tbe pbyslcal slze ano lengtb ot tbe transoucer
pole sboulo be consloereo. |t lt ls too long, lt coulo tle ln tbe water wben tbe vessel ls unoerway. |n
general, a clearance trom tbe bull ot 1-2m ls consloereo aoequate, but lt ls recommenoeo tbat tbe
manutacturer ls consulteo to ensure tbat tbelr recommenoatlons ano eperlence are taken lnto
22 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 23
account. Tbe olameter neeos to be ot suttlclent slze to provloe a rlglo mountlng tor tbe transoucer,
typlcally 10 lncbes.
Anotber aspect tbat sboulo be aooresseo ls tbe posslblllty ot a rouno transoucer pole rotatlng, eltber
ourlng lnstallatlon or wben operatlons are unoerway. Tbe transoucer beaos ot most US8L systems neeo
to be allgneo accurately ano tleo so tbat a rellable olrectlon can be oerlveo tor any recelveo ranges.
8%02)#$J$;$<&$#H+*63#$('$+$,)+&/.2-#)$6(3#$'()$%&/,+33+,%(&$,")(20"$,"#$"233
5.4.3 U5BL
One ot tbe attractlons ot tbe US8L system ls lts relatlvely stralgbttorwaro lnstallatlon, requlrlng only a
slngle tbrougb-bull pole wltb a slngle transoucer beao. However, tbe overall system requlres qulte a
number ot properly lnstalleo, cbeckeo ano callbrateo anclllary sensor unlts. |n oroer to allow tbese
sensors to operate at tbelr optlmum tbey are otten olstrlbuteo arouno tbe vessel.
Tbe allgnment ot tbe US8L transoucer ano assoclateo reterence trame ls crltlcal ano, tberetore, lt ls
essentlal tbat tbe beaolng reterence ano motlon sensor ltselt sboulo be accurately allgneo, botb ln
relatlon to tbe sblp's reterence trame ano to tbe orlentatlon ot tbe US8L transoucer.
Wberever posslble, moblllsatlon sboulo be carrleo out by tbe manutacturer ano qualltleo englneers ano
tor most lnstallatlons ot tbls sort ot equlpment, ory oocklng ot tbe vessel ls necessary. Alternatlvely, a
system may be lnstalleo wltb tbe vessel alongsloe, but ln sucb cases many ot tbe accurate allgnment
parameters may not be measureo accurately enougb. Once lnstalleo ano tully testeo, tbe callbratlon can
be completeo by tully competent operators ano englneers wben tbe vessel goes to sea.
5.4.4 LBL
Tbe lnstallatlon ot an L8L system lnvolves a sblp-mounteo byoropbone ano a network ot seabeo statlons
(or transponoers). Tbls represents a qulte oltterent process tban tbat tor a US8L lnstallatlon. Tbe L8L
sblp's equlpment neeos to be placeo tree trom any source ot nolse lnterterence but tbere ls no allgnment
or motlon sensor lnvolveo ln tbe posltlonlng. Accurate range measurement oata ls necessary tor tbe
locatlon ot tbe statlons or transponoers ano tbelr accurate co-orolnatlon or callbratlon. Tbls lnvolves
tbe tlme-consumlng 'bo-ln' tecbnlque (see 5.6.2.1), so numerous alternatlve tecbnlques bave evolveo to
lmprove tbe process. Tbe maln alternatlve ls to generate lnter-statlon basellnes ano only conouct a
llmlteo number ot bo-lns to oetermlne absolute geograpblc posltlons ano suttlclent oata to enable a
statlstlcal assessment ot network accuracy.
For oeep water constructlon operatlons wbere ROvs are present, tbe requlrement tor a transoucer
oeployeo trom tbe vessel can be replaceo by a slmllar transoucer mounteo on tbe ROv. Tbls allows tbe
array to be lnterrogateo locally at tbe seabeo ratber tban tbrougb tbe entlre water column, wltb tbe
ROv umblllcal belng useo tor communlcatlons trom tbe surtace. For tbe bo-ln tecbnlque reterreo to
above, tbe US8L system's transoucer can be useo, subject to system specltlcatlon, to lnterrogate tbe
seabeo transponoers tor ranglng requlrements.
5.5 Methods of DepIoynent and Recovery
Tbe use ot seabeo unlts ano varlous transponoers ln oeep water requlres tbat tbey are properly secureo wltb
approprlate tllngs ano tbat sate metboos tor oeployment ano recovery are aoopteo. Frequently tbe bouslngs
ano pressure vessels requlreo tor use ln oeep water are large ano beavy, requlrlng llttlng equlpment ano speclal
storage tacllltles to keep tbem secure wbllst onboaro. Tbe oeployment ot systems commences wltb tbe testlng
ano cbecklng ot unlts on oeck prlor to placlng tbem on tbe seabeo.
For tbe unlts belng taken to tbe seabeo, tbere are several approacbes useo. Tbe slmplest ls acbleveo by attacblng
a clump welgbt ano a tlotatlon collar to tbe transponoer ano releaslng tbe unlt over tbe sloe. Tbe unlt wlll tben
orop to tbe seabeo wbere lt wlll be monltoreo tor correct operatlon ano lts co-orolnates oetermlneo by means
ot a bo-ln metboo.
More sopblstlcateo metboos lncluoe uslng an ROv to place tbe unlt olrectly lnto a trame or trlpoo at a pre-
oetermlneo locatlon on tbe seabeo. Tbls ls, ot course, a slower process ano requlres tbe ROv eltber to transport
tbe unlts or tor a work basket to be useo to lower tbe unlts to tbe seabeo tor collectlon by tbe ROv. Tbls
metboo ls useo wben tbe acoustlc beacons neeo to be placeo ln specltlc boloers on seabeo assets.
Tbe above optlons apply to botb US8L transponoers/statlons as well as L8L statlons.
A number ot tactors lntluence statlon oeployment, lncluolng:
! Deslgn ot oeep water transponoer trames,
! Sultablllty ano use ot acoustlcs as DP reterences,
! Deptb ratlng ot acoustlc equlpment,
! Power levels ano battery tecbnology.
Tbese ano otber lssues regarolng actual oeployment ot acoustlc systems ln oeep water are covereo ln Appenol
7.
5.6 Methods of CaIibration
Havlng establlsbeo tbat tbe conoltlons ano oeslgn ot tbe acoustlc system support tbe planneo operatlon, tbe
operatlons sboulo also plan to lncluoe tbe callbratlon ot tbe acoustlc system ano tbe trequent monltorlng ot tbe
subsea envlronment. Tbese assoclateo actlvltles are vltal tor successtul acoustlc posltlonlng.
To provloe accurate posltlonlng, lt ls necessary tor tbe geooetlc control to be vallo, accurate ano conslstent
across tbe wbole area belng surveyeo. Consequently lt ls necessary to oerlve co-orolnates ot an approprlate
accuracy ano rellablllty tor eacb beacon or statlon placeo on tbe seabeo. Tbls ls acbleveo by a tecbnlque lnvolvlng
callbratlon ot tbe network or array ot unlts. Tbe bo-ln ano network aojustment ot tbe seabeo unlts are tbe
most common metboos aoopteo. Tbese tecbnlques are olscusseo ln tbe tollowlng sectlons.
5.6.1 U5BL
To callbrate a US8L system lt ls necessary to loentlty ano quantlty several baslc types ot errors:
Rotatlonal errors Tbese are errors about tbe tbree aes (beaolng, pltcb ano roll) ano are
lnoepenoent ot eacb otber. An error ln eltber pltcb or roll causes tbe range to appear eltber too
long or too sbort. Tbe slze ot tbe error oepenos on tbe beaolng ot tbe vessel ano lts posltlon
relatlve to tbe seabeo transponoer.
24 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 25
8%02)#$K$;$@+/%-$,46#/$('$#))()$%&$DB@?$-+3%5)+,%(&
Range errors Tbere are two types ot range errors: llnear errors ano scalar errors. To establlsb
tbe presence ot tbese errors, lt ls necessary to observe range oata at oltterent olstances to epose
eltber error. Llnear errors or tleo errors occur wben tbe range ls conslstently too long or too
sbort. Tbls may be oue to an error wltb tbe equlpment turn-arouno tlmes. Tbese settlngs sboulo
be cbeckeo ano valloateo prlor to moblllsatlon. Scalar errors may also be oetecteo by taklng
observatlons at oltterent olstances. Tbe slze ot tbe error oepenos on tbe range to tbe transponoer.
Scalar errors are typlcally causeo by uslng an lncorrect value tor tbe speeo ot souno ln water.
Lternal errors Tbese can attect tbe pertormance ot a US8L system ano llmlt lts usetulness.
8etore callbratlng ano uslng tbe US8L system, tbese posslble error sources sboulo also be
ellmlnateo or at least reouceo to a mlnlmum. Lamples ot eternal errors are:
tbe accuracy ot tbe surtace navlgatlon system
tbe syncbronlsatlon ot sensors wltb tbe GNSS system
lncorrectly measureo antenna ottsets
mlsappllcatlon ot slgn conventlons ano otber reterence lntormatlon
movement ot beacons or transponoers
severe varlatlon ln water oeptb or nolse ano acoustlc retlectlons.
Contractors untamlllar wltb any partlcular US8L systems sboulo consult manutacturers tor
recommenoatlons on callbratlon metboos.
Ot partlcular lmportance ln eternal errors ls tbe appllcatlon ot slgn conventlons wblcb requlres turtber
eplanatlon. Tbere ls no unlversal conventlon tor measurement ot vessel movement ano rotatlon. For
eample, a vessel pltcb wltb a resultlng upwaro movement ot tbe bow can be measureo as eltber a
posltlve or negatlve value oepenolng on tbe system ln use. Speclal care sboulo be taken wltb
lncllnometers, vRUs ano motlon sensors to ensure tbat tbe slgns ot rotatlon are as epecteo by tbe
US8L system. A typlcal arrangement ot slgn conventlons ls lllustrateo ln Flgure 9 below:
8%02)#$L$;$!46%-+3$+))+&0#*#&,$('$/%0&$-(&1#&,%(&/
Tbere are many otber baro to loentlty potentlal errors wblcb coulo also attect oata, most ot wblcb are
small. To reouce tbe ettects ot tbese potentlal errors, lt ls lmportant to gatber suttlclent oata evenly
olstrlbuteo about tbe transponoer beacon ourlng tbe ottsbore callbratlon proceoure. |n aooltlon, tbe
process ot computatlon by least squares alms to mlnlmlse tbese errors.
A number ot cbecks ano proceoures sboulo be ln place tor a US8L callbratlon. Correctlons oerlveo
trom tbese callbratlon tests are normally storeo ln tbe US8L unlt ano a log sboulo be kept ot tbe lnltlal
settlng parameters, tbe oates ot every cbeck maoe ano any cbanges observeo. Tbe tests lncluoe:
Dry oock tests:
transoucer allgnment relatlve to vessel's beao
tbree olmenslonal ottsets trom transoucer(s) to vessel's reterence polnt(s)
tbree olmenslonal ottsets trom satelllte posltlonlng systems to vessel's reterence polnt ano
bence to tbe US8L transoucer ano vRU
vRU tor oratt ano port/starboaro tllt settlngs,
Ottsbore cbecks:
spln test, wltb tbe vessel splnnlng above a seabeo oeployeo transponoer ano tbe resultant
transponoer posltlon belng monltoreo tor any spurlous movement
oetermlnatlon ot Z or oeptb component error
pltcb ano roll test
allgnment ano range test.
5.6.2 LBL
Tbe two maln metboos to acbleve a properly callbrateo L8L acoustlc array are as tollows:
5.6.2.1 Box-in Method
Tbe vessel manoeuvres arouno a slngle seabeo transponoer ano collects acoustlc slant range
measurements to lt, wbllst recorolng tbe accurate posltlon ot tbe vessel's transoucer uslng
GNSS ano motlon sensor unlts. Subsequent processlng ot tbe vessel posltlon ano range oata
allows tbe posltlon ot tbe seabeo transponoer to be oetermlneo. Tbe route tbe surtace vessel
takes arouno tbe transponoer can be a clrcle, trlangle or a square. Tbere are aovantages ano
olsaovantages to eacb type ot manoeuvre. Tbe proceoures aoopteo sboulo take account ot any
potentlal sbortcomlngs ano ensure tbe oata collecteo ls sultable tor tbe requlrements ot tbe
operatlon. A varlatlon on tbe bo-ln tecbnlque ls calleo tbe 'top-oown' callbratlon wbere tbe
26 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 27
transponoer posltlon ls oetermlneo ln US8L mooe by taklng an average posltlon. Tbls metboo
provloes a qulcker result but ls less robust ln terms ot accuracy.
8%02)#$:M$;$!"#$5(HI%&$*#,"(.
5.6.2.2 Direct Measurenents of BaseIines
|ntelllgent transponoers can generate lnter-statlon measurements or basellnes. Tbe sequence
ls normally lnltlateo trom tbe vessel ano enables tbe beacons tbat are relatlvely close to one
anotber to generate a serles ot measurements between tbe transoucers. Tbese slant ranges
are tben useo to torm a network ot observatlons wblcb wben repeateo provloe an accurate
ano robust solutlon. 8y lntroouclng tbe 'known' posltlons ot tbe transponoers tbat were 'boeo
ln' lnto tbe network, statlstlcal computatlon metboos can be useo to oetermlne tbe co-
orolnates ot all transponoers ln tbe network. Care sboulo be taken to measure ano control
tbe oeptbs ot tbe beacons on tbe seabeo to avolo errors propagatlng tbrougbout tbe array.
Altbougb potentlally very accurate, as eacb eno ot tbe basellne ls tleo, tbe outer beacons ot
an array may sutter trom relatlvely poor geometry ano care sboulo be taken to ensure tbe
veloclty ot souno ls accurately measureo to avolo unwanteo scale errors. Tbls ls true ot tbe
wbole network ot beacons but less well controlleo ano loentltleo at tbe eoges ot tbe array. Tbls
approacb ls vallo tor any network ot transponoers tbat bave acoustlc slgnal patbs 'vlslble' to one
anotber. Some low trequency L8L systems may bave tbelr beacons olstrlbuteo a llttle too tar
apart to recelve tbe acoustlc slgnal trom an aojacent or relatlvely nearby beacon. |n sucb cases
tbe bo-ln metboo sboulo be aoopteo tor all transponoers.
5.7 QuaIity ControI
To ensure tbat tbe pertormance ot oeep water posltlonlng ls approprlately accurate ano rellable, quallty tests ano
cbecks sboulo be carrleo out on varlous parameters ano varlables:
! Callbratlon Accurate set up ot posltlonlng equlpment prlor to operatlons ls vltal. Tbe process ls oescrlbeo
more tully ln Sectlon 5.6 above.
! Funoamental posltlonlng varlables (posltlon, beaolng ano speeo) Operators neeo to monltor tbe
posltlonlng solutlons ln oroer to oetect gross errors sucb as suooen sbltts or jumps ln tbe oata streams tor
tbese varlables. Dupllcate or multlple sensors, tbougb costly, can be ot value ln cbecklng tbe accuracy ano
rellablllty ot oata tor crltlcal operatlons.
! Upoate rate ano slgnal/nolse ratlo ot acoustlc systems.
! Reounoancy Tbe use ot more observatlons tban are requlreo to compute a posltlon to allow statlstlcal
cbecks ano estlmates to contlrm gooo, accurate ano rellable oata.
5.8 5ysten Perfornance
Tbe pertormance ot an acoustlc system ls ultlmately llmlteo by tbe acoustlc conoltlons ln tbe water. Tbe
comblnatlon ot tbe varlous slgnal losses, nolse sources ano oetectlon capabllltles sboulo not eceeo tbe slgnal
level avallable trom tbe oeslreo slgnal source. Nolse trom vessel tbrusters ano otber man-maoe sources, as well
as aeratlon ano turbulence, wlll all be oetrlmental to ettlclent acoustlc posltlonlng. At long ranges, tbe energy ot
tbe acoustlc pulse wlll oecrease ano oecay. |t tbe oetector ls llmlteo or lnsensltlve tben tbere wlll be no
measurable acoustlc slgnal. As eacb project wlll bave lts own unlque comblnatlon ot parameters, tbe actual llmlts
ot a system ln a specltlc set ot conoltlons may be lll-oetlneo ln aovance ot tbe operatlon. |n aooltlon, temperature
layerlng ln tbe water column ano otber envlronmental ettects can cause errors, especlally wben tbe borlzontal
olsplacement or range trom tbe vessel ls large.
Tbe tollowlng sectlons outllne tbe pertormance ot oeep water acoustlc systems wltb respect to varlous tecbnlcal
acceptance crlterla.
5.8.1 Users and Frequency AIIocation
Tbe move lnto oeeper water means tbat more ano more slmultaneous acoustlc posltlonlng operatlons
are belng carrleo out ln a relatlvely small area. Tbls puts pressure on tbe llmlteo acoustlc banowlotbs
avallable tor tbe varlous systems ano may leao to acoustlc pollutlon wblcb can completely blank out tbe
users ano objects belng trackeo.
|nterrogatlon ano reply trequencles are asslgneo to transponoers so tbat tbe ranglng pulses or oata
telemetry tunctlons can be acbleveo wltbout lnterterence. Typlcal cbannel separatlon tor a 24-36 kHz
system coulo be 500Hz. Leakage ot one slgnal or acoustlc pulse trom one cbannel to anotber aojacent
cbannel wlll result lt tbe cbosen trequencles are not separateo suttlclently.
For operatlons wbere tbere wlll be multlple users ot acoustlc systems trom a number ot oltterent vessels
or lnstallatlons ln close prolmlty, an acoustlc trequency management plan ls requlreo tbat pre-asslgns
cbannels to eacb transponoer ln tbe water, tbus avololng lnterterence ano assoclateo oelays to vessel
operatlons. |oeally, one user or vessel ls maoe responslble tor tbe lmplementatlon ot tbe management
plan at slte ano tor tbe control ot correctlve actlons ln tbe event tbat tbere ls lnterterence.
5.8.2 U5BL Position Updates in Deep Water
A turtber cbaracterlstlc ot oeep water US8L operatlons ls tbe tlme requlreo tor tbe acoustlc slgnal to
travel trom tbe surtace unlt to tbe seabeo tor tbe seabeo unlt to reply ano tor tbe slgnal to travel back
to tbe surtace. |n 750m ot water tbls ls arouno 1.5s per transponoer. |t lnterterence or corruptlon ot
tbe acoustlc slgnals trom one beacon by tbose ot anotber ls to be avoloeo, tben eacb beacon may neeo
to transmlt at a sllgbtly oltterent tlme, sucb tbat eacb beacon transmlts lts response at a oltterent tlme
ottset tollowlng receptlon ot an lnterrogatlon message. Tbls may aoo several seconos to tbe reply belng
obtalneo ano leaos to an upoate rate tor sub-surtace posltlons as slow as one posltlon upoate every 2
or 3 seconos (or even slower tor oeeper waters). |n water oeptbs measureo ln kllometres, tbese tlme
oelays may become crltlcal to tbe contlnueo success ot operatlons. For ROv posltlonlng ln oeep water,
tbe lntroouctlon ot local motlon measurlng systems sucb as DvL or lnertlal navlgatlon system (|NS)
systems can provloe aooltlonal oata tbat malntalns a posltlon solutlon ln between acoustlc upoates. Tbe
sltuatlon tor L8L operatlons ls usually not as severe as tbe basellne olstances trom tbe seabeo
transponoers to tbe moblle byoropbones are less tban tbe oeptb.
5.8.3 Geodetic ControI
All survey/posltlonlng operatlons are reterenceo to a geooetlc oatum tbat provloes a tleo reterence tor
tbe co-orolnate system ano tbat oetlnes tbe sbape ot tbe eartb ln matbematlcal terms tbrougb tbe use
ot a spberolo mooel. Several bunoreo oltterent geooetlc oatums are ln use arouno tbe worlo baseo on
blstorlcal work conoucteo by natlonal geooetlc organlsatlons. Wltb tbe lntroouctlon ot GPS, a global
oatum (Worlo Geograpblcal Reterence System (geooetlc oatum) WGS84) was oevelopeo. |t ls
lmportant tbat tbe relatlonsblp between WGS84 ano tbe local geooetlc oatum ls known ano applleo
correctly ln posltlonlng computatlons. Fallure to oo tbls can result ln posltlonlng errors ot up to 200m.
A oatabase ot tbe spatlal relatlonsblps between WGS84 ano geooetlc oatums ln use ln varlous locatlons
ls belo by tbe |nternatlonal Assoclatlon ot Oll & Gas Prooucers (OGP) Survey ano Posltlonlng
28 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 29
Commlttee (prevlously tbe Luropean Petroleum Survey Group) ano sboulo be consulteo prlor to
operatlons.
Tbe global accuracy ot WGS84 ls suttlclent tor most appllcatlons, bowever, tbe blgb accuracy oemanoeo
by surveylng ano geooetlc users bas resulteo ln tbe trequent use ot tbe lnternatlonal terrestrlal
reterence tramework. Tbls bas a temporal element as well as a spatlal element tbat retlects movements
ot tbe eartb's crust. Augmentatlon ot tbe baslc slgnals by DGNSS or real tlme klnematlc solutlons
turtber lmprove accuracy tor tbe surtace reterence posltlonlng.
5.8.4 Acoustic Noise and PossibIe Causes of lnterference
Tbe most slgnltlcant problem tor acoustlc posltlonlng ls nolse l.e. unwanteo energy ln tbe trequency
bano useo by tbe posltlonlng system leaolng to oegraoatlon ot slgnal. Sucb nolse can be olvloeo lnto
two categorles, tlrstly, envlronmental or eternal nolse ano seconoly, nolse generateo onboaro tbe bost
vessel ot tbe acoustlc posltlonlng system, sucb as selt nolse (nolse generateo by tbe sblp or ROv).
Tbe maln envlronmental nolses are:
Lternal sblpplng nolse,
Lternal nolse trom macblnery sucb as orllllng operatlons,
Otber acoustlc systems slmultaneous operatlons,
8lologlcal (marlne llte) nolse,
Wlno ano raln.
Dlstlngulsblng between envlronmental nolse ano mecbanlcal or artltlclal lnterterence ls not always
stralgbttorwaro wben operatlng acoustlc systems. |t ls posslble to categorlse tbe posslble man-maoe or
selt nolse sources as acoustlc lnterterence.
|nterterence trom otber acoustlc equlpment may be a slgnltlcant problem, partlcularly ln oeep water
oevelopments, ano some torm ot plan to manage trequencles may be approprlate.
varlous otber nolse sources elst, sucb as selsmlc actlvlty nolse ano molecular agltatlon nolse, but tbese
are normally less slgnltlcant ano, ln tbe case ot selsmlc actlvlty, less trequent.
Tbere are a number ot turtber posslble causes ot acoustlc lnterterence. Tbese are:
Cbanges to tbe veloclty ot souno ln water Tbe veloclty ot propagatlon ot souno ln water ls one
ot tbe most crltlcal ano ultlmately llmltlng tactors ln enabllng systems to provloe tbelr potentlal
accuracy.
|nternal waves ln oeep water Tbese occur below tbe surtace ot tbe sea. Tbey are normally
assoclateo wltb booles ot water wbere tbe oenslty ls very well oetlneo ano can be consloereo
stratltleo or layereo but wbere tbere are locallseo raplo cbanges ln water temperature causeo by
tbe lnternal wave. Tbe cbange ln temperature can be severe, resultlng ln slgnltlcant errors ln
acoustlc posltlonlng ano, ln some cases, loss ot posltlonlng all togetber.
Ray benolng A pbenomenon proouceo by tbe varlatlon ln tbe layerlng ano conoltlon ot tbe water.
Acoustlc blanklng A pbenomenon proouceo by ray benolng ln wblcb tbere ls lnaoequate acoustlc
slgnal trom an area.
Furtber lntormatlon on acoustlc nolse ano lnterterence can be touno ln Appenol 6.
5.8.5 AchievabIe Accuracies
Tbe accuracy ot acoustlc posltlonlng ls oepenoent on a number ot varlables ano a wloe varlety ot
potentlal errors wblcb neeo to be mlnlmlseo or ellmlnateo. Tbe most slgnltlcant ot tbese potentlal
errors are olscusseo elsewbere ln tbls oocument.
Tbe overall accuracy ot an acoustlc tl wlll oepeno on:
Water oeptb,
Tbe accuracy wltb wblcb a transponoer array ls establlsbeo relatlve to a geooetlc oatum,
Determlnatlon ano suppresslon ot multl-patb ettects (retlectlons). Tbls ls partlcularly notlceable ln
tbe vlclnlty ot tleo structures sucb as proouctlon plattorms ano ls otten worse tor US8L ano S8L
systems tban tor L8L systems,
Tbe accurate oetermlnatlon ot souno veloclty, veloclty graolents ano tbe amount ot retractlon,
Frequency useo accuracy ano resolutlon lncreases wltb lncreaslng trequency, but at tbe epense
ot tbe range ano tbe power requlreo,
Tbe geometry ot tbe ranges tbat create tbe posltlon solutlon ano, to a oegree, seabeo topograpby,
l.e. wbetber or not tbere ls a 'llne ot slgbt' between transponoers,
Tbe sopblstlcatlon ot tbe processlng system ano sottware belng useo,
Lrrors ln tlme measurement owlng to tbe presence ot nolse ln tbe recelveo slgnals.
Tbls llst ls not ebaustlve but covers tbe majorlty ot slgnltlcant lntluences on acoustlc posltlonlng
accuracy.
30 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 31
Tbls sectlon provloes observatlons ano comments relatlng to tbe tecbnlcal, sottware ano englneerlng elements
wblcb sboulo also be consloereo tor oeep water acoustlc posltlonlng.
6.1 lntegration of 5ystens
Tbe oerlvatlon ot posltlon relles on aoequate oata. An acoustlc posltlonlng system on lts own ln oeep water may
bave consloerable llmltatlons ano oetlclencles ano so perlpberal sensors are useo to augment tbe solutlon. Tbls
process requlres tbe lntegratlon ot tbls oata ln a computatlon. Tbls ls a comple process ano to acbleve an
optlmum solutlon tbe tlmlng, relatlve welgbts (l.e. bow mucb merlt eacb observatlon ls glven ln a posltlon
computatlon) ano some torm ot qualltatlve estlmate ot tbe errors tor quallty control ls requlreo. Tbls all requlres
epert oeslgn ano testlng.
6.2 Connunications
Tbe tunoamental ot acoustlc posltlonlng ls tbe transter ot an acoustlc slgnal trom polnt to polnt. However,
assoclateo wltb tbls process ls tbe neeo to commano ano control tbe system ano to transter any perlpberal oata
or lntormatlon. Sucb communlcatlons can be compromlseo by ecesslve range, by nolse ln tbe water column or
by otber sources ot lnterterence oescrlbeo earller, tbus stopplng tbe overall operatlon. |t ls otten overlookeo ln
tbe plannlng ot operatlons but ls a key element ln ensurlng tbe success ot tbe operatlon ot tbe system.
6.3 5oftware, lnterfacing and DispIay
Relateo to tbe lntegratlon ot oata tor tbe computatlon ot posltlon ls tbe contlguratlon ot tbe baroware unlts,
tbelr lntertaclng to allow oata tlow ano tbe sottware to manage tbls. Tbese components ot tbe acoustlc
posltlonlng system are lnternal ano usually at least partly blooen trom tbe operator. However, wben testlng ano
plannlng a project lt ls gooo practlce to ensure tbat all tbe system components are compatlble wltb tbe verslon
ot sottware ano lntertaclng avallable.
6.4 AdditionaI PeripheraI 5ensors and 5ysten lnterfacing
Perlpberal oevlces can vary enormously ln tbelr capablllty, quallty ano purpose. For oeep water operatlons tbey
are also englneereo tor tbe etreme conoltlons ano may be bouseo ln a sollo unlt tor operatlon at tbe seabeo.
Tbese are key unlts ano requlre to be tully testeo as a tunctlonlng unlt as part ot a complete system ln oroer to
ensure tbat tbe requlreo oata tlow can be acbleveo.
6
Associated Topics
6.5 Pernitting and LegisIation
Many oeep water projects occur ln relatlvely remote places wbere tbe loglstlcs ot transportatlon ot system unlts
must be caretully planneo. |n aooltlon, project planners sboulo take lnto account tbe tact tbat tbe components
ot some oeep water posltlonlng systems are consloereo to be ot oual use (mllltary) ano aooltlonal tlme sboulo
be alloweo tor tbe preparatlon ano processlng ot aooltlonal torms ano certltlcates.
6.6 Training and Conpetence
To ensure tbe success ot projects lt ls necessary to bave sultably eperlenceo ano qualltleo personnel to callbrate,
control ano operate tbe systems, so lt ls lmportant to select tbe team caretully. Tbls may not always be posslble
so lt's lmportant to revlew tbe team ano tbelr knowleoge ano eperlence wltb oeep water acoustlc posltlonlng.
Manutacturers ano otber speclallst provloers otter a number ot tralnlng opportunltles.
6.6.1 Positioning Courses
General courses tbat cover tbe baslcs ot geooesy, posltlonlng tbeory ano oeslgn as well as some baslc
acoustlc posltlonlng elements are requlreo. |oeally tbey neeo to be ot sbort ouratlon ano provloe tbe
attenoees wltb sultable course notes ano practlcal eerclses to oemonstrate tbe key elements covereo.
6.6.2 Acoustics Courses
Speclallst courses coverlng tbe baslcs ot acoustlcs ano also relatlng to practlcal operatlons. As well as
coverlng tbe tbeory ot acoustlcs ano tbe operatlon ot specltlc baroware ano sottware packages, lt ls
lmportant to provloe a practlcal element to tralnlng personnel tbat lncluoes rlgglng ot transponoers,
oeployment, callbratlons ano actual operatlons.
32 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 33
7.1 Dynanic Positioning
Assets Permanently lnstalleo S8L or US8L systems onboaro tbe vessel. All posltlonlng
can be malntalneo trom tbe vessel ano ls eltber relatlve to tbe vessel, a seabeo
transponoer or anotber reterence posltlonlng system sucb as GNSS. At least one
(but usually tour to tlve) seabeo transponoers (beacons), are oeployeo.
Objects trackeo Tbe surtace vessel tbat ls requlreo to malntaln lts posltlon.
Accuracles Many DP appllcatlons oellver posltlonlng relatlve to some seabeo asset sucb as a
wellbeao or a plpellne. Tbls results ln an accuracy tbat ls otten not relateo to
oeptb. Alternatlvely tbe posltlonlng ls establlsbeo relatlve to tbe surtace GNSS
system onboaro tbe vessel. Tbls may result ln accuracles ot several metres to
over 10m oepenolng on tbe water oeptb ano tbe oynamlc nature ot tbe veloclty
ot souno protlle.
Metbooologles Tbe permanently tltteo S8L or US8L acts as a reterence tor tbe vessel. Tbe
cbosen locatlon, sucb as a well, ls entereo lnto tbe DP console, ano tbe
posltlonlng systems cbeckeo to make sure tbey are operatlng correctly ano no
alarm conoltlons are present. Tbe vessel manoeuvres onto tbe locatlon ano tbe
reterence seabeo transponoer ls oeployeo. |t a slngle transponoer tor a US8L
system ls oeployeo, tbls ls normally locateo close to tbe well locatlon or even
onto a speclal trame on tbe well ltselt. A secono back-up unlt may also be
oeployeo to provloe some reounoancy sboulo a tallure occur.
|t a comblneo LUS8L system ls belng useo tben tour seabeo transponoers sboulo
be oeployeo wltbln tbelr range ano wltbln tbe beam 'tootprlnt' ot tbe vessel
transoucer unlts. Tbese unlts usually bave a llmlteo beam wlotb ot arouno 25-30.
Llmltatlons Tbe lnberent accuracy ot tbe system may be low, relatlve to tbe survey
requlrements ot tbe project. |n 1,000m ot water, tor eample, elstlng DP
systems may acbleve a posltlonlng accuracy ot 4-10m.
Polnts to note Tbe surtace posltlonlng ls usually reterenceo to GNSS wblcb bas an accuracy ot
1-2m tor stanoaro systems. Comparlsons sboulo tberetore take account ot tbls
wben analyslng ano plannlng operatlons. Full survey appllcatlons ln oeep water
wlll otten requlre tbe oeployment ot aooltlonal assets. Tbese may communlcate
ano work wltb tbe DP system. |t ls tberetore lmportant tbat tbe tlelblllty ot tbe
DP systems ano tbe avallablllty ot oata sources ano lntertaclng are tborougbly
cbeckeo.
7
AppIications of Acoustic
Positioning in Deep Water
7.2 Towed Body {'Towfish'} Positioning
Assets US8L systems tltteo onboaro a survey vessel or vessel ot opportunlty. All
posltlonlng can be malntalneo trom tbe vessel ano tbe reterence tor tbe survey
oata collecteo ls malntalneo relatlve to tbe towtlsb. Tbe vessel posltlon can be
reterenceo to tbe real worlo tbrougb a posltlonlng system sucb as GNSS. At least
one US8L ls lnstalleo but trequently requlrements state tbat lt ls necessary to
bave some torm ot back-up. |t ls also recommenoeo tbat, wbere posslble, two
transponoers are lnstalleo on tbe towtlsb.
Objects trackeo Tbe toweo booy or towtlsb ls requlreo to malntaln lts posltlon eltber along a
route or corrloor or perbaps along a regular llne pattern.
Accuracles Many toweo booy appllcatlons oellver posltlonlng relatlve to tbe GNSS useo by
tbe towlng vessel. Otberwlse tbe posltlonlng can be establlsbeo relatlve to a sub-
surtace target. However, tbls ls usually a quallty control ano verltlcatlon process.
A permanently tltteo US8L system sboulo be able to posltlon a toweo booy to
better tban 0.5 ot tbe slant olstance between tbe toweo booy ano tbe surtace
vessel.
Metbooologles Tbe permanently tltteo S8L or US8L usually acts as a reterence trom tbe vessel
to tbe trackeo objects. Tbe transponoer ls oeployeo on to tbe toweo tlsb. |t a
slngle transponoer tor a US8L system ls oeployeo, tbls ls normally a transponoer
or responoer type ot unlt tbat transmlts uslng eltber locallseo battery power or
tbe lntegral power trom tbe tow cable, ano recelves lts trlgger pulse tbrougb tbe
tow cable ratber tban tbrougb tbe water column, tbus lncreaslng rellablllty.
Care sboulo be eerclseo ln aooptlng a pre-lnstalleo US8L system lt lt bas not
specltlcally been oeslgneo tor tracklng toweo unlts. Tbls ls oue to tbe requlreo
att-looklng olrectlonal sensltlvlty requlreo ot tbe byoropbone ano recelver array.
Typlcally, tbese systems bave a beam wlotb ot arouno 10-35 trom tbe vertlcal
ano so lt lt ls oownwaro taclng, lt may not properly oetect tbe towtlsb tbat ls lalo
back trom tbe vessel wbllst unoer tow. Mooern beam steerlng systems may
overcome tbls llmltatlon. |t ls becomlng common practlce to support tbe
acoustlc posltlonlng wltb accurate oeptb oata ano, wbere relevant, ln oeeper
towlng sltuatlons, altltuoe oata.
Llmltatlons Tbe lnberent accuracy ot tbe system may be low, relatlve to tbe survey
requlrements ot tbe project. |n 1,000m ot water, elstlng systems may otter
posltlonlng accuracy ot 10-15m tor toweo tlsb astern, oepenoent on tbe aspect
ratlo ot tbe oeptb ano layback ot tbe toweo tlsb. Tbe larger tbe tlsb or tbe lower
tbe tow speeo tbe oeeper tbe unlt ls llkely to be ano, oepenolng on tbe sensors
carrleo tbe unlt may be requlreo to be close to tbe seabeo. Sensors trequently
useo lncluoe beaolng reterence gyros ano motlon sensors, as tbey provloe
correctlons tor tbe posltlonlng as well as tbe survey sensors carrleo. Tbe use ot
tbese sensors lncreases operatlonal costs as well as tbe tlme taken to cbeck ano
callbrate tbe overall sensor ano posltlonlng systems. Accuracy ls relateo to tbe
layback olstances, wblcb may be ln ecess ot several tbousano metres. Tbls means
tbat tbe acoustlc patb wlll travel tbrougb slgnltlcant layers ot tbe water column
ano tbus tbe souno veloclty protlle (SvP) must be establlsbeo ano trequently
upoateo to remaln as accurate as posslble. Posltlon upoates may be regular ano
trequent, bowever, tbe travel patb, belng astern ot tbe surtace vessel, may be
prone to slgnal lnterterence ano loss ot slgnal causeo by nolse trom tbe vessels
propeller wasb.
Polnts to note Tbe surtace posltlonlng ls usually reterenceo to GNSS wblcb bas an accuracy ot
1-2m tor stanoaro systems. Comparlsons sboulo tberetore take account ot tbls
wben analyslng ano plannlng operatlons.
7.3 Riser Monitoring
Assets Topsloes equlpment to operate a US8L system tltteo onboaro tbe surtace vessel,
lts assoclateo transcelver or byoropbone unlt ano tbe sub-surtace transponoers
oeployeo onto tbe rlser ano assoclateo well assets (e.g. blow out preventers
34 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 35
(8OP)). Tbe requlreo slgnalllng ano measurements may all be malntalneo trom
tbe vessel ano as tbls system monltors angles, ratber tban actual posltlon, tbe
reterence ls eltber an absolute lncllnatlon trom tbe vertlcal or some relatlve
measurement wben tbe values are compareo to a reterence unlt. At least one
(but typlcally two) transponoers are oeployeo, one to tbe rlser ano one to tbe
8OP.
Objects trackeo Monltorlng ano assessment ot any oevlatlon ot tbe rlser trom tbe vertlcal. Tbe
basls ot tbls system ls acoustlc oata telemetry.
Accuracles Many oltterent sensors are avallable tor use ln sucb an appllcatlon ano so lt ls not
practlcal to otter specltlc accuracles or llmlts ot pertormance. However, tbere are
a number ot acoustlc monltorlng systems tbat bave lntegrateo lncllnometers
lnstalleo, provlolng reaolngs to a tractlon ot a oegree. Tbey bave been touno to
otter a usetul rlser lncllnatlon oataset, vla acoustlc telemetry capable ot
supportlng oynamlc orllllng operatlons ln oeep water.
Metbooologles Tbe alm ls to malntaln a vertlcal orllllng arrangement between tbe orllllng vessel,
tbe orllleo well ano tbe seabeo rlser. Tbe surtace vessel DP malntalns statlon ln
all weatbers ano envlronmental conoltlons, wblcb may result ln some oevlatlon ot
tbe rlser. Tbe sub-surtace unlts are lnstalleo onto tbe rlser ano 8OP ln oroer to
monltor vertlcallty ano report back to tbe surtace vla acoustlc telemetry tbe
lncllnatlon values. Lltber absolute values or relatlve values between tbe unlts are
provloeo to tbe surtace wbere tbe computlng system oerlves any aojustments ln
posltlon to be maoe by tbe surtace vessel ln oroer to malntaln a vertlcal rlser. A
secono back-up unlt may also be oeployeo to provloe reounoancy sboulo a tallure
occur.
Llmltatlons Tbe system relles on tbe accurate allgnment ano stablllty ot tbe sub-surtace unlts
oeployeo onto tbe rlser. Tbese unlts wlll bave eltber battery power or perbaps
power oerlveo trom tbe 8OP or rlser. Data telemetry vla an acoustlc llnk may
be prone to lnterterence trom orllllng ano vessel nolse. However, as tbls ls tbe
maln rlsk, manutacturers bave oevelopeo robust systems uslng trequencles, power
ano oata cooes to mltlgate tbls lnterterence.
Polnts to note Acoustlc posltlonlng ls also avallable ourlng rlser monltorlng tor tbe surtace
vessel or otber objects sucb as ROvs. Tbe use ot battery powereo unlts means
tbat tbere ls no requlrement tor power to be oellvereo trom tbe surtace.
7.4 PipeIay Positioning
Assets US8L systems or comblneo LUS8L systems tltteo onboaro tbe plpelay vessel. A
turtber vessel may also be assoclateo wltb tbls vessel to provloe survey ano
monltorlng capablllty. Posltlonlng ln oeep water envlronments may not always be
malntalneo trom tbe plpelay vessel ano tor crltlcal areas, use ls maoe ot seabeo
oeployeo L8L arrays. Tbe seabeo transponoers are useo at crltlcal polnts along a
plpe route, sucb as crossover polnts wltb an elstlng plpellne or wbere tbere may
be requlrements tor blgb accuracy, as at lay-oown ot tbe eno ot tbe plpe. Tbe L8L
array wlll vary ln lts slze ano number ot unlts trom as llttle as tlve or sl to many
tens ot unlts tor a comple area ot work. Objects to be posltloneo lncluoe tbe
plpelay vessel, tbe plpe ltselt ano ROvs present to provloe vlsual monltorlng ano
pertorm otber tasks. As well as ROv ano subsea assets belng posltloneo, tbe
plpellne wlll bave transponoers tltteo ourlng oeployment at crossovers ot elstlng
plpellnes ano near to tbe plpellne termlnatlon wbere an eact lengtb ot plpellne
must be aooeo to allow tbe plpellne eno to be lalo wltbln a target bo. Tbe
transponoers tltteo to tbe plpe may bave lncllnometers ano oeptb sensors tltteo
to provloe turtber lntormatlon vla acoustlc telemetry, sucb as any resloual
twlstlng ot tbe plpellne once lt bas settleo on tbe seabeo.
Objects trackeo Tbe plpelay vessel, tbe plpellne ltselt ano any ROvs present.
Accuracles Many elements lntluence tbe accuracy ot plpelay posltlonlng. Surtace US8L
systems wlll usually provloe an accuracy ot 0.1 to 0.3 ot range to tbe plpellne
toucb-oown polnt, wbllst an L8L array wlll provloe a relatlve accuracy ot 0.2m
to 1.0m ln relatlon to a manltolo or termlnatlon structure. Accuracles are
oepenoent on tbe survey control ano trequencles ot tbe acoustlcs.
Metbooologles US8L systems wlll most commonly be useo to provloe posltlonlng tor tbe
plpellne by tbe lnstallatlon ot transponoers along tbe plpe at trequent lntervals ln
oroer to monltor tbe catenary ano toucb-oown on tbe seabeo. An ROv may also
be posltloneo, preterably wltb tbe same system, ln oroer to monltor ano alert tbe
operators lt tbe plpe ls seen to be mlsplaceo, or olttlcultles are encountereo on
tbe seabeo. Wbere tbe new plpellne ls belng lalo across an elstlng plpellne, a palr
ot transponoers are lnstalleo on tbe elstlng plpellne eltber sloe ot tbe route to
provloe a 'gate', tbrougb wblcb a plpellne mounteo transponoer ls guloeo. Wben
approacblng a crltlcal area, e.g. across an elstlng plpellne, use ls maoe ot several
L8L transponoers to ensure tbe plpe ls placeo wltbln lts lntenoeo corrloor.
Llmltatlons Tbe accuracles ot tbe US8L system are relatlvely poor compareo to tbe more
epenslve seabeo oeployeo L8L array but, wltb mooern systems ano vRUs, tbey
are appllcable tor plpelay ln open waters. Operators are now uslng comblneo ano
lntegrateo solutlons to malntaln botb accuracy ano a blgb upoate rate tor plpe-
tracklng ano posltlonlng.
Polnts to note Tbe surtace posltlonlng ls usually reterenceo to GNSS wblcb bas an accuracy ot
1-2m tor stanoaro systems. For oeep water, US8L accuracles may be relatlvely
poor, bowever, tbe lntroouctlon ot lnertlal navlgatlon systems (|NS) to augment
acoustlc posltlonlng bas meant tbat US8L systems are more commonly useo tor
posltlonlng plpelay operatlons. Tbls sboulo be taken lnto account wben analyslng
ano plannlng operatlons.
7.5 AUV and ROV Positioning
Assets US8L systems tltteo onboaro a surtace vessel, sometlmes augmenteo wltb a
sparse array ot seabeo L8L unlts. |n aooltlon, tbe AUv or ROv may bave |NS ano
otber assoclateo sensors tltteo. Tbe concept ot lnverteo US8L bas been
oevelopeo to malmlse tbe benetlts ot tbe qulet subsea veblcle. More oetalls ot
tbls are lncluoeo ln Appenol 8. varlous comblnatlons ot systems otter optlons
tor use wltb unoerwater veblcles, partlcularly AUvs, oue to tbelr ablllty to
operate autonomously at slgnltlcant olstances trom tbe surtace sblp. ROvs are
more restrlcteo ln tbelr scope ot operatlon arouno tbe surtace sblp trom wblcb
tbey are oeployeo. All posltlonlng metboos may be applleo oepenolng on tbe
nature ot tbe operatlon ano may requlre aooltlonal sensor oata trom beaolng
reterence unlts, altltuoe, oeptb ano DvL systems.
Objects trackeo Tbe ROv or AUv ourlng |RM or constructlon operatlons, or wben travelllng over
a regular searcb or survey grlo uslng survey sensors. Tbe unlts may also be
contlgureo to track a specltlc unoerwater cable or plpellne route uslng speclallst
aooltlonal sensor unlts.
Accuracles Many lntegrateo solutlons support a varlety ot appllcatlons ano oellver
posltlonlng botb ln absolute terms to tbe surtace ano tbe real worlo, as well as
relatlve to some seabeo assets sucb as a wellbeao or plpellne, or to an acoustlc
transponoer. Overall accuracles are typlcally 0.05-0.3 water oeptb wltb
relatlve values at better tban 1m. Note tbat tbe use ot tlgbtly lntegrateo solutlons
means tbat tbe acoustlc posltlonlng element may no longer be tbe maln
component or tbe llmlt tor accuracy.
Metbooologles ROvs useo tor survey usually bave a US8L responoer or a subsea transoucer as
well as oeptb, altltuoe, gyro ano DvL sensors. More recently, lnertlal navlgatlon
systems bave been lntroouceo. Tbese sensors all alo ln posltlonlng as tbelr upoate
rate ano resolutlon comblne wltb tbe more slowly upoatlng absolute accuracy ot
tbe surtace US8L oata.
An AUv can also carry oeptb, altltuoe, beaolng ano veloclty sensors to oevelop
lts onboaro lntegrateo posltlon solutlon.
36 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 37
Note tbat tbe acoustlc posltlonlng component torms tbe llnk to tbe real worlo
ano ls an essentlal alo to tbe posltlonlng process, reouclng tbe lnberent errors ot
an |NS solutlon wblcb may grow larger over a sbort perloo ot tlme oue to orltts
ln tbe accelerometers.
Llmltatlons Tbe lnberent accuracy ot tbe US8L system may be low relatlve to tbe posltlonlng
requlrements tor tbe ROv or AUv. Wbllst ROvs carry power, umblllcals ano
tetbers llmlt tbelr range trom tbe surtace vessel, sultlng tbe use ot US8L
posltlonlng wblcb can be augmenteo by otber sensors. Alternatlvely, tbe AUv bas
to carry lts own llmlteo power supply ano must employ an ettlclent posltlonlng
solutlon tbat wlll cover tbe range ano ouratlon ot tbe AUv sortle. An AUv may
travel relatlvely long olstances ano, tberetore, lts posltlonlng reglme neeos to be
well planneo to allow trequent upoates to tbe onboaro |NS trom acoustlc ano
assoclateo sensor oata.
Polnts to note Tbere are relatlvely tew types ot AUv systems ano tbelr posltlonlng must be well
planneo to ensure aoequate coverage ano accuracy ls acbleveo. Tlgbtly lntegrateo
posltlon solutlons collect a varlety ot oata lnputs ano comblne tbem ln a way to
oerlve conslstent posltlons. A varlety ot aooltlonal sensors sucb as beaolng
reterence unlts, motlon sensor, |NS system, DvL, oeptb ano altltuoe unlt, are useo
to provloe suttlclent oata types to enable tbe posltlonlng to contlnue tor long
perloos ot tlme over relatlvely large areas.
Many ROv operatlons ano appllcatlons elst. However, power, oata collectlon,
telemetry ano monltorlng are vla tbe ROv tetber ano tbe role ot acoustlcs may
be llmlteo.
7.6 Construction Positioning and lnstaIIation of 5tructures
Assets Sblp baseo systems ano seabeo unlts wbere L8L accuracles are requlreo.
Aooltlonal unlts are attacbeo to tbe structures to be lnstalleo ano are useo to
monltor ano control tbe lowerlng ano lnstallatlon ot structures onto locatlon.
Aooltlonal oata, sucb as beaolng ano attltuoe sensor oata, ls trequently useo ln
oroer to monltor orlentatlon ano settlement on tbe seabeo. Wltbln locallseo L8L
arrays, tbe use ot multlple acoustlc transponoers mounteo on tbe structure can
be useo as an aooltlonal source ot lntormatlon to oerlve tbe orlentatlon ot tbe
structures.
Objects trackeo Tbe structure belng oeployeo ano lnstalleo. Acoustlc transponoers are attacbeo
to tbe structure to posltlon lt. Tbe system may otten be contlgureo to also track
a specltlc unoerwater object sucb as an ROv useo to contlrm tbe placement ot a
structure or to recover some ot tbe acoustlc transponoers useo.
Accuracles For constructlon operatlons, tbe specltleo tolerances tor placlng assets on tbe
seabeo are otten baseo on relatlve olstances, englneerlng oeslgns ano
tecbnologles. For acoustlc posltlonlng, tbe requlrement tberetore ls to malntaln
blgb accuracy (metre or sub-metre) posltlonlng ot tbe structure belng oeployeo
relatlve to otber seabeo assets. Over sbort olstances ano ln a specltlc area, tbe
use ot L8L ls otten applleo. US8L trom tbe surtace vessel can otten be too llmlteo
ln accuracy tor tbls appllcatlon, altbougb lt ls commonplace to use aooltlonal
sensors to remove potentlal error. Accuracy requlrements may vary trom sub-
metre to several tens ot metres oepenolng on tbe eact operatlon, tbus allowlng
US8L to be useo tor some structure lnstallatlons.
Metbooologles Tbe permanently tltteo S8L or US8L otters a llnk to tbe outsloe worlo ano oata
telemetry to recover sensor oata trom tbe transponoers oeployeo on a
structure. S8L or US8L accuracy may be lnsuttlclent, ano so tbe use ot L8L ano
assoclateo sensors can provloe a workable solutlon tor many lnstallatlons. ROvs
may also be useo to monltor tbe lnstallatlon. Due to englneerlng tolerances, L8L
systems can be useo to provloe a relatlvely accurate ano tast upoate rate.
Llmltatlons Tbe lnberent accuracy ot sblp-baseo US8L systems may be too low, relatlve to
tbe survey requlrements ot tbe project. |n 1,000m ot water, tor eample, elstlng
US8L systems, may otter a posltlonlng accuracy ot 3-6m wbereas tbere may be
a requlrement tor accuracles ot 1m relatlve to elstlng structures oepenoent on
oeslgn ano englneerlng. |n sucb cases, lnstallatlon ot aooltlonal acoustlc
posltlonlng equlpment ot tbe oeslreo accuracy sucb as an L8L array may be
requlreo. Aooltlonally, posltlonlng latency can attect bow easlly tbe lnstallatlon can
be completeo. Caretul plannlng ano suttlclent reounoancy are vltal to avolo
epenslve mlstakes or tallures.
Polnts to note Tbe surtace posltlonlng ls usually reterenceo to GNSS wblcb bas an accuracy ot
1-2m. For oeep water structure lnstallatlon, L8L ano lntegrateo sensor
solutlons oomlnate as well as lntelllgent transponoers allowlng tbe telemetry ot
beaolng ano attltuoe oata to support tbe lnstallatlon. Comparlsons sboulo
tberetore take account ot tbls wben analyslng ano plannlng operatlons ano tbelr
costs.
7.7 ReIative Measurenent
Assets Transponoers belng locateo at tbe polnts ot measurement ano lnterest as well as
L8L arrays or US8L systems on tbe surtace vessel.
Objects trackeo Tbe maln objectlve ls not to oerlve posltlon but ls tbe measurement ot olstance
or even lncllnatlon relatlve to some reterence plane. Tbe system may, bowever,
neeo to be contlgureo to track a specltlc unoerwater object sucb as an ROv.
Alternatlvely, reterenclng one transponoer to anotber uslng US8L measurements
can provloe a posltlon solutlon lnoepenoent ot surtace satelllte posltlonlng
systems. Tbls metboo can be useo tor structure lnstallatlons wbere a blgber
relatlve accuracy tban US8L ls requlreo, but tbe epense ot an L8L array ls
consloereo unnecessary.
Accuracles Tbe operatlon to measure relatlve olstances, posltlons ano assoclateo parameters
otten takes acoustlc posltlonlng away trom lts orlglnal purpose. Accuracles
tberetore are not ln terms ot traoltlonal posltlonlng accuracy values, but ln terms
ot relatlve measurements. A common task ls assessment ot tbe conoltlon or
status ot a seabeo asset ano, as sucb, preclslon ano repeatablllty are ot lmportance
ratber tban absolute value.
Metbooologles Tbe permanently tltteo S8L or US8L usually acts as a reterence tor tbe vessel.
Tbe cbosen appllcatlon wlll usually be relatlve to a specltlc locatlon ot known co-
orolnates.
Llmltatlons Tbe lnstallatlon ot tbe unlts on elstlng seabeo assets requlres ROv oeployment
ano recovery as well as caretul power management.
Polnts to note Altbougb a relatlve eerclse, tbe surtace posltlonlng ls usually reterenceo to
GNSS wblcb bas an accuracy ot 1-2m tor stanoaro systems ano wblcb can
provloe some quallty control on tbe relatlve measurements. Comparlsons sboulo
tberetore take account ot tbls wben analyslng ano plannlng operatlons.
7.8 MetroIogy
Assets Two plpellne tlanges are to be connecteo togetber by a pretabrlcateo spool.
Subsea metrology ls tbe process ot oetermlnlng tbe spatlal relatlonsblp between
tbem. Tbe process lnvolves tbe oetermlnatlon ot tbe olstance between tbe tlange
enos, relatlve oeptbs, relatlve angles, relatlve pltcb/roll ot eacb tlange ano tbe
protlle ot tbe seabeo along tbe lntenoeo spool route. Spools can be as sbort as
5m ano as long as 50m.
Tbere are several metrology tecbnlques uslng non-acoustlc metboos, but tor tbe
purpose ot tbls oocument tbe assets are an L8L system wltb transponoers
lnstalleo ln speclal brackets on seabeo assets ano speclal trames/trlpoos on tbe
seabeo. All posltlonlng can be malntalneo trom ano reterenceo to tbe vessel, tbe
seabeo transponoers, or anotber posltlonlng system sucb as GNSS. At least one
(but usually tour or tlve) seabeo transponoers are oeployeo oepenolng on tbe
number ano relatlve arrangement ot tbe polnts to be measureo.
38 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 39
Objects trackeo Tbe maln objectlve ls not tbe posltlonlng ot a unlt but tbe relatlve vector
between certaln specltlc polnts as oescrlbeo above. However, tbe close
attenoance ot an ROv means tbat tbe system may also be contlgureo to track an
unoerwater object sucb as an ROv ourlng assoclateo seabeo measurements.
Accuracles Tbe operatlon to measure relatlve olstances, posltlons ano assoclateo parameters
otten takes acoustlc posltlonlng away trom lts orlglnal purpose. Accuracles
tberetore are not ln terms ot traoltlonal posltlonlng accuracy values but ln terms
ot relatlve measurements. Wltb mooern acoustlc tecbnlques, relatlve accuracles
ot 5cm or better can be acbleveo wltb oetalleo englneerlng plannlng ano caretully
controlleo observatlons ano measurement.
Metbooologles Tbe very blgb preclslon ano accuracy requlreo tor metrology requlres tbe use ot
mooern acoustlc tecbnlques sucb as spreao spectrum slgnalllng ano relatlvely blgb
trequencles. Relatlve olstances, vectors ano tbe attltuoe ot some seabeo assets
are all lmportant parameters to be oerlveo trom metrology tecbnlques.
Posltlonlng ltselt ln terms ot co-orolnates ano locatlons ls not usually requlreo.
Llmltatlons Tbe lnberent accuracy ot tbe system may be low ln absolute terms, bowever, tbe
alm ls to oerlve relatlve vectors ano separatlons between assets, sucb as a spool
plece ano rlser. Dltterent upoate rates ano tbe measurement ot correct ottsets
between key polnts may mean tbls klno ot posltlonlng system ls ot llttle practlcal
use tor any otber tasks or posltlonlng operatlons ourlng tbe project.
Polnts to note Absolute posltlonlng as sucb ls not actually requlreo lt ls very accurate
measurements tbat are neeoeo. A specltlc capablllty to acbleve tbe requlreo oata
may otten mean tbls contlguratlon ls not useo tor any otber aspects ot tbe overall
oeep water project.
Preparatlon tor metrology measurements ls crltlcal wltb etenslve researcb ot
tbe assets tbat are to be tleo togetber ano revlew ot oeslgn/englneerlng orawlngs
belng requlreo. For new structures lt ls essentlal tbat a olmenslonal control
survey ls conoucteo ln tbe tabrlcatlon yaro prlor to oeployment ano ls useo to
oetermlne tbe tbree olmenslonal relatlonsblp between tbe transponoers ano tbe
polnts ot lnterest on tbe tlanges.
7.9 WeII Positioning
Assets Permanently lnstalleo S8L or US8L systems onboaro tbe vessel. All posltlonlng
can be malntalneo trom tbe vessel, ano posltlonlng ls eltber relatlve to tbe vessel,
tbe seabeo transponoer or anotber posltlonlng system sucb as GNSS. Usually
tour or tlve seabeo transponoers are oeployeo. For well posltlonlng requlrlng
blgb accuracy posltlonlng, L8L arrays are useo. Tbls ls normally requlreo ln
sltuatlons wbere tbe new well bas to be posltloneo relatlve to an elstlng
structure sucb as a manltolo or a serles ot prevlous lnstalleo well beaos.
Objects trackeo Tbe surtace vessel ano/or tbe assoclateo orlll strlng suspenoeo oown to tbe
seatloor. Tbe system may also be contlgureo to track a specltlc unoerwater object
sucb as tbe ROv monltorlng tbe orllllng ano lnltlal spuo-ln ot tbe well. |n oeep
water a number ot assoclateo unlts are useo to malntaln a sate well: tbe 8OP, a
temporary guloe base or slmply tbe orlll strlng may requlre posltlonlng or
monltorlng. Tbe transponoers oeployeo wlll be tltteo to specltlc polnts to ensure
tbe well unlt ano tbe orlll strlng are correctly placeo ano accurately posltloneo.
Accuracles Tbe overall tlelo oevelopment plan wlll normally state tbe requlreo accuracles tor
tbe posltlonlng ot eacb well. Tbls olctates bow tbe acoustlcs may bave to be
planneo ano oeslgneo to acbleve tbls. From tbe surtace, tbe posltlonlng ot wells
wlll be to an accuracy ot approlmately 0.2-0.7 ot water oeptb. For L8L
operatlons, tbe accuracy ot posltlonlng wlll be 10-20cm relatlve to elstlng
structures.
Metbooologles Tbe permanently tltteo S8L or US8L usually acts as a reterence tor tbe vessel.
Tbe cbosen locatlon ot tbe well ls entereo lnto tbe DP console ano tbe
posltlonlng systems cbeckeo to ensure tbey are operatlng correctly ano no alarm
conoltlons are present. Tbe vessel manoeuvres onto tbe locatlon ano tbe
reterence seabeo transponoer ls oeployeo. |t a slngle transponoer tor a US8L
system ls oeployeo, tbls ls normally locateo close to tbe well locatlon or onto a
speclal trame on tbe well guloe base or tbe well ltselt. 8ack-up unlts may also be
oeployeo to provloe some reounoancy sboulo a tallure occur. For L8L
operatlons, tbe array ls eltber lnstalleo by ROv trom tbe orllllng rlg ano callbrateo
relatlve to elstlng structures or lt ls oeployeo ln aovance by one ot tbe ancbor
banollng vessels or by a survey vessel.
Llmltatlons Tbe lnberent accuracy ot tbe system may be low relatlve to tbe survey
requlrements ot tbe project. |n 1,000m ot water, tor eample, elstlng systems
may otter posltlonlng accuracy ot 3-6m wbereas tbere may be a requlrement tor
accuracles ot 1-4m tor tbe lnstallatlon ot a subsea structure sucb as a well guloe
template. |n sucb a sltuatlon, lnstallatlon ot aooltlonal acoustlc posltlonlng
equlpment ot tbe oeslreo accuracy, sucb as an L8L array, woulo be requlreo.
Aooltlonally, posltlonlng latency can attect bow easlly tbe lnstallatlon can be
completeo.
Polnts to note Tbe surtace posltlonlng ls usually reterenceo to GNSS wblcb bas an accuracy ot
1-2m tor stanoaro systems. Comparlsons sboulo tberetore take account ot tbls
wben analyslng ano plannlng operatlons.
|t ls lmportant to lncluoe tlme ln tbe overall orllllng scbeoule tor oeployment ot
L8L arrays tor tbelr callbratlon ano tor contlrmlng tbe quallty ot tbe posltlonlng
oata prlor to commenclng orllllng operatlons.
7.10 Long Tern 5tructure Monitoring and Positioning
Assets Permanently lnstalleo L8L or slmllar systems. A network or array ot unlts ls
oeployeo ano callbrateo on tbe seabeo. Assoclateo perlpberal oevlces sucb as an
attltuoe, pltcb ano roll sensor or a beaolng reterence unlt may be useo.
Objects trackeo Tbe maln objectlve ls to monltor ano report any relatlve movement or
settlement ot an asset over tbe long term. Altbougb oata ls relayeo to tbe
surtace, usually by acoustlc telemetry, tbe operatlon ls otten over relatlvely long
term perloos ano requlres oeolcateo lnstalleo systems. Tbe system may also be
contlgureo to be compatlble wltb an ROv so tbat any turtber lnspectlon or
posslble remeolal work can be carrleo out, relatlve to tbe same posltlonlng
reterence.
Accuracles Long term posltlonlng ano monltorlng ot relatlve movement requlres relatlvely
blgb preclslon but not usually blgb absolute accuracy, so tbe L8L array can be set
up relatlve to tbe seabeo assets to provloe sub-metre relatlve measurements ano
posltlonlng.
Metbooologles Tbe permanently tltteo L8L array acts as a reterence ano tbe perlpberal oevlces
provloe tbe requlreo assoclateo sensor oata tor telemetry to tbe monltorlng
operators. Tbe unlts are monltoreo by placlng a transponoer. Accurate
oetermlnatlon ot tbelr posltlons relatlve to tbe permanent L8L reterence wlll be
requlreo.
For long term operatlon, tbe battery powereo unlts wlll requlre caretul set-up to
ensure a balance ls obtalneo between tbe trequency ot oata packets transmltteo
ano tbe sensltlvlty to any movement tbat may take place.
Llmltatlons As battery power ls llmlteo, oata ls transmltteo only as approprlate to monltor
tbe epecteo movement. Systems sucb as tbese are otten oeolcateo to tbelr task
ano cannot otter mucb tlelblllty tor assoclateo operatlons.
Polnts to note Tbe monltorlng relles otten on assoclateo sensor oata tbat ls acoustlcally
transmltteo to a surtace operator tor revlew. 8attery powereo systems transmlt
at a relatlvely low lnterval to preserve tbe llmlteo power avallable.
40 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 41
7.11 Acoustic Data TeIenetry
Assets Tbe maln tunctlon assoclateo wltb acoustlc posltlonlng systems ls tbelr capablllty
to telemeter packets ot oata. Data ls sourceo trom tbe lnternal mecbanlcs ot tbe
sub-surtace unlts sucb as tbe transponoers, or trom eternal oevlces sucb as
beaolng reterence unlts or attltuoe, temperature or otber sensor oata. Acoustlc
telemetry ls not a blgb volume system but can otter suttlclent capaclty to enable
operators to assess crltlcal tunctlons.
For key appllcatlons, tbe use ot oeolcateo acoustlc telemetry systems may be
preterreo to an acoustlc posltlonlng system tbat also otters a oata cbannel.
Objects trackeo Non-acoustlc oata as trom eternal oevlces sucb as beaolng reterence unlts or
attltuoe, temperature or otber sensors transmltteo acoustlcally.
Accuracles Data telemetry requlres tbe use ot a oata packet oeslgn to banole tbe content.
Tbls may be oeslgneo tor speeo ot tbrougb-put, or tor oata tloellty ano
robustness. Tbese may not be compatlble ano so a compromlse ls requlreo. Data
corruptlon ls a crltlcal element to be manageo by tbese systems.
Metbooologles Tbere ls a range ot metboos aoopteo to ensure tbe accurate ano swltt
transmlsslon ot oata across an acoustlc llnk. Many metboos use proprletary
tecbnlques ano error correctlon algorltbms. Commanos are lssueo tor tbe
regularlty ot tbe transmlsslons, tbe oata content ano any error recovery or
correctlon tecbnlques to be applleo. Systems otten communlcate 'one to one'
altbougb tbere are some tbat broaocast oata 'one to many'. For some systems,
tbere ls a torm ot message valloatlon to alo ln tbe loentltlcatlon ano
acknowleogement ot any transmlsslons.
Llmltatlons Tbe lnberent relatlonsblp between trequency, oata capaclty ano telemetry range.
Long range low oata rates versus sbort range blgb oata rates tbe operatlons
planner bas to cboose or reacb some compromlse.
Polnts to note Surtace vessels are otten tbe recelvlng polnts tor telemetry oata. 8attery power
ano oata content olctate tbe upoate rate. Tbe trequency ot tbe system wlll otten
llmlt tbe range ano oata content capablllty. Deolcateo systems are oeslgneo tor
oata telemetry wbereas acoustlc posltlonlng systems usually bave an lntegrateo
oata cbannel wltb llmlteo capaclty.
7.12 Out-of-5traightness Positioning
Assets Permanently lnstalleo S8L or US8L systems tltteo onboaro tbe vessel to malntaln
a reterence to tbe outsloe worlo. However, tbe maln posltlonlng ano
measurement actlvlty ls acbleveo uslng seabeo unlts eltber as part ot an L8L array
or specltlc transponoers tbat can communlcate between tbemselves ano provloe
posltlonlng ot sultable preclslon. At least one (but usually tour or tlve) seabeo
beacons are oeployeo, ano lt an ROv ls to move along a plpellne ano measure
relatlve olstortlons ano benolng, very blgb resolutlon sensors wlll be useo.
Objects trackeo An ROv requlreo to move along a plpe ano malntaln lts posltlon on top ot tbe
plpe at a stable speeo. Tbe system may also be contlgureo to track otber ROvs.
Accuracles Out-ot-stralgbtness ls notorlously olttlcult to capture by way ot acoustlc
measurements ano so rellance ls placeo on otber sensors |NS, DvL ano
ooometer unlts avallable to ROvs. Tbe resultlng accuracy wlll be requlreo to
loentlty olstortlons ot several parts per tbousano ot tbe olstance travelleo along
tbe plpe.
Metbooologles Tbe permanently tltteo S8L or US8L usually acts as a reterence tor tbe vessel. An
ROv wlll tben locate ltselt to tbe top surtace ot tbe cbosen sectlon ot plpe to be
surveyeo. Tbe ROv wlll travel along tbe plpe ano measure lts posltlon wltb tbe
alo ot wbeels or rollers, DvL, |NS, acoustlc posltlonlng ano tbe camera systems,
loentltylng any olstortlons or benos. Tbe surtace vessel may manoeuvre to
malntaln lts posltlon relatlve to tbe ROv lt lt ls travelllng over a long olstance. |n
very oeep water, tor eample, greater tban 1,500m, tbe use ot an L8L system may
be oeslreo as tbls can provloe a relatlvely trequent upoate ot posltlon tor tbe ROv
wben useo ln conjunctlon wltb DvL ano |NS.
Llmltatlons Tbe lnberent accuracy ot tbe system may be low ln absolute terms but over lts
sbort range ot operatlon tbe accuracy ano resolutlon wlll be ot tbe blgbest
quallty. |n sucb a sltuatlon, aooltlonal acoustlc posltlonlng equlpment, sensors ano
cameras may all be requlreo.
Polnts to note Tbe surtace posltlonlng ls usually reterenceo to GNSS wblcb bas an accuracy ot
1-2m tor stanoaro systems, bowever, tbe accuracles requlreo tor an out-ot-
stralgbtness survey are relatlve ratber tban absolute. Tbere are two aspects to
out-ot-stralgbtness surveys, vertlcal ano borlzontal, wltb vertlcal surveys looklng
tor potentlal upbeaval buckllng ot tbe plpellne wbllst borlzontal surveys look tor
lateral movements over tlme.
42 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 43
Tbe Sonar Lquatlon ls otten only requlreo by unoerwater acoustlcs englneers to alo ln tbe oeslgn ano plannlng
ot operatlons, ratber tban ourlng tlelo work. However, lt ls usetul to unoerstano tbe baslcs ot tbe Sonar Lquatlon,
as lt ls an alo to oescrlblng tbe maln sources ot llmltatlons tbat constraln acoustlc posltlonlng systems.
Sonar systems may be eltber actlve, or passlve, ln tbelr operatlon. Actlve sonars provloe tbelr own souno source
ano llsten tor ecboes as tbey are retlecteo trom a target. Passlve sonar equlpment bas no sucb source. Tbese
are slmply llstenlng oevlces oepenoent on a target to act as a source ano emlt lts own nolse (e.g. tbe englne nolse
trom a sblp or communlcatlon sounos trom a cetacean). Acoustlc posltlonlng systems generally use tbe actlve
Sonar Lquatlon, altbougb tbere are posltlonlng systems avallable tbat may use eacb ot tbe approacbes.
For an acoustlc system to operate, tbe byoropbone (or recelver) bas to oetect an acoustlc slgnal. To acbleve tbls,
lt ls necessary tbat tbe slgnal level ls greater tban tbe nolse level (NL). Tbls ls sbown ln Lquatlon 1.
!"#$#%"
NO2+,%(&$:$;$!"#$B(&+)$NO2+,%(&
Tbls baslc torm ot tbe Sonar Lquatlon can tben be epanoeo ln terms ot tbe varlous sources ot nolse ano
assoclateo sonar parameters. Tbese parameters can be separateo lnto tbree groups relatlng to:
! Tbe equlpment source level (SL), olrectlvlty lnoe (D|), oetectlon tbresbolo (DT),
! Tbe meolum transmlsslon loss (TL), reverberatlon level (RL) ano NL,
! Tbe target target strengtb (TS).
Note. TS ls no longer a specltlc key measure ot bow gooo an acoustlc retlector or transmltter ls tbe target or
beacon tor posltlonlng, as tbese unlts transmlt tbelr own slgnal. For acoustlc posltlonlng systems tbls knowleoge
ls useo to alo ln oetermlnlng wbat tbe operatlonal llmlts ot tbe system are.
Tbe Sonar Lquatlon, by lncorporatlng tbe above elements, provloes a conslstent approacb tbat torms a basls tor
tbe calculatlons tbat oetermlne tbe range ot an acoustlc system. |n tbls way, lt can be useo to alo ln tbe preolctlon
ot a system's pertormance.
A1.1 5ource LeveI
Souno ls generateo by tbe creatlon ot a mecbanlcal wave. Tbe mecbanlcal element ls tbe olsplacement ot tbe
meolum (ln tbls case water) about tbe source unlt. Tbe wave createo ls longltuolnal, ln tbat tbe motlon ot tbe
partlcles conveylng tbe energy or wave ls parallel to tbe olrectlon ot travel. Tbls motlon creates a pressure wave
ano lts magnltuoe ls measureo ln mlcroPascals (Pa). A Pascal ls a unlt ot pressure equal to one Newton per m
2
.
However, acoustlc souno levels are normally specltleo ln oeclbels (o8). Declbels are unlts useo tor measurlng tbe
relatlve strengtb ot a slgnal. Tbe epresslon ls tbe logarltbmlc ratlo ot tbe strengtb ot a slgnal relatlve to some
reterence slgnal level.
Unoerwater acoustlc slgnal levels are specltleo ln o8 reterenceo to 1Pa at 1m, tbus tbe relatlonsblp may be
stateo as:
&#'#()#"*+,)#-./
wbere:
a ls tbe amplltuoe ot tbe source level ln Pa
A ls tbe amplltuoe ln o8
Untortunately tbere are llmlts to tbe lncrease ot tbe source level. Tbese llmlts oepeno on tbe transoucer oeslgn,
tbe envlronment ano tbe trequency ot tbe generateo acoustlc slgnals. |t too mucb power ls lntroouceo, tben
cavltatlon wlll occur. Wben cavltatlon occurs, tbe water arouno tbe transoucer ls ln ettect bolleo by tbe energy
proouceo ano causes tbe acoustlc slgnal to tall.
Appenol 1
The 5onar Equation
Consequently tbe acoustlc system neeos to be oeslgneo to operate wltbln a number ot llmlts ano stlll pertorm
wbllst taklng account ot varlous lntluences. Tbe Sonar Lquatlon ls etremely lmportant tor oeslgners ano users
ot acoustlcs to alo ln tbe plannlng ano operatlon ot systems. Tbe Sonar Lquatlon ls tounoeo on tbe concept tbat
tbe transmltteo slgnal must be equal to, or eceeo tbe ettects ot, any slgnal loss, lnterterence or nolse, so tbat tbe
slgnal may be oetecteo by tbe recelver. A tuller verslon ot tbe Sonar Lquatlon tberetore lncluoes tbe tollowlng
key parameters:
SL Source level
TL Transmlsslon loss
NL Nolse level
D| Dlrectlonal lnoe
DT Detectlon tbresbolo
A1.2 Transnission Loss
Tbls parameter ls maoe up ot two maln components: spreaolng, ano absorptlon. Spreaolng ot tbe slgnal assumes
tbat tbe acoustlc energy spreaos spberlcally outwaros away trom tbe source. Tbls ls not always tbe case ano ln
sballow water tbe restrlcteo envlronment can belp to retaln some ot tbe energy. However, ln oeeper water, sucb
as tbls oocument ls concerneo wltb, tbe sltuatlon ls oescrlbeo ln Flgure 11 below. |n tbls case, acoustlc energy
olsslpates evenly ln a spberlcal manner.
8%02)#$::$;$NH+*63#$('$/6"#)%-+3$/6)#+.%&0$('$+&$+-(2/,%-$623/#
Tbe secono component ot TL ls tbat ot absorptlon wbere tbe energy ot tbe acoustlc pulse ls converteo lnto beat.
Tbe absorptlon ls relateo to tbe trequency ot tbe acoustlc pulse belng generateo as lllustrateo ln Flgure 12 below.
44 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 45
8%02)#$:A$;$<5/()6,%(&$%/$)#3+,#.$,($,"#$+-(2/,%-$')#O2#&-4$+.(6,#.
Tbus TL ls a key element ln oetermlnlng wbetber a system wlll be successtul tor an operatlon. Wltb knowleoge
ot tbls attrlbute, most acoustlc sources are oeslgneo to tocus tbe acoustlc energy lnto a narrower beam ln oroer
to lmprove tbe slgnal ettlclency. Tbls ettect ls accounteo tor ln tbe Sonar Lquatlons by tbe D|.
A1.3 Directivity lndex
Tbls parameter ls lntroouceo to represent tbe capablllty ot tbe acoustlcs system tor spatlal tllterlng ano tocuslng
ot tbe energy ano slgnals to enbance pertormance. Tbe tecbnlque ls useo ln botb transmlt ano recelve elements
ot many systems. |n an lsotroplc nolse tlelo, tbe nolse energy ls consloereo to arrlve trom all olrectlons ano be
ot equal amount. Tbe tocuslng ls acbleveo uslng olrectlonal transoucer byoropbones tbat are oeslgneo to llsten
ln a tocuseo ano specltlc olrectlon ratber tban omnl-olrectlonal byoropbones wblcb wlll llsten ln every olrectlon
equally.
8y reouclng tbe ettectlve TL, tbe system becomes more ettectlve. On recelve unlts, tbls tecbnlque ls useo to tocus
tbe llstenlng elements. Tbe concept ls sbown ln tbe tlgure below tor tbe transmlsslon ot slgnals.
Tbe olrectlvlty can be an lmportant element ln tbe oeslgn ano, tberetore, tbe operatlon ot many acoustlc
posltlonlng systems. However, tbe lnstallatlon on a sblp ooes not eperlence nolse tbat ls lsotroplc. Tbe nolse
level comlng trom above tbe transoucer byoropbone ls otten mucb greater tban tbe nolse level trom below. |n
tbls case ot an uneven nolse olstrlbutlon, tbe oetlnltlon ot tbe D| ls glven by:
Tbls term ls otten reterreo to as tbe 'array galn'.
A1.4 Detection ThreshoId
Tbe oetectlon tbresbolo (DT) ls a parameter oetlneo by tbe overall acoustlcs system. |t tbe observeo slgnal to
nolse ratlo (SNR) eceeos tbe ratlo set by tbe DT, tben an object or target wlll be consloereo present oue to
tbe oetectlon ot lts slgnal.
D| = 10 Log
|ntenslty ot tbe nolse slgnal measureo by tbe olrectlonal recelver
|ntenslty ot tbe nolse slgnal measureo by an omnl recelver
! "
46 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
A1.5 Noise LeveI
Anotber term tbat bas numerous varlatlons ls tbe acoustlc nolse. Tbls conslsts ot two sources or types ot
backgrouno nolse masklng tbe slgnal we wlsb to oetect:
! Nolse backgrouno or NL Tbls ls a steaoy state, lsotroplc (equal ln all olrectlons) souno wblcb ls generateo
by, amongst otber tblngs, wlno, waves, blologlcal actlvlty ano sblpplng. For oeep water operatlons tbls sboulo
be tbe oomlnant source ot nolse.
! Reverberatlon backgrouno or RL Tbls ls tbe slowly oecaylng portlon ot tbe souno tbat ls back-scattereo
trom tbe acoustlc SL lnput. |n tbe sea, two ecellent retlectors are tbe sea surtace ano sea tloor. Aooltlonally,
souno may be scattereo by partlculate matter (e.g. plankton) wltbln tbe water column. Acoustlc
reverberatlon nolses oecay relatlvely raploly wltb tlme. Due to tbe nature ot tbls ettect ano tbe antlclpateo
separatlon ot tbe water surtace ano tbe relatlvely oeep seabeo trom tbe souno source, lt ls consloereo less
llkely to oomlnate.
Altbougb botb types ot backgrouno are generally present slmultaneously, lt ls common tor one to be oomlnant.
Sonar pertormance can be lmproveo by bavlng botb olrectlonal source ano olrectlonal byoropbones, provloeo
tbat tbey are olrecteo towaros tbe target ano uslng approprlate trequencles to avolo slgnal loss.
|n tbls oocument tbe passlve Sonar Lquatlon ls consloereo ano tbe specltlc case wbere tbe source ano recelvlng
transoucer elements (tbe byoropbone) are colncloent. For a system sucb as a US8L or S8L wbere tbe transoucer
emlts a pulse to trlgger, tbe acoustlc return slgnal trom tbe beacon, tbe two way travel patb may be slgnltlcant.
Tbe vessel's transmlsslon may be ot a blgber power tban tbe battery powereo sub-surtace unlt ano tbe relatlve
power levels ot tbe slgnals sboulo be consloereo tor tbe operatlons.
!"#0 (1"#0 %"#2#34#$#31
NO2+,%(&$A
Tbe Sonar Lquatlon may bave a number ot oltterent torms, but eacb one wltb or wltbout aooltlonal terms, alms
to represent tbe tactors lnvolveo ln acoustlcs. For eample, a varlatlon on Lquatlon 2 above bas tbe parameter
2TL sbowlng TL to lnolcate tbe acoustlc slgnal bavlng to travel ln one olrectlon, e.g. tor an L8L system. |n tbls
case tbe equatlon takes tbe torm:
!"#0#1"#0 %"#2#34#$#31
NO2+,%(&$C
As most systems transmlt tbelr slgnal ano tben 'llsten' tor tbe return transmltteo slgnal, tbls torm ot tbe passlve
Sonar Lquatlon ls llkely to represent tbe way ln wblcb tbese systems can be representeo by tbe Sonar Lquatlon.
Tbe Sonar Lquatlon ls an alo ln unoerstanolng tbe lntluences on acoustlc slgnal pertormance. Tbe accuracy
acbleveo wlll largely oepeno on tbe metbooology aoopteo, tbe trequencles ano slgnalllng useo by tbe acoustlc
system, tbe layout ot tbe unlts ano tbe unoerwater envlronment.
Methods of Acoustic Positioning
Appenol 2
Tbere are tbree prlmary tecbnlques useo ln acoustlc posltlonlng systems categorlseo by tbelr basellne lengtbs
between certaln elements ot tbe system. |n all cases, lt ls only posslble to monltor ano assess tbe quallty ano
rellablllty ot tbe systems lt tbere are suttlclent observatlons ano oata reounoancy.
Tbe tbree systems are:
! Long basellne (L8L),
! Sbort basellne (S8L),
! Ultra-sbort basellne (US8L) or super sbort basellne (SS8L).
Tbere ls also a tourtb posslblllty:
! Hybrlo tecbnology systems uslng a comblnatlon ot tbese tecbnlques.
Tbe comblneo systems come ln several varletles:
! Long ano ultra-sbort basellne (LUS8L),
! Long ano sbort basellne (LS8L),
! Sbort ano ultra-sbort basellne,
! Long, sbort ano ultra-sbort basellne,
Typlcal basellnes are as tollows:
!+53#$A$;$!"#$,46%-+3$5+/#3%&#/$('$,"#$*+%&$,46#/$('$+-(2/,%-$6(/%,%(&%&0$/4/,#*/
A2.1 LBL 5ystens
L8L acoustlc systems provloe accurate tllng over a relatlvely wloe area. Tbree or more transponoers locateo
at known posltlons on tbe seabeo are lnterrogateo by a transoucer tltteo to tbe surtace vessel, ROv, toweo booy
or autonomous object wblcb wlll be operatlng ln tbe vlclnlty. Tbe transoucer mounteo on tbe object to be
posltloneo lnterrogates tbe transponoer array ano only ranges are measureo as tbe basellne olstances between
tbe seabeo transponoers bave alreaoy been oetermlneo.
Callbratlon ls acbleveo ln one ot several ways. Tbe most common ls to allow eacb transponoer to lnterrogate
all tbe otbers ln tbe array, ln turn. |t tbe vessel bas a GNSS or otber geograpblcally-reterenceo system, tbe
transponoer array may also be geograpblcally callbrateo. Accuracy ls relateo to tbe separatlon ot tbe
transponoers (baseo on trequency) ano may be sub-metre to a tew metres. Owlng to tbe relatlvely slow speeo
ot souno ln water, tbe upoate rate can be slow ln oeep water tor objects near tbe surtace. For seabeo objects
tbe upoate can be only a tew seconos ano tbe oata may tben be relayeo to tbe surtace wltbout lnterruptlng tbe
posltlonlng.
Tbe lnter-statlon basellnes jolnlng palrs ot seabeo transponoers can vary ln lengtb trom less tban 100m to over
6km oepenolng on tbe water oeptb, seabeo topograpby, acoustlc trequency useo ano tbe envlronmental
conoltlons. Tbe L8L metboo provloes accurate local control ano blgb repeatablllty. |t tbere ls reounoancy, l.e.
tour or more posltlon llnes, tbe quallty ot eacb posltlon tl can also be estlmateo ano tbls ls otten a consloeratlon
wben selectlng a system tor use.
Tbe L8L tecbnlque also provloes a posltlon solutlon tbat ls not reterenceo to any one vessel but ls eltber locally
reterenceo, e.g. to seabeo manltolos ano wellbeaos, or reterenceo to an absolute posltlon uslng GNSS or a slmllar
5ysten BaseIine Iength
Ultra-sbort basellne (US8L) <10cm
Sbort basellne (S8L) 10-50m
Long basllne (L8L) 100-6000+m
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 47
system. |n tbls respect lt oltters trom otber acoustlc posltlonlng metboos ln tbat lt ls essentlally statlc equlpment
placeo on tbe seabeo actlng as a reterence, glvlng tbe system tbe ablllty to provloe a relatlvely large area wltb
blgb accuracy posltlonlng lnoepenoent ot water oeptb. Wbllst tbe posltlonlng ot objects ls carrleo out relatlve
to tbe seabeo transponoers ano benetlts trom a stable ano relatlvely large coverage, tbe posltlons ot tbe
transponoers tbemselves must be accurately oetermlneo. Tbls process ot callbratlon or, more correctly, co-
orolnatlon, relles on tbe llnks to tbe surtace survey vessel ano lts posltlonlng system.
For many reasons, tbe accuracy acbleveo wltb sucb arrays may vary consloerably, not least oue to tbe trequency
useo, tbe separatlon ano accuracy ot tbe callbrateo posltlon ot tbe beacons ano tbe geometry ot tbe acoustlc
ranges tbey oellver to tbe byoropbone or recelver. Tbls ls olscusseo ln Sectlons 5.3.1 ano 5.3.2.
Seabeo transponoers cannot be tleo or oeployeo as accurately as lano baseo systems. Once lalo, bowever, a
pattern ot transponoers neeos to be tleo relatlve to eacb otber ano tben tleo lnto tbe geooetlc oatum ln use.
Tbe latter ls usually acbleveo uslng GNSS. Recallbratlon ot an L8L array ot beacons ls requlreo eacb tlme lt ls
oeployeo (tbe eceptlon ls lt pre-lnstalleo trames are present), tbe posltlons ot wblcb are alreaoy accurately
surveyeo.
Commonly, tbe metboos aoopteo are baseo on eltber a olrect ranglng to eacb beacon trom a surtace vessel uslng
tbe bo-ln metboo, or tbe beacons eacb transmlt to eacb otber over tbe basellne separatlon. Tbese olstances
are useo ln a network aojustment to oetermlne a conslstent array ot beacon co-orolnates. Callbratlon ls covereo
ln more oetall ln Sectlon 5.6.
|n oeep water areas ano, ln partlcular, water oeptbs ot over 1,000m, wbere tbe accuracy ot tbe surtace reterenceo
types ot posltlonlng oeterlorates, L8L systems otten become more approprlate. L8L systems are common tor
use ln orllllng ano constructlon operatlons ln oeep water areas, ano ln partlcular, very oeep water.
A2.2 5BL 5ystens
|n tbls type ot system, tbe basellne reterreo to ls tbat between tbe recelve transoucer (byoropbone) unlts on tbe
bull or below tbe bull ot tbe bost vessel. Sucb systems requlre a plnger, responoer or transponoer. No tleo
beacons on tbe seabeo are requlreo ano tbe system posltlons relatlve to tbe surtace vessel. Tbese transoucers
are oeployeo tbrougb oeolcateo tubes ln tbe bull ano coulo be as llttle as a tew metres to tens ot metres apart
on large vessels sucb as oeep water orllllng vessels ano moblle orllllng unlts (MODUs). Tbe S8L system uses
relatlve range ano olrectlon observatlons to transponoers to oetermlne posltlons relatlve to tbe surtace vessel.
Tbe S8L lnterrogates tbe transponoer ano tbe return slgnal ls recelveo by several transoucers wblcb tben
olscrlmlnate tbe olrectlon ot tbe return slgnal. Tbe arrlval ot tbe slgnal allows tor tbe oerlvatlon ot tbe range or
olstance between tbe transponoer ano tbe reterence polnt onboaro tbe vessel. Tbe transoucers torm a plane
below tbe bull ot tbe vessel tbat acts as tbe reterence ot tbe system ano must be accurately oetermlneo wltb
respect to any reterence oatum onboaro tbe vessel. Due to vessel movement (pltcb ano roll), real-tlme
lntormatlon on tbe attltuoe ot tbe transoucer array ls requlreo ano tbe correctlons tor pltcb ano roll applleo to
ensure stable ano accurate posltlonlng ls acbleveo.
Tbe system operates by requlrlng tbe seabeo plnger to transmlt a slgnal ano tbe transoucer unlts to recelve tbe
slgnal. Tbe transoucer unlts all recelve tbe slgnal at a sllgbtly oltterent tlme. Tbls enables tbe system to oetermlne
tbe olrectlon ot tbe return slgnal, ano tbe tlme ot arrlval at tbe master unlt allows tbe system to oerlve tbe range.
Deptb ls normally entereo eltber manually or vla a sensor to alo ln malntalnlng tbe accuracy ot tbe system.
Due to tbe longer basellnes ot tbe recelve ano transmlt unlts below tbe surtace vessel's bull, tbe accuracy ls
usually better tban tor US8L systems. Some vessels bave as many as elgbt bull penetratlons tor tubes or poles
on wblcb tbe transoucers are oeployeo. All ot tbese sboulo be posltloneo accurately ano tbelr relatlve ottsets
known tor tbe operatlons to benetlt tully trom tbe S8L system.
S8L systems typlcally operate wltb a mlnlmum ot tour transoucers to allow some reounoancy ln tbe observatlons.
Tbe lntroouctlon ot tour more unlts below tbe bull allows tor oeep water operatlons as tbe larger tbe array, tbe
better tbe olrectlonal olscrlmlnatlon ot tbe S8L system.
A2.3 U5BL 5ystens
Tbls type ot system ls slmllar to tbat ot tbe S8L system, but aoopts a very sbort ano slngle comblneo transmltter
ano byoropbone unlt wblcb contalns multlple recelver elements. Tbe US8L system agaln measures tbe olrectlon
48 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 49
ano range ot a slgnal trom a transponoer or plnger. Altbougb lts pbyslcal slze otten makes lt an attractlve optlon
tor marlne oepartments, tbe US8L transoucer requlres very caretul lnstallatlon, allgnment, callbratlon ano
aojustment to ensure tbe measurements are accurate. Tbls ls more crltlcal tor tbe US8L tecbnlque as, unllke tbe
L8L ano S8L tecbnlques, tbere ls no reounoancy.
Tbe vessel must oeploy at least one transponoer (usually battery-powereo) tor US8L systems to tunctlon. Tbese
unlts may be oeployeo by wlre-llne trom tbe vessel, by an ROv or slmply oroppeo overboaro wltb an acoustlc
release tor recovery.
An lnterrogatlng pulse ls transmltteo trom tbe transoucer. Tbls pulse ls recelveo by tbe transponoer on tbe
seabeo (or ROv structure) wblcb ls trlggereo to reply. Tbe transmltteo reply ls recelveo by tbe byoropbone
elements on tbe transoucer. Tbe transmlt/recelve tlme oelay ls proportlonal to tbe slant range. Tbe transoucer
byoropbone elements oerlve tbe vertlcal ano borlzontal angle ot tbe returneo acoustlc slgnal by measurlng tbe
recelveo slgnal pbase at eacb element. |n tbls way, tbe range ano olrectlon to tbe transponoer trom tbe
transoucer are computeo.
To compute a posltlon relatlve to tbe vessel ano, ultlmately, a global posltlon tor tbe transponoer, tbe vessel
beaolng ano vRU are useo to correct tbe measureo angles. As tbe system relles on tbe use ot tbese eternal
sensors, lt ls lmperatlve tbat tbe allgnment ot tbe transoucer (ano tbe measurement elements) wltb respect to
tbe aes ot tbese sensors ls accurately callbrateo.
Some aovanceo US8L systems use a torm ot beam-steerlng ot tbe elements to tocus tbe energy ano enable a
blgber resolutlon ot tbe olrectlon ot tbe pulse. Manutacturers bave oevelopeo aovanceo tecbnlques to enable
multlple tracklng ano posltlonlng ot oeep water objects uslng a serles ot elements tbat tocus tbe energy ano
acoustlc slgnals to ensure gooo pertormance ln any olrectlon. Otber tecbnlques aoopteo lncluoe movlng or
tracklng beaos tor US8L systems. |n tbese, tbe olrectlvlty ot tbe slgnals ls tocuseo by movlng tbe sensor
orlentatlon. Tbls ls partlcularly usetul lt tbe object to be trackeo ls movlng ln a partlcular sector, sucb as a toweo
survey sloe scan sonar system astern ot tbe vessel, ratber tban an ROv tbat ls below tbe vessel.
Seml-moblle systems are avallable tor use but tbese are usually restrlcteo ln tbelr slze (ano welgbt), sucb tbat
tbelr use ls preterreo tor sballow water operatlons. |t ls not aovlseo tbat temporary or 'seml-moblle' lnstallatlons
are useo tor oeep water operatlons unless great care ls taken ano a substantlal trame createo tor tbe byoropbone
unlt.
Unllke conventlonal L8L ano S8L metboos, tbere ls no reounoant lntormatlon on stanoaro US8L systems trom
wblcb posltlon accuracy can be estlmateo. Accuracy ls normally stateo as between 0.5 to 1 ot tbe malmum
slant range measurement.
A2.4 Conbined Acoustic 5ystens
Tbese systems otter eltber multlple optlons tor users by comblnlng oltterent metboos or tocus on removlng tbe
llmltatlons ot a partlcular system so tbat botb posltlonlng ano oata telemetry may be provloeo.
8%02)#$:C$;$P(*5%&#.$?B@?$/4/,#*
Multl-user systems are requlreo wben more tban one vessel ls worklng ln close prolmlty ano wlsbes to use tbe
same acoustlc system, e.g. a orllllng vessel ln an olltlelo mlgbt bave a constructlon barge wltb an ROv support
vessel at tbe same locatlon, all wlsblng to bolo statlon ln oeep water uslng DP ano also uslng acoustlc posltlonlng
to monltor subsea operatlons sucb as an ROv lnterventlon or plpellne toucboown. Tbls slmultaneous use ot
acoustlc posltlonlng systems means tbat tbere ls slgnltlcant potentlal tor 'acoustlc pollutlon'. To solve tbls problem
tbere are a number ot comblneo approacbes posslble:
! Syncbronlseo broaocast ot tbe beacons,
! Master surtace vessel wltb raolo telemetry syncbronlsatlon to otber vessels,
! More cbannels wltbln tbe same bano tbrougb slgnal processlng tecbnlques,
! Tbe use ot oltterent trequency banos tor oltterent operatlons.
Tbe above tecbnlques otten lnvolve proprletary metboos ano oeslgns to enable system provloers to oltterentlate
tbelr proouct trom otbers. |n Flgure 14 below, an L8L system ls operatlng ln conjunctlon wltb two vessels
operatlng tbelr own US8L systems. Tbe L8L system ls able to operate ano provloe posltlonlng tor all tbe veblcles
ano vessels wbllst at tbe same tlme tbe US8L ot a surtace vessel ls able to communlcate wltb lts seabeo
transponoers. Approacbes sucb as tbls otter lncreaseo oata rates, better rellablllty ot oata ano acoustlc
posltlonlng trom tbe seabeo to tbe surtace, ano tbe ablllty to ensure all vessels ano objects trackeo remaln on
tbe same reterence posltlonlng system.
8%02)#$:E$;$P(*5%&#.$?DB@?
A2.5 lnverted Arrays
Tbe move lnto oeeper water bas requlreo tbe acoustlc posltlonlng manutacturers to oevelop even more
solutlons ano lnnovatlve lmplementatlons ot tbelr varlous systems. One sucb approacb ls tbe lnverteo US8L
system.
8y placlng tbe transcelver unlt ot tbe US8L system ln tbe toweo booy or subsea veblcle tbe observatlons are
collecteo at tbat subsea veblcle ano tberetore avallable tor use lmmeolately ln support ot lts posltlonlng ano route
tollowlng actlvltles. 8y mountlng tbe transcelver ln tbls way some operatlonal benetlts are galneo sucb as tbe low
nolse envlronment ot tbe toweo unlt, close pbyslcal coupllng wltb any attltuoe or motlon sensor. 8y provlolng
tbls approacb an aooeo capablllty ls lntroouceo tor acoustlc posltlonlng systems ano tbat ls tbe renoezvous ano
oocklng below tbe surtace ot an AUv.
50 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 51
8%02)#$:F$;$<$/-"#*+,%-$('$+&$%&1#),#.$DB@?$/4/,#*$'()$+$-+53#$52)%+3$63(20"
A2.6 Hybrid TechnoIogy 5ystens
Tbese bave oevelopeo tor a number ot reasons ano bave enableo varlous survey ano constructlon actlvltles by
removlng some ot tbe weaknesses ot acoustlcs systems by comblnlng tbem wltb anotber torm ot tecbnology.
Commonly, perlpberal sensors are useo to lmprove ano augment tbe pertormance ot acoustlc posltlonlng. |n tbls
category, bowever, tbe sensors bave been lntegrateo at a oeep level ano are essentlally part ot tbe proouct
oellvereo by tbe manutacturer ratber tban an optlon tor tbe user to select ano aoo sensor oata.
Most common among tbe maln systems ls tbe lntegratlon ot some torm ot an |MU tbat otters specltlc
cbaracterlstlcs complementlng acoustlc posltlonlng systems. Taken alone, tbe aovantages ot observeo oata trom
an |MU may be llmlteo oue to sbort term orltts ln tbe accelerometers, bowever, wben comblneo wltb oata trom
a US8L or L8L system, tbere can be slgnltlcant aovantages tor certaln operatlons.
|t ls beyono tbe scope ot tbls oocument to oescrlbe tbe nature ot tbe lntegratlon between acoustlcs ano |MUs.
However, a top level oescrlptlon ls provloeo to provloe a baslc unoerstanolng ot tbe metboos.
A2.6.1 lntegrated Acoustic and lMU 5oIutions
A small number ot tlgbtly lntegrateo solutlons bave been oevelopeo as 'ott-tbe-sbelt ' systems tor
operators. Tbey usually rely qulte beavlly on tbe use ot satelllte posltlonlng systems as a source ot
augmentatlon along wltb varlous perlpberal unlts, ano ln partlcular, tbe use ot |NS.
Tbere may be two prlmary unlts: tbe sblp's surtace unlt comprlslng GNSS, lnertlal motlon unlt ano
subsea transoucer, ano tbe sub-surtace unlt tbat comprlses an acoustlc transponoer ano assoclateo
perlpberal oevlces sucb as a oeptb sensor ano DvL unlt. |n oeeper water tbe solutlons may lncluoe a
sub-surtace |NS.
Tbe system obtalns tbe eact posltlon ot tbe surtace vessel uslng tbe GNSS ano surtace beaolng, |NS
ano otber perlpberal unlts. Tbls posltlon ls tben useo as a reterence tor tbe acoustlc US8L observatlons
to establlsb an eact posltlon tor tbe trackeo unoerwater object. Tbls accurate posltlon ot tbe
unoerwater unlt ls tben relayeo oown to tbe unoerwater unlt. Tbe oata ls tben lntegrateo lnto tbe |NS
onboaro tbe unoerwater veblcle, or asset belng trackeo, to establlsb lts own blgb accuracy posltlon.
Lacb tlme tbere ls a posltlon upoate at tbe surtace, lt ls relayeo acoustlcally ano recelveo by tbe
unoerwater system wblcb tben lncorporates lt lnto tbe solutlon by merglng lt wltb tbe assoclateo
perlpberal oeptb, altltuoe ano DvL oata.
Accuracles wlll vary oepenolng on tbe contlguratlon ot unlts ano mooules selecteo but potentlal
accuracles ot better tban 0.2 ot water oeptb may be acblevable.
An alternatlve approacb to obtaln botb stable ano accurate posltlonlng wltb a blgb upoate rate ln oeep
water ls to lntegrate acoustlcs wltb an lnertlal motlon unlt (|MU). Tbe system oerlves an accurate
solutlon by llnklng oata trom tbe |MU wltb accurate surtace oata ano tbe US8L observatlons. A typlcal
contlguratlon woulo lncluoe tbree maln unlts: tbe subsea systems, sblp's transoucer ano an onboaro
processlng computer.
Tbe unoerwater unlt's senor oata ls transmltteo to tbe surtace vessel acoustlcally ano lntegrateo wltb
tbe surtace oata to oerlve an accurate sub-surtace posltlon tor tbe unoerwater object. Tbe unoerwater
sub-surtace unlt may comprlse an lnertlal motlon unlt, DvL, pressure (or oeptb), altltuoe ano a beaolng
reterence unlt. All tbls sensor oata neeos to be transterreo to tbe surtace. Tbls ls acbleveo tbrougb tbe
use ot an acoustlc oata llnk. Certaln solutlons bave an lntegral acoustlc mooem ln tbe US8L system.
Tbe oata once recelveo, ls transterreo to tbe processlng computer wbere tbe surtace reterence
posltlonlng GNSS, as well as tbe US8L posltlonlng ano any sensor oata, are comblneo ln a tlgbtly coupleo
tllter solutlon.
|t ls posslble to use S8L or L8L tor acoustlc alolng to lmprove real-tlme posltlonlng. Tbere ls also
potentlal to turtber lmprove tbe results by post-processlng ano lt ls clalmeo tbat accuracles ot better
tban 0.1 ot water oeptb are acblevable.
52 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
Frequency
Appenol 3
Frequencles tor use ln oeep water posltlonlng are generally llmlteo to tbe lower ano meolum trequencles tor
tbrougb-water systems. For systems operatlng ecluslvely at tbe seabeo, bowever, tbe cbolce ot trequencles ls
wloer ano tor very accurate solutlons a relatlvely blgb trequency ls useo. Tbus, many systems alreaoy ln use ano
wltb a track recoro ot successtul operatlons ln relatlvely sballow water can operate ano provloe gooo posltlonlng
tor oeeper water projects.
Tbe selectlon ot low, meolum or blgb trequency systems ls part ot tbe plannlng wben tbe ranges, coverage ano
accuracy must be consloereo. |n tbe tollowlng llst ot trequencles, posslble resolutlon, not accuracy, ot tbe
measurements, ls lnolcateo. From tbls level ot resolutlon tbe accuracy ls otten consloereo ln olrect relatlon to
tbese values but ln reallty tbe accuracy ot a system ls tbe measurement accuracy (resolutlon ano repeatablllty)
coupleo wltb eternal callbratlon ano envlronmental tactors.
* Tbe spreao spectrum or wloebano slgnalllng tecbnlques, ratber tban toneo pulses, otters an lmproveo measurement resolutlon
!+53#$C$;$NH+*63#$')#O2#&-4$+&.$*#+/2)#*#&,$)#/(32,%(&
Wbllst tbe above llst ls usetul ano plannlng takes account ot tbese values, tbe envlronment bas an lmpact on tbe
ablllty ot tbe system to acbleve tbese measurement accuracles ano tben to convert tbem lnto accurate
posltlonlng. Tbe parameter wblcb bas tbe greatest lntluence ls tbe speeo ot souno ln water. Tbe lntluence ot tbls
parameter lncreases wltb tbe olstance over wblcb tbese systems operate.
Tbe lmpllcatlons ot tbe cbolce ot trequency attect tbe tollowlng aspects ot an acoustlc system:
! Accuracy ot tbe measurements ano posltlonlng,
! Slze ot tbe equlpment,
! Posslble range ano coverage acblevable,
! Tbe llkellbooo ot trequency clasbes ano lnterterence.
A3.1 Accuracy of Measurenent
Tbe trequency aoopteo by tbe posltlonlng system bas a olrect bearlng on tbe accuracy ot tbe measurements ano
consequently tbe accuracy ot tbe posltlonlng. Accuracy usually oecreases wltb trequency wbereas tbe range wlll
lncrease. Tbere wlll always be a compromlse between range ano accuracy.
Tbe accuracy ot tbe measurement ls oepenoent on tbe lnternal system tlmlng, tbe veloclty ot souno ln water, ano
tbe resolutlon ano repeatablllty ot tbe slgnalllng ano tor posltlonlng, tbe geometry ot tbe system.
A3.1.1 Acoustic Tining
Acoustlc slgnals bave an electronlc slgnal patb as well as a seawater patb, botb ot wblcb must be taken
lnto account ln tbe oetermlnatlon ot a range. Haroware ano tlrmware sboulo take lnto account lnternal
oelays ano slgnal patb tor tbe pulses, botb ln tbe transmlt ano recelve unlts ano also ln unlts tbat botb
recelve ano transmlt ln response. Tbls latter receptlon, process ano transmlsslon take a sbort perloo ot
tlme known as tbe turn-arouno tlme or oelay. |n tbe tollowlng table, some eample tlgures are sbown
to lllustrate tbe ettect a certaln trequency may bave on tbls lnternal system process.
Band frequency TypicaI resoIution
Low trequency (LF) 8-15 kHz 0.5m
Low trequency (LF)* 8-12 kHz 0.05m*
Meolum trequency (MF) 18-36 kHz 0.25m
Meolum trequency (MF)* 18-36 kHz 0.03m
Hlgb trequency (HF) 30-64 kHz 0.05m
Ltenoeo blgb trequency (LHF) 50-110 kHz 0.03m
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 53
!+53#$E$;$=&,#)&+3$')#O2#&-4$)#3+,#.$/%0&+3$,%*%&0/
Fortunately tbe manutacturers bave oevelopeo tests so tbat approprlate sottware ano tlrmware are
applleo to establlsb tbe eact lnternal system oelays ano to use correctlons to compensate tor tbe
oelayeo slgnals. Flgure 16 below ls a generlc lllustratlon ot bow tbe component parts ot tbe acoustlc
pulse attect tbe resolutlon ano repeatablllty ot tbe measurements.
8%02)#$:G$;$!"#$+-(2/,%-$623/#$(1#)$%&-)#+/%&0$,%*#$')(*$3#',$,($)%0",
Doppler attect sboulo also be taken lnto account. Tbls ls a sbltt ln tbe trequency ot a slgnal as oetecteo
by a recelver wben tbe transmltter object ls percelveo to be movlng wltb respect to tbe recelver unlt.
Ot course tbe recelver coulo be movlng ano tbe transmltter statlonary but tbe relatlve movement
woulo stlll create a Doppler sbltt ettect. Fortunately, most objects move at relatlvely slow speeos ano
so tor acoustlc posltlonlng tbe ettect ls qulte small. However, movement ooes lntroouce some
compllcatlons tor tbe slgnal processlng wltbln tbe acoustlc posltlonlng system as tbe perloo ot tlme
between a pulse ano a reply trom a transponoer coulo be sucb tbat tbe transoucer wlll bave moveo tar
enougb to warrant some torm ot correctlon to tbe measureo patbs. |n aooltlon, tbe movement ot tbe
transoucer beao on a surtace vessel sboulo be compensateo tor at a blgb upoate rate ln oroer to ensure
tbat any angles ot lncloence ot tbe return slgnals are accurately reterenceo.
Tbe compensatlon tor tbls movement ls lnevltably only a close approlmatlon to tbe trutb. Tbere may
be some resloual ettects reouclng tbe accuracy ot tbe acoustlc posltlonlng.
A3.1.2 Accuracy
Tbe measurement accuracy ot tbe varlous unlts avallable ls olscusseo above. However, tor posltlonlng,
tbe envlronment ls tbe oomlnant ano otten llmltlng tactor. 8y taklng account ot tbe measurement
resolutlon, tbe turn-arouno tlme, tbe relatlve movement ot tbe unlts ano tbe approprlate compensatlon
tor tbe veloclty ot souno ln seawater ano callbratlon ot tbe equlpment, tben tbe typlcal pertormance ot
tbe acoustlc systems may be summarlseo as tollows:
!+53#$F$;$!46%-+3$+--2)+-4$'()$.%''#)#&,$')#O2#&-%#/
Frequency
band
ChanneI
frequency
ChanneI
bandwidth
No. of
channeIs
PuIse
Iength
Detection
tine
VaIidation
tine
LF 12 kHz 120 Hz 10 8 ms 2.0 ms 6.0 ms
MF 22 kHz 200 Hz 12 4 ms 0.8 ms 3.2 ms
LHF 96 kHz 800 Hz 14 1 ms 0.2 ms 0.8 ms
Frequency Accuracy {ppt = part per thousand of the baseIine}
LF 12 kHz 0.05 Slant Range (S8L)
MF 22 kHz 0.03 Slant Range(S8L, US8L)
HF 0.02 Slant Range (US8L)
LF 0.5m + 1 ppt (L8L)
MF 0.25m + 0.5 ppt
HF 0.05m + 0.25 ppt
LHF 96 kHz 0.03m + 0.05 ppt
54 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 55
A3.2 PhysicaI 5ize and Frequency
Tbere ls a olrect relatlonsblp between tbe slze ot a transoucer ano tbe trequency at wblcb lt operates, ano
between tbe slze ot tbe transoucer ano lts olrectlvlty. Dlrectlvlty ls lmproveo lt tbe olameter or slze ot tbe
transoucer ls lncreaseo ano tbus transmlsslon loss reouceo.
Tbe tormula tor tbe D| ls:
34#'#()#"*+
,)
-5/
Wbere 'o' ls tbe olameter ot tbe transoucer ano ls tbe acoustlc wavelengtb. Tbls ls tberetore a crltlcal
parameter tor any US8L, SS8L or S8L system as tbe acoustlc ranges may be well oetermlneo but tbelr olrectlon
relles on very (ultra) sbort pbyslcal basellnes.
Consequently lt ls gooo to make tbe transoucer as large as ls practlcally posslble tor any glven trequency.
Untortunately, tbls ls botb epenslve ano lmposes llmlts on wbere lt can be lnstalleo onboaro a vessel. As tbls ls
trequently lmpractlcal, lt ls vltal to properly callbrate, loentlty ano quantlty tbe sources ot error ln US8L ano S8L
systems ano compensate tor tbem.
A3.3 Range and Coverage AchievabIe
Acoustlc posltlonlng systems measure ranges ano, ln some cases, olrectlons to beacons tbat are oeployeo on tbe
seabeo or tltteo to ROvs, or otber toweo objects. Tbe accuracy acbleveo wlll oepeno on tbe tecbnlque useo,
range ano envlronmental conoltlons. |t can vary trom qulte a tew metres to a tew centlmetres. Acoustlc
posltlonlng systems are generally avallable ln tbe tollowlng 'stanoaro' trequency banos:
!+53#$G$;$!46%-+3$*+H%*2*$)+&0#/$'()$.%''#)#&,$')#O2#&-%#/
Wbetber or not use ot oltterent trequencles wlll oellver acoustlc posltlonlng ot tbe oeslreo accuracy wlll be
llmlteo by tbe envlronment ano otber tactors ratber tban tbe olrect range measurement ltselt. An aooltlonal
pbenomenon ot acoustlcs ls tbat acoustlc slgnals can be attecteo by tbe patb along wblcb tbey are travelllng so
mucb so tbat tbls 'ray benolng' ettect can actually prevent slgnals belng recelveo well wltbln tbe tbeoretlcal
pertormance ot a system.
Appreclatlon ot tbe posslble llmlts to range ano etent to wblcb an acoustlc system can operate ls lmportant.
A3.4 Coverage ~ the Layout and Geonetry of the 5ysten
Tbe selectlon ot trequency bas an lmpact on tbe potentlal range ot an acoustlc slgnal. Wben coupleo wltb a
specltlc metbooology, trequency can lntluence tbe usetul coverage avallable ln oeep water. Caretul consloeratlon
at tbe plannlng stage ls requlreo, so tbat tbe oeslreo accuracy ano rellablllty may be obtalneo wltbout unoue use
ot assets ano unnecessary oeployment ano recovery ot unlts to ano trom tbe seabeo. Tbe coverage ls otten a
key element ln tbe oeslgn ot an acoustlc posltlonlng operatlon. varlous systems ano metboos can otter oltterent
coverage oepenolng on tbelr trequency.
A3.4.1 U5BL
Reterenceo to tbe surtace vessel, tbe system can only provloe coverage olrectly surrounolng tbe vessel.
Tbls ls aoequate tor many operatlons sucb as DP ano ROv relateo work, but can be llmlteo tor etenoeo
constructlon or lnstallatlon works.
Tbe trequencles useo by tbe typlcal US8L teno to be towaros tbe blgb eno ot any trequency bano. Tbls
keeps tbe pbyslcal slze ot tbe unlts to a mlnlmum, as slze can lntluence tbe accuracy ot tbe slgnalllng ano
CIassification Frequency Max range
Low trequency (LF) 8-16 kHz >10 km
Meolum trequency (MF) 18-36 kHz 2-3 km
Hlgb trequency (HF) 30-64 kHz 1200 m
Ltra blgb trequency (LHF) 50-110 kHz <700 m
tbe lnstallatlon costs. Ultlmately tbls restrlctlon ln slze llmlts tbe accuracy ot tbe system, as tbe slgnals
return trom tbe seabeo area tbelr range may be well measureo but tbe resolutlon ot tbelr olrectlon can
become lncreaslngly lnaccurate.
A3.4.2 5BL
Wbllst provlolng posltlonlng wltb reterence to tbe surtace vessel, tbe aooeo transoucers ano lncreaseo
basellne enable an S8L system to better oetermlne tbe olrectlon ot an acoustlc slgnal return ano provloe
tbe potentlal tor blgber accuracy tban US8L. Tbe aooeo complelty ano epense ot tbe transoucer
arrays on tbe bull ot a vessel mean tbat lt ls otten bullt tor long term operatlons, ano rellablllty becomes
a key parameter, more so tban accuracy. S8L systems are otten useo tor operatlons sucb as DP tor
orllllng ano tloatlng proouctlon storage ano ottloaolng unlt vessels.
A3.4.3 LBL
Tbe L8L acoustlc posltlonlng system ls lnoepenoent ot tbe surtace vessel ano can tberetore eteno lts
coverage over relatlvely large areas ano otter multlple users blgb accuracy posltlonlng close to tbe
seabeo. |n terms ot range, tbe L8L system ls more oepenoent on tbe trequency selecteo as tbe
metbooology enables tbe system to epano ano scale up ln tbe number ot unlts ano cover an
lncreaslngly large area.
A3.5 Frequency CIashes and lnterference
Frequency clasbes occur wben tbere are a greater number ot users ano transmlsslons ln tbe water tban acoustlc
posltlonlng systems can sustaln at once.
Recent aovances ln slgnal tecbnology bave, tor all practlcal purposes, removeo tbese llmltatlons. Oloer, traoltlonal
systems bave yet to overcome tbls problem ano may sutter long perloos ot oown tlme ano lost slgnalllng oue to
tbe problem.
Frequency clasbes occur wben tbere are too many acoustlc slgnals generateo ano ln tbe water at any one tlme.
Tbls sboulo be taken lnto account at tbe plannlng stage ot a project, ano many US8L ano L8L operatlons are
planneo wltb great care to ensure tbat tbere ls no trequency clasb or lnterterence. Untortunately, tbe oemanos
tor taster posltlonlng upoate rates, tbe lncreaseo use ot telemetry ln assoclatlon wltb posltlonlng ano tbe
etenoeo ranges at wblcb tbe systems are belng operateo mean tbat trequency clasbes can stlll occur.
A turtber lntluence ls tbe nature ot tbe seawater envlronment. Well layereo water booles elst tbat can cause
acoustlc slgnalllng to carry across etenoeo ranges well beyono tbe normal planneo ano requlreo olstances to
sucb an etent tbat nearby systems ln busy olltlelos may sutter acoustlc pollutlon.
56 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 57
Tbe recent oevelopment ot olgltal spreao spectrum slgnalllng ln acoustlcs otters several potentlal aovantages over
elstlng tone baseo pulse slgnalllng or 'cblrp mooulatlon' slgnalllng. Some ot tbese potentlal aovantages are
outllneo bere.
A4.1 Measurenent Accuracy
Tbe lntroouctlon ot low cost ano low power olgltal slgnal processors bas enableo manutacturers to take
aovantage ot spreao spectrum tecbnology ano to oevelop acoustlc appllcatlons. Flgure 17 below lllustrates tbe
relatlve slgnal power avallable.
8%02)#$:J$;$<$623/#.$&+))(>$5+&.$/%0&+3
Tbe slgnal patb resolutlon ano tbe preclslon ot tbe tlmlng, by tbe system, are olrectly proportlonal to tbe
banowlotb useo. As can be seen ln Flgure 17 above, tbe banowlotb ls slgnltlcantly greater tor a spreao spectrum
tecbnlque tban tor traoltlonal metboos ano tbe narrow bano slgnal uses more power. |n terms ot tbe slgnal
power, tbe spreao spectrum slgnal requlres relatlvely low power across a relatlvely banowlotb.
A4.2 Range and Coverage
8%02)#$:K$;$P(*6+)%/(&$('$)+&0#$-+6+5%3%,4$>%,"$/%0&+33%&0$*#,"(.(3(04
Appenol 4
5pread 5pectrun Techniques
A4.3 Resistance to MuIti-Pathing
As mentloneo above, tbe use ot tbe olgltal spreao spectrum approacb enables a number ot slgnalllng ano
measurement aovantages to be galneo over tbe traoltlonal pulseo tonal slgnalllng. Mltlgatlon ot multl-patb ls one
sucb aovantage wbere tbe correlatlon tecbnlques ot matcblng tbe lncomlng slgnal, or cooe, to tbe selt-generateo
reterence cooe allow tor tbe olrect matcb to be acqulreo ano tben tbls blgb oegree ot correlatlon ls useo to
accept or reject a slgnal. A well oetlneo correlatlon peak ls usually generateo, as seen ln Flgure 19 below, wben
tbe slgnalllng matcbes, ano tbls alos ln tbe process ot rejectlng unwanteo multlple slgnals tbat bave some slgnal
strengtb ano some oegree ot correlatlon creatlng a seconoary but lesser peak.
8%02)#$:L$;$Q#3+,%1#$+--2)+-4$('$&+))(>5+&.$+&.$>%.#5+&.$*#,"(./
Tbe ablllty ot spreao spectrum tecbnlques to swlttly resolve tbe correct slgnal alos ln tbe rejectlon ot otber
slgnals ano allows tor more cbannels, or cooes, to be aoopteo wltbln a specltlc central trequency bano.
A4.4 lnproved 5ignaI to Noise Ratio
Tbe metboos ot correlatlng tbe transmltteo slgnal ano cooe are generally very sensltlve ano proprletary areas
tor manutacturers. However, tbere are slgnltlcant galns ln pertormance, as can be seen ln Flgure 20 below. From
tbe Sonar Lquatlon oevelopeo tbe concept ot belng able to preolct a system's pertormance, ln terms ot slgnal
level versus tbe transmlsslon loss ano tben oeveloplng tbls as a measure ot range capablllty.
8%02)#$AM$;$P(*6+)%/(&$('$*(.23($K$8BR$+&.$/6)#+.$/6#-,)2*$BSQ
58 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 59
Typlcal values tor tbe lncrease ln slgnal to nolse ratlo are between tbree ano tlve o8, oepenolng on tbe traoltlonal
metboo ano tbe trequency aoopteo.
A4.5 5ignaI Measurenent Accuracy
A turtber step torwaro ls maoe wben consloerlng tbe accuracy ot tbe actual tlmlng ano range measurements
tbemselves. Tbls ls best lllustrateo ln Flgure 21 below. Tbe tlmlng process ls baseo on tbe correlatlon ot tbe
cooeo slgnals ano enables tbe preclse resolutlon ot tbe polnt ot lnterest. As tbe reterence cooe ano recelveo
cooe are compareo, tbelr matcblng results very preclsely plnpolnt lnstants ln tlme tbat can tben be useo tor tbe
resultant ranges ano otber measurements.
8%02)#$A:$;$B6)#+.$/6#-,)2*$T>%.#$5+&.U$/%0&+3$,%*%&0
60 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 61
Tbe speeo ot souno ln water or tbe veloclty ot propagatlon ot souno ln water ls one ot tbe most crltlcal ano
ultlmately llmltlng tactors ln tbe potentlal accuracy ot acoustlc posltlonlng systems.
Seawater ls not a unltorm, lsotroplc meolum. Tbe veloclty ot souno ln water ls attecteo by cbanges ln temperature
at 1m/sec per 0.24C (tbe oomlnant tactor), sallnlty at approlmately 1m/sec per 1/875 part ano oeptb or
pressure at a rate ot approlmately 1m/sec per 60m lncrease ln oeptb. Acoustlc posltlonlng systems rely on an
eact knowleoge ot tbe veloclty ot souno ln seawater ano ln partlcular a mean value tor tbe route tbe acoustlc
slgnal takes between transmltter ano recelver. Otten tbls ls not eactly known ano so mooel ano approlmatlon
tecbnlques are useo to oerlve values tbat are consloereo accurate tor oeep water acoustlc posltlonlng
operatlons.
Owlng to tbe oynamlc nature ot tbe subsea envlronment, lt ls costly ano tlme consumlng to take many
observatlons to establlsb tbe eact values tor tbe veloclty ot souno ln water. Wbllst tbe loeal woulo be to obtaln
contlnuous measurements, tbls ls not generally practlcal. |nsteao, a SvP ls bullt up trom tbe measurements taken,
wblcb wlll represent tbe tull water column trom sea surtace to seabeo, ano tbls ls useo ln tbe survey area.
Tbls SvP ls usually obtalneo by uslng an lnoepenoent temperature/sallnlty/oeptb probe or veloclty protller, wblcb
ls 'cast' lnto tbe sea, lowereo oown tbrougb tbe water column ano caretully recovereo. A representatlve set ot
SvPs woulo be collecteo tor a project. |nltlally several SvP sets woulo be gatbereo eacb oay to establlsb tbe
nature ot tbe work area. Atter tbls, lt ls otten posslble to reouce tbe trequency ot 'casts' to perbaps oally. Tbe
casts sboulo also be collecteo across tbe area ot operatlon oepenoent on lts slze ano tbe varlatlon ln water
oeptbs across lt.
A5.1 Tenperature
Tbe temperature at tbe sea surtace varles wltb tbe geograpblc posltlon on tbe eartb, tbe season ano tbe tlme ot
tbe oay. Tbe temperature parameter can be a comple one wltb varlatlons spatlally, temporally ano especlally
tbrougb tbe water column between tbe surtace ano seabeo. |t cannot easlly be preolcteo ano so surveyors must
collect numerous SvP casts. Tbese are tben useo to bullo up a plcture ot tbe rate ot cbange ot tbe veloclty ot
souno ano to establlsb tbe trequency at wblcb turtber measurements must be taken to ensure tbat tbe acoustlc
posltlonlng systems remaln accurate.
Temperature varlatlon ls tbe oomlnant tactor controlllng tbe varlatlon ln souno veloclty between tbe surtace ano
tbe lower llmlt ot tbe tbermocllne. Once below tbe tbermocllne, pressure becomes tbe prlnclpal lntluence.
A5.2 Pressure
Seawater pressure bas a slgnltlcant lmpact on tbe varlatlon ot souno veloclty. Tbe speeo ot souno ln water
lncreases at 1m per secono tor every 60m ot oeptb.
A5.3 Density
Water oenslty ls oepenoent on temperature, sallnlty ano pressure. Tbe largest lntluence ls tbe compresslblllty ot
water wltb oeptb.
A5.4 5aIinity
Sallnlty ot water ls tbe measure ot tbe quantlty ot olssolveo salts. |t ls usually oetlneo as tbe total amount ot
olssolveo partlcles ln parts per tbousano (ppt or Z) by welgbt. |n practlce, sallnlty ls not oetermlneo olrectly
but ls computeo trom tbe retractlve lnoe or electrlcal conouctlvlty. Tbese parameters bave olrect relatlonsblps
to tbe amount ot suspenoeo partlcles ot salt ln water ano bave been well establlsbeo. Tbe average sallnlty ot
seawater ls arouno 35Z. Typlcally tbe sallnlty ls measureo wltb a CTD cast uslng tbe observable parameter,
electrlcal conouctlvlty.
Appenol 5
VeIocity of 5ound
A5.5 lnstrunentation
Tbls subsectlon oescrlbes tbe unlts useo tor oetermlnlng tbe veloclty ot souno.
8%02)#$AA$;$<$/#)%#/$('$*%&%$1#3(-%,4$6)(5#/$+&.$/#&/()/$TV+3#6(),$?%*%,#.U
Tbe souno veloclty protller ls tbe most common lnstrument useo to measure tbe SvP tbrougb tbe water column.
Tbls lnstrument bas one pressure sensor to measure oeptb ano a transoucer ano retlector arrangement to
calculate olrectly tbe veloclty ot souno. Tbls ls oone by tlmlng tbe two-way travel tlme ot tbe acoustlc slgnal
between tbe transoucer ano retlector.
Tbe CTD probe ls an electronlc lnstrument wltb sensors tor conouctlvlty, temperature ano oeptb. Tbe electrlcal
conouctlvlty ot tbe seawater ls measureo olrectly ano togetber wltb tbe pressure (oeptb) ano temperature tbe
veloclty ot souno may be oerlveo.
Wben taklng casts to oetermlne tbe veloclty ot souno, care sboulo be taken to ensure tbe lnstrument ls
callbrateo. Tbe unlt sboulo be ln lnserteo lnto tbe water tor approlmately 10 mlnutes prlor to commenclng a
protlle ln oroer to allow tbe metal ano composlte surtaces to aojust to tbe water temperature.
Tbe SvPs recovereo sboulo always be cbeckeo tor erroneous oata ano perloos wben tbe equlpment may bave
been lylng on tbe seabeo or bas come out ot tbe water wben near tbe surtace, as may bappen ln a beavy swell.
|t ls wlse to recoro all oata at trequent ano regular lntervals ano ourlng botb oownwaros ano upwaros stages.
Tbe resultlng two protlles can tben be lnspecteo ano compareo to contlrm tbey are slmllar, atter wblcb tbe
protlles are otten averageo to create tbe tlnal protlle.
A5.6 The 5ound VeIocity Conputation
Tbe reterence most useo by ottsbore surveyors ls tbe UNLSCO (Unlteo Natlons Loucatlonal, Sclentltlc ano
Cultural Organlzatlon) oocument wblcb oescrlbes tbe varlous tormulae tbat can be useo to oerlve tbe veloclty
ot souno, ano recommenos tbe use ot specltlc tormula tor certaln conoltlons sucb as oeep water, contlnental sbelt,
arctlc conoltlons ano tresb water envlronments. Tbls was later upoateo by tbe Hyorograpblc Soclety wbose
Speclal Publlcatlon SP 34 oetalls a range ot tormulae ano aovlce on tbelr approprlate use. Tbe preterreo tormulae
are otten applleo by sottware wltbln tbe equlpment useo or ln tbe recorolng unlt.
62 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 63
A6.1 Acoustic Noise
A6.1.1 BioIogicaI Noise
Marlne llte can provloe some lnterterence wltb wbales generally creatlng low trequency nolses ano
oolpblns proouclng wloe bano slgnals. Tbe etent to wblcb wbales or oolpblns lntertere ls not tully
unoerstooo, but current envlronmental monltorlng alms to protect tbese anlmals ano ensure tbat tbe
acoustlc posltlonlng ano tracklng systems oo not barm or enoanger tbem.
8%02)#$AC$;$B(2)-#/$('$#&1%)(&*#&,$+&.$*+&I*+.#$&(%/#
A6.1.2 Wind and Rain
For acoustlc tracklng systems tbat use trequencles ln tbe 15 to 35 kHz bano, tbe oomlnant
envlronmental nolse source ls usually weatber generateo surtace nolse, l.e. wlno ano raln. Tbls ls
slgnltlcant enougb tbat tbe pertormance ot acoustlc tracklng wlll cbange wltb tbe weatber conoltlons.
However, tor tbe oeep water appllcatlons ano use belng consloereo ln tbls oocument, tbls lntluence
sboulo not be slgnltlcant ano even tor near surtace byoropbones/transoucers may be mltlgateo by
aojustlng power ano pulse settlngs.
Appenol 6
Acoustic Noise and lnterference
8%02)#$AE$;$S(%/#$-+2/#.$54$/#+$/2)'+-#$-(&.%,%(&/
Dlstlngulsblng envlronmental nolse ano mecbanlcal or man-maoe lnterterence ls not always
stralgbttorwaro wben operatlng acoustlc systems. |t ls posslble to categorlse tbe posslble man-maoe or
selt nolse sources ot lnterterence.
A6.1.3 5eIf Noise
Selt nolse ls tbe nolse generateo by tbe sblp or ROv carrylng tbe tracklng system or beacon. Tbe maln
sources ot selt nolse are:
! sblp nolse,
! tlow nolse,
! reverberatlon,
! multl-patblng nolse.
Selt nolse varles greatly trom one vessel to anotber ano trom one oay to tbe net. |t ls very olttlcult to
measure rellably an accurate selt nolse level ot a sblp. However, surveys are a common occurrence so
as to alo ln tbe placement ot tbe transoucer ano to ensure tbat tbe specltlc operatlng trequencles can
stlll be transmltteo ano recelveo.
Selt nolse ls usually tbe unknown tactor wblcb makes lt olttlcult to preolct tbe pertormance ot an
acoustlc tracklng system.
A6.1.4 Cavitation {5hip Noise}
One ot tbe maln causes ot acoustlc lnterterence ls tbe nolse proouceo by tbe sblp's propeller. As tbe
propeller speeo ot rotatlon lncreases, lt causes pressure lmbalances ano tor some ot tbese, tbe very low
relatlve pressure causes steam ano bubbles wblcb are tbe source ot cavltatlon. Tbls ls lllustrateo ln
Flgure 25 below.
64 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 65
8%02)#$AF$;$<$-(**(&$-+2/#$('$%&,#)'#)%&0$+-(2/,%-$&(%/#$%/$6)(6#33#)$-+1%,+,%(&$TW"(,(X$D&%1#)/%,4$('$S#>-+/,3#U
As tbe sblp's propeller moves away trom tbe bubbles, tbe pressure lncreases causlng tbe bubbles to
collapse ano proouce a contlnuous, sbarp, blsslng nolse. Tbls cavltatlon nolse ls louo ano bas a wloe
banowlotb ano so can lntertere to a slgnltlcant oegree ln tbe trequencles useo tor acoustlc posltlonlng.
A6.1.5 FIow Noise
For certaln operatlons, sucb as DP, tbe selt nolse trom tbrusters, cavltatlon ano orllllng macblnery may
be oomlnant wbereas tor otber appllcatlons, sucb as surveylng uslng toweo booles, tbe tlow nolse may
be a llmltlng tactor. As tlow speeo lncreases, trlctlon between an object ano tbe water lncreases,
resultlng ln turbulence ano progresslvely lncreaslng nolse oue to tluctuatlng statlc pressure ln tbe water.
Tbls ls sbown ln Flgure 26 below. Lample (A) sbows a relatlvely clean ano lamlnar tlow state wblle
eample (8) sbows tbe presence ot turbulent water arouno tbe object.
8%02)#$AG$;$83(>$&(%/#$%&$T@U$+-,/$+/$+$-+2/#$('$%&,#)'#)#&-#
At very low speeos tbere ls no observable tlow nolse. A sllgbt lncrease ln speeo cbanges tbe tlow
pattern trom lamlnar to a turbulent conoltlon ano, as a result, strong tlow nolse wlll be observeo.
Furtber lncreases ln speeo lncrease tbe lntenslty ot tbls nolse. |t a byoropbone ls placeo ln a reglon ot
turbulence, tluctuatlons ot pressure wlll occur on lts tace ano lt wlll measure tbe result, a low trequency
tlow nolse. Flow nolse ls a tunctlon ot speeo, wltb a sbarp tbresbolo. Flow nolse may lncrease to sucb
a oegree tbat a vessel speeo llmlt may be requlreo wltb consequent lmpact on operatlons.
"
#
A6.1.6 5ignificance of VesseI Noise 5urveys
Tbe lmportance ot establlsblng levels ot selt nolse ano otber posslble nolse sources can be crltlcal tor
oeep water operatlons wbere tbe surtace vessel lnstallatlon bas to be able to recelve relatlvely weak
slgnals trom tbe sea tloor. Wben a project-specltlc oeep water acoustlc posltlonlng system ls belng useo
on a vessel tor tbe tlrst tlme ano tbere ls some ooubt as to lts operablllty, ln oroer to better unoerstano
wbat tbe llmlts may be, a tull acoustlc nolse protlle survey may be carrleo out.
Tbls requlres valuable vessel tlme, bowever, lt ooes establlsb lt tbe systems proposeo tor lnstallatlon wlll
actually acbleve tbelr requlreo purpose ano succeeo ln provlolng gooo acoustlc slgnalllng ano receptlon.
Tbe proceoure ls to stream a callbrateo llstenlng byoropbone ano to recoro tbe acoustlc oata acqulreo
by tbe byoropbone as tbe vessel carrles out varlous operatlons sucb as belng unoer way, on DP wltb
tbrusters, remalnlng close to statlon but wltbout tbrusters, ano tben a general serles ot measurements
wltb tbe propeller pltcb ano tbrusters at varlous settlngs. A turtber recorolng ot tbe amblent nolse, by
lettlng tbe vessel orltt ln tbe vlclnlty ot tbe test, ls also recommenoeo as tbls glves a basellne tor tbe
nolse survey. |n tbls way, a comprebenslve protlle ot tbe nolse comlng trom tbe vessel can be bullt up
ano may be useo to establlsb lt tbe acoustlc posltlonlng system, wben tltteo, can operate wltbout too
mucb acoustlc pollutlon.
A6.2 5ignaI Reverberation
Slgnal reverberatlon (or ecbo) ls causeo wben an acoustlc slgnal ls transmltteo ano bounces or retlects ott objects
ln tbe water causlng unwanteo ln-bano nolse. |n tbls case tbe ettect ls only really a problem tor actlve sonar
systems. Tbe posslble llkely sources ot reverberatlon objects are:
! sea surtace,
! seabeo,
! sblp's bull,
! subsea equlpment sucb as orllllng templates, 8OP ano rlser,
! tlotatlon mooule ano sensor array on an ROv.
An eample ot an acoustlc reverberatlon ls sbown ln Flgure 27 below. |t can be seen ln tbe vertlcal als (Y als).
Tbe amplltuoe raploly oecays over tbe tlme wblcb ls representeo by tbe borlzontal als (X als).
8%02)#$AJ$;$Q#1#)5#)+,%(&$&(%/#$+0+%&/,$,%*#
All acoustlc posltlonlng systems are subject to posslble lnterterence ano olsruptlon oue to nolse. A potentlally
slgnltlcant problem ls causeo by sollo metal objects close to tbe source, recelver or tbe travel patb ot tbe acoustlc
slgnal. Sucb objects can generate spurlous retlectlons wblcb are reterreo to as multl-patb.
66 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 67
A6-2.1 MuIti-Path
Multl-patb ls causeo by acoustlc slgnals travelllng tbrougb nearby objects, tbereby creatlng a retractlve
ano multlple serles ot slgnals wblcb take a sllgbtly oltterent patb to tbe recelver tban tbat ot tbe olrect
slgnal. Tbe reason lt can be slgnltlcant ls because wbllst acoustlc processors otten take account ot tbe
many oelays tbat can attect an acoustlc slgnal, tbey may not make suttlclent allowance tor slgnals arrlvlng
early. Tbls can bappen because tbe speeo ot souno ls mucb taster ln a sollo object sucb as steel tban lt
ls ln water.
For eample, a basellne between two L8L beacons along a plpellne may sutter trom multl-patb ettects
wltb tbe system taklng account ot tbe tlrst (ano spurlous) return causeo by tbe slgnal uslng part ot tbe
steel plpe to travel tbe olstance between tbe two beacons. |n etreme cases, multl-patb can cause
beacons ano transponoers to operate ano appear to provloe normal ranges ano slgnals wben tbey are
ln tact belng retlecteo. Tbe gooo surveyor ano project planner wlll ensure tbere ls reounoancy ot
beacons or statlons to allow tbe posltlonlng system or post-processlng to lsolate ano remove tbese
erroneous slgnals.
8%02)#$AK$;$NH,)#*#$*23,%I6+,"$-+&$-+2/#$#))(&#(2/$/%0&+33%&0$+&.$6(/%,%(&%&0
Consloeratlon bas been glven so tar to retlectlve multl-patb trom a surtace or object, bowever, even lt
tbere are no sollo objects ln tbe water, multl-patb ot tbe slgnal stlll can occur. Tbls scatterlng multl-patb,
sometlmes termeo mlcro partlcle multl-patb, ls not well unoerstooo, but bas tbe ettect ot olstortlng ano
stretcblng tbe slgnal. Posslble causes are tbougbt to lncluoe:
! partlcles ln water,
! mlcro temperature varlatlons,
! olssolveo salts ln tbe water.
Mlcro partlcle multl-patb ls at a mlnlmum wben a slgnal passes vertlcally tbrougb tbe water column.
Generally lt ls oversbaooweo by tbe more slgnltlcant ray benolng oue to tbe varlatlon ln tbe water
envlronment. Ray benolng ls covereo ln more oetall below.
A6.3 Acoustic lnterference
A6.3.1 Effects of lnternaI Waves in Deep Water
|nternal waves are pbenomena tbat occur below tbe surtace e are normally veloclty protlles. veloclty
protlles are tbe measurement ot tbe varlatlon ln tbe speeo ot souno ln water agalnst oeptb. Conoltlons
tor lnternal waves may lncluoe a sbarp tall ln tbe oenslty ano temperature ln tbe water column. Tbe
tbermocllne wlll lnolcate a relatlvely raplo cbange creatlng a torm ot layerlng.
Tbe pbyslcal ettects ot lnternal waves may vary but ln general tbey can be consloereo to bave
wavelengtbs ot several bunoreo metres creatlng currents ot between 1-2m wltb amplltuoe ot tens ot
metres, perbaps as large as 100m.
Tbe lmpact on an acoustlc posltlonlng operatlon ls to lntroouce raplo cbanges ln tbe temperature wblcb
may cause slgnal loss between tbe surtace ano seabeo.
|t tbe presence ot lnternal waves are consloereo a posslblllty, tben tbe tlrst course ot actlon ls to set up
a monltorlng system to observe ano quantlty tbe problem (bearlng ln mlno tbelr presence may be
seasonal).
A6.3.2 Ray Bending
Ray benolng ls a pbenomenon proouceo by tbe varlatlon ln tbe layerlng ano conoltlon ot tbe water. For
souno propagatlng ln seawater, an elastlc meolum, varlous matbematlcal solutlons are useo to mooel tbls
pbenomenon. One approacb ls ray tbeory. Tbls provloes a usetul lnslgbt to tbe llkely presence ot
acoustlc slgnals ano may be useo as part ot a plannlng process to oetermlne tbe sultablllty ot a system.
Tbe tlgures ln tbls sectlon are eamples ot tbe ray tbeory process useo to create ray trace olagrams.
Uslng Snell's law, ray trace olagrams may be constructeo to represent tbe retractlon ot tbe souno ln
layers ot water.
|n tbe eample sbown ln Flgure 29 below, oata tor tbe water column temperature ano veloclty ot souno
was collecteo ott tbe coast ot Western Australla ln water ot 200m oeptb. Tbe slgnalllng remalns well
oetlneo along tbe sea tloor to a olstance ln ecess ot 2,500m, wbereas tbe slgnals to tbe surtace are less
well oetlneo beyono 1,300m. |n oeeper areas tbe ettects can be more comple, especlally wben relatlvely
well stratltleo booles ot water converge ano overlap one anotber.
8%02)#$AL$;$?+4#)%&0$%&$,"#$>+,#)$-+&$6)(.2-#$/%0&%'%-+&,$)+4$5#&.%&0$#''#-,/
|n tbe eample sbown ln Flgure 30 below, tbe oeep water veloclty protlle ott tbe coast ot West Atrlca
appears to be gooo to tbe surtace but ooes not otter slgnalllng across tbe seatloor beyono 1,000m ano
tor a cautlous approacb only as mucb as 700m. |n sucb a oeep water area, tbe use ot L8L woulo requlre
speclal attentlon to avolo tbe loss ot ranges ano acoustlc slgnalllng.
68 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 69
8%02)#$CM$;$Y##6$>+,#)$-(&.%,%(&/$)#/23,%&0$%&$6(()$/%0&+33%&0$+,$,"#$/#+5#.
A6.3.3 Acoustic BIanking
Souno travels ln stralgbt llnes, but only wben tbe veloclty ls constant everywbere tbrougbout tbe area.
Tbls ls not tbe case tor seawater ano so some acoustlc slgnal, or ray benolng occurs. For souno
propagatlng ln seawater, tbe veloclty graolents olctate tbls process ano wlll constraln tbe acoustlc
slgnalllng to travel ln certaln olrectlons ano ln certaln layers. |n otber areas ano layers, tbe presence ot
any oeslreo acoustlc slgnal, trom tbe transoucer, transponoer or beacon, wlll be negllglble. Tbe graolent
oepenos on tbe veloclty protlle ano lt ls tbls graolent tbat proouces certaln cbannelllng ettects tbat may
llmlt tbe presence ot tbe slgnal ln tbe upper sballow layers or ln tbe lower, oeeper areas.
|t ls tbls posslblllty ot slgnal loss ano tbe lmpact tbat tbe loss ot acoustlc slgnalllng woulo bave on an
operatlon tbat makes lt crltlcal to establlsb as early as posslble, ano preterably well betore any tlelo
operatlons commence, eactly wbat sort ot water envlronment ls present ano bow tbat attects tbe
acoustlc posltlonlng.
One scenarlo ls wben tbe graolent creates a torm ot souno cbannel. A souno cbannel occurs wben a
negatlve-veloclty graolent overlles an lso-veloclty or posltlve-veloclty graolent. See Flgure 31 below.
8%02)#$C:$;$Y##6$>+,#)$6)('%3#$('$/#+>+,#)$1#3(-%,4$('$/(2&.
|n Flgure 31 above, at arouno 1,000m water oeptb, we see tbe veloclty graolent cbange trom negatlve
to posltlve. Tbls ls known as tbe als ot tbe souno cbannel.
Tbe als ls tbe level ot mlnlmum souno speeo. An etreme cbange ln tbe veloclty ano graolent values
wlll proouce a cbannelllng ettect oue to tbe way acoustlc slgnals are retracteo towaros tbe slower souno.
Consequently, tbe souno botb below ano above tbe als are retracteo towaros tbls level creatlng a
cbannel.
70 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 71
A7.1 5tation DepIoynent
Tbe sequence tor tbe oeployment ot tbe seabeo beacons ano transponoers ls consloereo lmportant as lt otten
olctates tbe overall level ot system pertormance tbat can be acbleveo. Tbe tlrst beacon to be oeployeo ln tbe
area ls a crltlcal one as lt must be placeo correctly tor tbe requlreo coverage ano pertormance. To avolo
problems, project plannlng sboulo ensure tbat a clear slgnal patb ls llkely wltbout multl-patb belng present. Prlor
to oeploylng over tbe sloe, tbe unlt sboulo be cbeckeo tor cbargeo batterles, properly tunctlonlng sensors ano, lt
approprlate, tbe olrectlon ot tbe reterence beaolng sensor.
Tbe locatlon on tbe seabeo sboulo be clear ot locallseo nolse. Once tbe beacon bas maoe toucboown or ls
placeo on tbe seabeo, tbe oeptb settlng ano power levels sboulo be cbeckeo ano tbe unlt set to transmlt to cbeck
tbe transponoer tunctlons.
A number ot tactors lntluence statlon oeployment, lncluolng:
! oeslgn ot oeep water transponoer trames,
! sultablllty ano use ot acoustlcs as DP reterences,
! oeptb ratlng ot acoustlc equlpment,
! power levels ano battery tecbnology.
A7.2 Deep Water Frane Designs
varlous oeslgns ot seabeo trame tor transponoers elst, generally maoe ot steel ano oeslgneo to wltbstano
conoltlons on tbe seabeo. Tbe llkely rlsks to tbe trame lncluoe: accloental oamage by tbe otber vessels ano assets
lncluolng ROvs, slumplng or settllng tbat may occur oue to tbe welgbt ot tbe trame on tbe seabeo, ano corroslon
tbat may result ln a tallure ot some part ot tbe trame or tallure to recover tbe transponoer.
For large oeep water projects, bunoreos ot trames may be requlreo but not all wlll be populateo by transponoers.
Tbe approacb now ls to oeploy tbe requlreo number tor operatlons ano to move ano re-pot tbe transponoers
ln tbe trames tor eacb actlvlty. |n tbls way, only a tractlon ot tbe total numbers ot trames requlre a transponoer
at any one tlme.
Tbe transponoer trames are typlcally maoe ot steel ano are between 1.5m ano 3m blgb. Tbey generally bave a
trlpoo oeslgn wltb a small plate tor tbe slot lnto wblcb tbe transponoer ls tleo. Tbe welgbt ot tbe transponoer
slttlng ln a well macblneo slot wltb tlgbt tolerance ls suttlclent to keep lt ln place. A trame may bave between
two ano tour slots. An alternatlve oeslgn ls tbe sleo oeslgn wltb a slmple base ano column tor tbe transponoers.
Tbese appear less rlglo but may allow tor better recovery oue to tbelr sllmmer overall sbape ano, wltb less
materlal, coulo be more cost ettectlve. varlous oeslgns are avallable ano some are recommenoeo by tbe
manutacturers tor tbe lnstallatlon ot seabeo transponoers.
Lamples ot recently useo oeslgns are sbown ln Flgure 32 below.
Appenol 7
Deep Water Acoustic Operations
8%02)#$CA$;$NH+*63#/$('$,)+&/6(&.#)$')+*#/
A7.3 Characteristics and 5uitabiIity of Acoustics as DP References
DP requlres tbat tbe acoustlc posltlonlng system provloes lnoepenoent quallty controlleo posltlon solutlons at
eacb measurement, ano ls ot a oeslgn tbat lncluoes reounoancy ot equlpment ano suttlclent observatlons to
prevent any posltlonlng tallures.
As an alo to navlgatlon, tbe lnputs to a DP system must be rellable. Manutacturers bave aoopteo tbe approacb
ot bullolng two sets ot baroware ano lntegratlng tbe operator systems to reouce tbe buroen ot oual operatlons.
Wbllst tbls represents a convenlent approacb, lt ooes sutter trom potentlal eposure to a slngle polnt ot tallure
ln tbe acoustlc posltlonlng system. |n oroer to reouce tbls rlsk, DP systems requlre blgb rellablllty, partlcularly ln
oeep water, wbereas acoustlc posltlonlng systems tor survey ano constructlon purposes requlre blgb levels ot
accuracy ano tbe tlelblllty to posltlon multlple objects, some ot wblcb are at or near tbe seabeo.
Acoustlc posltlonlng systems sacrltlce some reounoancy ano rellablllty tor blgb pertormance. Sucb systems
sometlmes requlre contlguratlon, resettlng, aojustment or callbratlon tor eacb lnolvloual operatlon. Tbls ls rarely
acceptable tor marlne DP operatlons requlrlng sultable measures tor satety at sea. Consequently, DP systems
may operate at lower trequencles to ensure tbat acoustlc slgnal energy bas tbe power to reacb tbe beacons
ratber tban at blgber trequencles promlslng greater accuracy ln ecbange tor lower range.
Tbls means tbat lt ls otten qulte olttlcult to appreclate tbe neeo tor a speclallseo ano specltlc US8L system or L8L
system wben tbere ls an elstlng DP system onboaro capable ot operatlon ln oeep water. Tbe ollemma ls tbat
tbe DP unlt sboulo remaln separate trom any ao boc cbanges ano neeos to remaln operatlonal ano can provloe
tbe necessary posltlonlng ano guloance ano alarms tor tbe vessel.
Sbarlng DP acoustlc posltlonlng wltb survey appllcatlons ls teaslble but may not be practlcal because ot tbe
tunoamentally oltterent requlrements ot DP acoustlc posltlonlng systems ano survey acoustlc posltlonlng systems.
Tbls lssue ls covereo ln more oetall ln |MCA S 010 Tbe sbareo use ot sensors tor DP ano survey operatlons.
A7.4 Depth Ratings
Tbe appllcatlon ot acoustlc posltlonlng ln oeep water beyono 600m can lmpose cballenges on tbe oeslgn, bullo
ano operatlon ot tbe systems ano tbe varlous sensor components ot tbe unlts lnvolveo. For lnternatlonal
operatlons assoclateo wltb oeep water acoustlc posltlonlng, some consloeratlon sboulo be glven to tbe transport
ot tbe systems ano also to tbe varlous leglslatlve customs ano lmportatlon laws tor equlpment.
72 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 73
For oeep water operatlons tbe acoustlc posltlonlng system equlpment sboulo be testeo to at least operatlonal
oeptb plus 10 even tbougb tbere ls a margln ot satety ln tbe oeslgn. Water pressure at 600m wlll raploly epose
any weakness ln oeslgn or bullo quallty, causlng water lngress.
|n terms ot US8L ano S8L systems tbat are requlreo to provloe posltlonlng ln oeep water, tbey sboulo prove
rellable at transmlttlng ano recelvlng ranges ano oerlvlng tbe olrectlon ot tbe sources. Clalmeo ranges trom tbe
manutacturers are typlcally tor loeal conoltlons ano sboulo, tberetore, be cbeckeo caretully as envlronmental
conoltlons may lncrease slgnal losses.
Certaln countrles apply strlct rules to tbe eport ano lmport ot certaln types ot tecbnology. Acoustlc posltlonlng
systems togetber wltb tbe numerous assoclateo perlpberal oevlces otten come wltbln tbls restrlcteo class ot
prooucts.
A7.5 Data TeIenetry
Data telemetry ls an ever epanolng actlvlty tbat acoustlc posltlonlng systems ano a number ot elements are
wortby ot note ln tbls contet.
! Data trom sensors For a number ot appllcatlons, oeptb, temperature, altltuoe, pltcb ano roll, beaolng,
pressure or otber specltlc sensor oata may be collecteo ano transmltteo vla a oeolcateo cbannel.
! Packet messaglng Many ot tbe oata sets are too large to seno tbe wbole message complete ln one
transmlsslon, tberetore some torm ot compresslon or segmentatlon ot tbe oata ls requlreo. Data rates may
vary trom sensors ano tbe nature ot tbe project wlll lntluence tbe metboo aoopteo.
! 8utterlng |n some cases lnolvloual oata packets are too large tor a slngle transmlsslon ano so tbe acoustlc
unlt must banole tbls by butterlng lnternally. As acoustlc slgnals travel at relatlvely slow speeos tbrougb tbe
water wben compareo to electronlc oata, tbe lssue ot oata latency ano tbe arrlval tlme ot a oata packet
sboulo be consloereo togetber wltb tbe posslble segmentatlon ano packet messaglng strategy. 8utterlng ls
to be avoloeo but wbere lt ls necessary, tbe sblp baseo system sboulo be able to recelve eacb oata set ano
tben complle tbe tull message.
! Use ot cbannels As acoustlc posltlonlng systems use varlous cbannels to supply commanos or to transmlt
oata, lt may be posslble tor tbe operator to contlgure tbe system to enable multlple cbannels to carry oata
so as to lncrease tbe oata capaclty ot tbe llnk ano perbaps to mltlgate any oata latency. Wbere tbe cbannels
are not oeolcateo to oata telemetry, tben tbe oata must be lnterleaveo wltb tbe acoustlc posltlonlng
slgnalllng. Tbls may turtber reouce tbe volume ot oata posslble to be transmltteo.
! Telemetry ano oata transmlsslons Tbe use ot subsea mooems otters tbe operator to transmlt as mucb oata
as posslble tbrougb an acoustlc llnk. A number ot optlons elst ln terms ot tbelr power, trequency ano tbe
messaglng strategy. Mllltary appllcatlons otten concentrate on tbe covert nature ot tbe slgnalllng, but tor
commerclal oata transmlsslon tbe unlt wlll otten be able to optlmlse tbe oata volume at tbe llmlteo range
over wblcb tbe system may operate.
! Protocols Tbere ls no lnternatlonally accepteo specltlc stanoaro tor acoustlc oata transmlsslon ano so eacb
manutacturer bas been able to oevelop ano use lts preterreo metboo. Tbls wlll be lntluenceo by tbe cbolce
ot appllcatlon, trequency ano power useo as well as tbe slgnal encoolng tecbnlques.
! Frequency ano oata capaclty |n broao terms, just llke raolo waves, tbe blgber tbe trequency tbe greater tbe
oata capaclty. For acoustlc mooems tbe same prlnclple applles, bowever, tbere ls also a traoe ott ln as mucb
tbat tbe trequency sball llmlt tbe olstance over wblcb tbe oata can successtully be transmltteo ano recelveo.
Hlgber trequencles may not be approprlate tor oeeper water operatlons oue to tbls llmltatlon.
A7.6 Power LeveIs
Tbe battery capaclty ot varlous elements ot an acoustlc posltlonlng system may be quoteo ln terms ot lts ablllty
to pertorm a number ot transmlsslons. Tbls ls an lmportant parameter to be consloereo wben oeslgnlng ano
operatlng tbe unlts. Lacb unlt may be set to transmlt at a specltlc power level. However, sboulo tbe ranges
between unlts be ecesslve or sboulo tbere be slgnltlcant nolse, tben power settlngs may neeo lncreaslng, wblcb
may leao to lower battery llte. Tbe lncrease ot power levels may be ln oeclbels. Tbe operator sboulo be aware
tbat an lncrease ot 3o8 represents a ooubllng ot power wblcb bas a consequent lmpact on battery llte. Tbere
are otber envlronmental parameters, ot wblcb temperature ls perbaps tbe most lmportant, wblcb can lntluence
'real worlo' battery llte. Many mooern acoustlc systems bave oata telemetry capablllty sucb tbat tbe operator
may lnterrogate tbe unlt ano remotely oetermlne battery status ano power levels.
A7-7 5ysten Maintenance
A network ot beacons or transponoers requlres monltorlng ano some malntenance to ensure gooo levels ot
pertormance are acbleveo. Tbls lncluoes:
! settlng tbe transoucer ano beacon transmlt power levels,
! measurlng battery voltage ot eacb transponoer,
! regular measurement ot tbe SvP ln tbe network to take lnto account any varlatlons over tlme,
! measurlng tbe oeptb ot eacb unlt.
A7.8 MuItipIe VesseI Users
A recent problem tor operators ot acoustlc posltlonlng systems bas been tbe lntluence ot tbe envlronment on
tbe ablllty ot tbe acoustlc posltlonlng system to provloe rellable slgnalllng to a number ot users. Tbls bas occurreo
oue to several reasons. |n oeep water tbe natural amblent nolse ls qulte low ano so once a serles ot transponoers
or beacons ls oeployeo, tbelr slgnals wlll otten transmlt across mucb greater olstances tban ls necessary. Tbls
ettectlvely proouces lnterterence tor otber systems ln tbe local area.
Recent case stuoles bave sbown tbat tbere ls a neeo to caretully assess tbe envlronment to avolo slgnal ano
acoustlc pollutlon. Multlple vessels ano users eteno tbe range ano coverage requlreo but, by oolng so, also
lncrease tbe number ot acoustlc transmlsslons ano opportunltles tor lnterterence. Plannlng ot tbe loglstlcs ano
scbeoullng may blgbllgbt lt tbere wlll be clasbes or saturatlon.
A turtber problem ls tbat tbere bave traoltlonally been a llmlteo number ot slgnal cbannels to operate on ano
once a tull system ls oeployeo ano several surtace ano sub-surtace unlts are set up tor tracklng, tbere ls a lack ot
avallable cbannels or trequencles to accommooate aooltlonal unlts, or objects, to track.
Recent oevelopments by several ot tbe manutacturers bave sougbt to overcome tbe worst ot tbls by oeveloplng
broaocast systems ano aooptlng olgltal coolng to lncrease tbe potentlal number ot cbannels ano users ln a system
to several bunoreo, tbereby ettectlvely maklng lt unllmlteo tor most projects.
A7.8.1 5inuItaneous Position Fixing and lnfornation 5uppIy
Wbllst tbe alm ot tbe acoustlc posltlonlng system ls to create a serles ot slgnals tbat wlll enable a processlng unlt
to oerlve a posltlon, tbe system very otten neeos to also report tbe conoltlon, status ano measurements trom
tbe system or perlpberal oevlces. Acoustlc messages wltb assoclateo oata tor tbe sensors or tbe conoltlon ot
tbe system are vltal lt tbe operator ls to manage ano avolo problems.
Tbese seconoary transmlsslons may actually be more crltlcal as tbey otten carry tbe sensor oata messages ano
alert tbe operator to any problems.
A7.9 lnterface with Different 5ensors
|t ls not tbe lntentlon ot tbls oocument to provloe a tborougb revlew ot tbe sensors llsteo but to lllustrate tbelr
appllcatlon ano some elements ot tbelr use tbat tbe reaoer sboulo be maoe aware ot.
A7.9.1 Motion Reference Units
Tbe use ot a motlon reterence unlt may be tor tbe attltuoe ano orlentatlon ot tbe surtace sblp tbat
requlres tbls knowleoge tor compensatlng tbe observatlons trom a US8L system. Otber uses lncluoe
tbe ROv ano AUv sub-surtace booles tbat may wlsb to compensate tbelr motlon to ensure accurate
posltlonlng ano measurements are obtalneo. For tbe tormer, a varlety ot unlts may be consloereo but
ln general tbey wlll otter a blgb oata rate, at arouno 50 Hz.
Tbe sub-surtace appllcatlon ot tbese unlts ls more consloereo. For an AUv tbe power requlrements
sboulo be kept to a mlnlmum along wltb llttle welgbt or volume. On an ROv, bowever, power ls not tbe
llmlt, but otten space to lnstall tbe pressure bouslng to contaln tbe unlt ls a llmltlng tactor.
74 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 75
Data tormats are usually relatlvely slmple wltb tbe blgb oata rates requlrlng a slmple ano uncompllcateo
message tormat tbat may be lssueo at 50 Hz, or even at a rate ot 100 Hz. Tbe crltlcal tactors tor tbese
unlts are tbelr allgnment ano callbratlon along wltb tbe accurate tlme stamplng ot any oata. Tbe tlmlng
ls crltlcal to avolo lntroouclng errors oue to latency ano butterlng or slgnal oelays tbat woulo put tbe
motlon sensor oata out ot syncbronlsatlon wltb tbe otber sensors ano oata sets.
A7.9.2 Heading 5ensors
Traoltlonal nortb seeklng gyrocompasses are slowly belng replaceo by a serles ot new tecbnologles to
oerlve a beaolng reterence, lncluolng unoerwater GNSS-aloeo solutlons ano tlbre-optlc gyros.
|n all cases tbe accurate allgnment ls crltlcal ano agaln tbe tlmlng ot tbe oata outputs. Data rates are
not too blgb at perbaps a tew Hz but tbe lack ot an lnoepenoent cbeck means tbat tbese unlts may
eperlence some blas or errors tbat are very olttlcult to loentlty. Frequent operatlonal cbecks ano
callbratlons are requlreo to ensure tbey malntaln tbelr accuracy ano seconoary systems are carrleo to
avolo any crltlcal system tallures.
A7.9.3 GN55
Surtace posltlonlng ls reterenceo by use ot GNSS. Tbere are several varlants ot tbe satelllte systems
avallable. Tbe oloest ano most establlsbeo ls tbe US bullt satelllte posltlonlng system, GPS, orlglnally bullt
tor mllltary use ano now oomlnateo by commerclal ano clvlllan users. |n oeep water, tbe surtace
reterence wlll slmply be tbe startlng polnt tor tbe accumulatlon ot observatlons to create a posltlon at
or near tbe seabeo. Tbls accumulatlon process also aoos to tbe errors ano so lt ls gooo practlce to keep
tbe errors on tbe surtace to an absolute mlnlmum so as to reouce tbe propagatlon ot tbe errors.
Hlgb accuracy systems are now belng aovertlseo at better tban 20cm, wltb 10cm belng typlcal.
A7.9.4 lMU
Tbese are blgbly sensltlve unlts tbat oetect tbe lnertlal movement ot a booy ano translate tbat sensor
oata lnto relatlve movements ln tbe local X, Y ano Z aes ot tbe unlt. Tbe aes ot tbe |MU must be
relateo to eltber tbe ROv, sblp or AUv trame ano tben to tbe 'real worlo' (or slmply olrect to tbe real
worlo lt posslble).
Tbese sensor unlts proouce very blgb oata rates ot 100 to 500 Hz. Tlmlng ls crltlcal ano because tbey
bave a blgb orltt rate ln absolute terms, tbey requlre eternal or aooltlonal measurements to blno tbelr
errors ano keep tbe oerlveo posltlonlng accurate. Tbey are essentlally 'black boes' wltb mooelllng ano
tllterlng requlrements tbat mean a powertul processor ls requlreo ano consloerable ettort ls spent on
oeveloplng accurate elements ano parameters tor tbese mooels to ensure rellable accuracles can be
acbleveo.
A7.10 Checks and QuaIity ControI
Aooltlonal parameters must also be collecteo ano monltoreo tbe key one belng tbe speeo ot souno ln water
(or veloclty ot propagatlon) wblcb can otten llmlt tbe ablllty ot tbe acoustlc system to pertorm accurate
posltlonlng. For eacb well locatlon ano lnstallatlon, an accurate value woulo be requlreo ano cbecks maoe to
ensure no oegraoatlon ot quallty.
76 |MCA M 200, |MCA S 013
|MCA M 200, |MCA S 013 77
Wbllst tbere ls an lnterestlng range ot battery cbemlstrles ln use ln subsea appllcatlons, mucb oepenolng on tbe
slze ot tbe equlpment belng oeployeo ano on tbe tlnanclal resources avallable, tbe prlmary types ot battery useo
ln tbe commerclal oll ano gas sector are alkallne batterles ano lltblum batterles. More epenslve sllver-zlnc
batterles or beavy outy molten salt batterles are generally only touno ln mllltary unoerwater appllcatlons.
A8.1 Lithiun Batteries
Lltblum batterles are very attractlve to tbe oll lnoustry oue to a comblnatlon ot blgb energy oenslty, blgb voltage,
blgb current capablllty, wloe temperature range, a long sbelt llte ot up to 10 years wltb llttle loss ot capaclty ano
stable operatlng voltage. Tbe transport ot batterles uslng lltblum lon ano lltblum metal tecbnology (togetber wltb
many otber battery tecbnologles) ls regulateo by a serles ot mooe specltlc manoatory regulatlons appllcable to
lnternatlonal transport. Tbese regulatlons are retlecteo ln natlonal transport regulatlons ln many parts ot tbe
worlo. Lltblum tblonyl cblorloe (Ll/SOCl2) batterles are probably tbe most commonly useo type. All batterles
are potentlally bazaroous, but tbls type ot lltblum battery partlcularly so. Tbese batterles can be oamageo by
sbort-clrcults, overbeatlng, mecbanlcal oamage ano eposure to water. Sucb treatment can start cbemlcal
reactlons ano blgb currents lnsloe tbe battery wblcb can generate very barmtul nolous gases ano/or oanger ot
eploslons.
A8.2 AIkaIine Batteries
Alkallne batterles baseo on zlnc-manganese oloe cbemlstry are a more establlsbeo ano oloer tecbnology
oevelopeo ln tbe 1960s ano useo wloely across tbe worlo (every-oay oomestlc batterles are ot tbls sort). Tbougb
tbese batterles bave a lower energy oenslty tban lltblum batterles, tbey are botb cbeaper ano easler to olspose
ot. Tbe sbelt llte ot alkallne batterles ls less tban tbat ot lltblum batterles. An alkallne battery wlll retaln 85 ot
lts capaclty atter tour years storage at room temperature.
Appenol 8
Battery TechnoIogy