Societal Bilingualism

Nigel Musk
Masters Course Spring Term: Language & Culture

Course Structure
1. Language Contact
language change code-switching & code-mixing diglossia, language maintenance, language shift & language death (obsolescence) national languages, g g , the EU and multilingualism, g , language g g revitalisation & bilingual education

2. Individual Bilingualism

http://www liu se/ikk/ffu/ske/Masterutbildning/courses/language and culture in europe?l=en http://www.liu.se/ikk/ffu/ske/Masterutbildning/courses/language-and-culture-in-europe?l=en

3. Societal Bilingualism g

4. Language Policy and Language Planning

Three (prototypical) sociolinguistic situations

1. Standard-with-dialects 2. Societal bilingualism (multilingualism) 3. Diglossia

Some snapshots of bilingualism in Wales

TV series: Pam Fi Duw? (Why Me God?) life in and around a bilingual (Welsh) secondary school Welsh homepages Si Signposting ti Demographics Official Language g g Policy y & Planning g

A bilingual website

Bilingual roadsigns d i in Cardiff

Caerdydd

Cardiff

Demographics of bilingualism in Wales 1

Fig 2 Percentage & Numbers of Welsh Speakers Fig.

60

D Demographics hi of f Bilingualism Bili li 1200000 in Wales 2

1000000 800000

50

40

30

600000

20

400000

10

200000

Numb bers % no no.

0 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001

Three (prototypical) sociolinguistic situations

1. Standard-with-dialects 2. Societal bilingualism (multilingualism) 3. Diglossia

Bilingualism & diglossia

bilingualism: The capacity to make alternate (and sometimes mixed) use of two languages. languages (Concise O Oxford ford Companion to the English Lang Language age 1998) Bilingualism is the use of two (or more) languages in ones everyday life and not knowing two or more languages equally well and optimally. (Grosjean 2002: 2) diglossia: in some speech communities there is one one particular kind of standardization where two varieties of a language exist side by side g the community, y, with each having g a definite role to p play y throughout
(Ferguson 2000 [1959]: 65),

one of which is a superposed variety, that is,

not a primary native variety, but one learnt in addition to the native variety.

Diglossia: Diglossia : high vs low

The varieties are called H and L, the first being generally a standard variety used for high purposes and the second often a low spoken vernacular. [] L is typically acquired at home as a mother tongue [] H, on the other hand, is learned through schooling and
never at home, and is related to institutions outside the home.
(Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language 1998, my highlighting)

Fergusons Ferguson s nine criteria for determining diglossia (2000 [1959])

1. 2. 3. 4. 5 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. function prestige y heritage g literary acquisition standardisation stability grammar lexicon phonology

Fergusons Ferguson s four prototypical cases of diglossia (2000 [1959])

The case of Arabic diglossia

(Ferguson 2000 [1959]: 68)

Situation

H x

L x

Situation Arabic Swiss German Haitian Greek

'high' variety Classic Arabic

'low' variety Vario s regional Various colloquial varieties Standard German Swiss German Standard French Haiti Creole Katharvousa Dhimotiki

Sermon in church or mosque Instructions to servants, waiters, worksmen, clerks Personal letter Speeches in parliament, political speeches University y lecture Conversations with family, friends, colleagues News broadcasts Radio 'soap soap opera' opera Newspaper editorial, new story, caption on picture Caption on political cartoon Poetry Folk literature

x x x x x x x x x x

Fishmans extension of diglossia

(2000 [1967])

Diglossia vs bilingualism 1
(Fishman 2000 [1967]) Both diglossia and bilingualism - clearly defined or separate functions e.g. Spanish (H) and Guaran (a typologically unrelated indigenous language) in Paraguay where almost the entire population speaks both (83) Bilingualism without diglossia - the two languages or varieties lack clearly defined or separate functions - may be indicative of rapid social change, of great social unrest, of widespread abandonment of prior norms before the consolidation of new ones ones (85) prone to be unstable and transitional (87) e.g. industrialisation in the Western world with means of production d i from f one speech h community i (H) and d labour l b force f from another (L) language shift from L to H

Diglossia vs bilingualism 2
(Fishman 2000 [1967]) Diglossia without bilingualism - two or more speech communities united united religiously, politically or economically into a single functioning unit (84) - typically an impermeable group boundary between a small H speaking lite and the L-speaking H-speaking L speaking masses, masses i i.e. e bilingualism is not widespread. e.g. French-speaking lites in a number of otherwise nonFrench-speaking European countries prior to World War I. Neither diglossia nor bilingualism - theoretically possible, but perhaps only in small, small isolated and undifferentiated speech communities. - but since [a]ll communities seem to have certain ceremonies i or pursuits i to which hi h access is i limited, li i d this hi category tends to be self liquidating. (87)

A broad definition of diglossia

Broad diglossia g is the reservation of highly g y valued segments g of a communitys linguistic repertoire (which are not the first to , but are learned later and more consciously, y, usually y be learned, through formal education), for situations perceived as more guarded; ; and the reservation of less highly g y valued formal and g segments (which are learned first with little or no conscious ), of any y degree g of linguistic g relatedness to the higher g effort), valued segments, from stylistic differences to separate g g for situations p perceived as more informal and languages, intimate.
(Fasold 1990 [1984]: 53, my highlighting)

Diglossia vs bilingualism 3
Problems (Musk 2006b: 74 74-77) 77)

Diglossia vs bilingualism 4
Problems ( (Musk 2006b: 74-77) )

Rather than resorting to an apolitical consensus model, conflict and power relations need to be taken seriously

Domain analysis needs to accommodate more parameters in order to acknowledge the real choices that bilinguals make and can make in talk-in-interaction (including code-switching and code-mixing). The simple binary distinction H vs L cannot capture either the range of possible situations or domains, nor in many cases the languages or language varieties. But a formality/intimacy continuum
(Fasold 1990 [1984]: 53)

Fishmans portrayal of bilingualism with diglossia as an inherently stable and ideal state is a misconceived political statement. Any model of diglossia needs to acknowledge the political reality of tensions that may arise from an inequitable compartmentalisation of g g (or ( variety) y) L and H. functions for language

is at least one

contributory factor which can influence the choice of language(s) or l language variety(-ies) ( ) in bilingual bl l or multilingual l l l societies.

Diglossia vs bilingualism 5
The genetic (relatedness) question do the languages need to be typologically related for diglossia to pertain?

Bilingualism & diglossia in Wales 1

(Musk 2006b: 79)

Arguments for:

Diglossia is one kind of societal bilingualism not vice versa (Coulmas (Co lmas 2005 2005:
133)

Broad diglossia focusses heavily on the complementary distribution of codes d (Hudson ( d 2002: 39) ) Language shift can only normally be H L, since H is learnt as an additional (non-native) variety narrow definition runs the risk of concealing the inevitable connections between classic classic diglossia and the other two broad categories

Arguments against:

Bilingualism & diglossia in Wales 2

vernacular: Galle nw at least hala
could they they y of least send send
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Bilingualism & diglossia in Wales 3

(Musk 2006: 368)
Cornilov: a fin meddwl siarad cymraeg nawr naturally yn
and I part. think speak Welsh now part.

literary:

Gallent (hwy) o leiaf anfon

could ( (they) y)

They could at least send plant l t nw i ysgol l C Cymrg.

children their their to school (their) to Welsh school Welsh

and I think speaking Welsh now naturally Batman: a ? A Man: ie yeah Cornilov: golygu ((points towards himself with both hands &
mean

means smiles)) naturally yn golygu ca cal l geirie saesneg

part. mean get words English

eu p plant ( (hwy) y) i y ysgol g Gymraeg. y g

children

naturally means having English words ynddo fe hefyd ie?=

in him him too yeah

their children to a Welsh school

A Man: Batman:

in it too yeah? ie yeah

ie = yeah

Language shift
Early y model: Haugen on Norwegian in N. American context A > Ab > AB > aB > B
A = language of monolingual (Norwegian) minority speech community Ab = A-dominant bilingualism AB = balanced bilingualism aB = B-dominant bilingualism g g of monolingual g (English) g majority j speech community B = language
(1953: 370ff):

Accounting for language shift/ language maintenance

Three categories of accounts (Hyltenstam (H lt t & Stroud St d 1996 1996: 568 568-73) 73)
1. 2. Studies focussing on macro-societal framing conditions Studies focussing on the connections between societal factors speaker perceptions & actual language practices factors, 3. Studies focussing on speakers language competence & the structural (linguistic) consequences

MacroMacro -societal factors 1

Examples of macro macro-societal societal factors: migration, migration industrialisation, industrialisation
language policy and planning, urbanisation
(Fasold 1984: 217)

The case of Breton 1

Giles, Bourhis & Taylor (1977) divide contributory factors into three
main areas: 1. 2. 3. status demographic factors institutional support ethnolinguistic vitality that which makes a group behave as a distinctive and active collective entity in i intergroup situations i i (308)

The case of Breton 2

MacroMacro -societal factors 2

Critique q of macro-societal models
They fail to account for the dynamic processes operating between macro and micro levels:

Socio-structural approaches, however useful for defining macrofactors of change change, fail to account for the influence of intervening variables such as the importance of social networks, individual perceptions of the relative ethnolinguistic vitality of groups in contact, and the communication interactions of participants.
(Hamers & Blanc 2000: 298-299)

Accounting for language shift/ language maintenance

Three categories of accounts (Hyltenstam (H lt t & Stroud St d 1996 1996: 568 568-73) 73)
1. 2. Studies focussing on macro-societal framing conditions Studies focussing on the connections between societal factors speaker perceptions & actual language practices factors, 3. Studies focussing on speakers language competence & the structural (linguistic) consequences

I t Interconnections ti between b t societal i t l factors and language practices 1

Micro-interactionist p perspective p describes bilingual g speakers p use of their linguistic repertoire as one aspect of their communicative competence
(Martin Jones 1989: 107) (Martin-Jones

sees speakers as active interlocutors, who are free to make language choices to express particular social and cultural meanings

may involve attention to minute detail, including code-mixing and code-switching

I t Interconnections ti between b t societal i t l factors and language practices 2

Susan Gals ( (1979) ) study y of language g g shift in Oberwart/Fels / r (on Austrian-Hungarian border) combining three complementary approaches: 1. Examining historical (generational) pattern of language shift to German 2. Observing and audio-recording everyday language practices of limited number of bilingual individuals 3. g same individuals to uncover values & associations Interviewing underlying their language practices

Choice of language in / Oberwart/ Oberwart Felsr

(Gal 1979: 135) ( )

I t Interconnections ti between b t societal i t l factors and language practices 3

Critique q of Gals study y

I t Interconnections ti between b t societal i t l factors and language practices 4

Critique q of Gals study y( (cont.) )

leans heavily towards evolutionism; peasantry has no place in modern-day society and is doomed for extinction and with it any associated language (here: Hungarian) (Williams 1992: 116) plays up the degree of freedom to choose language as rational beings according to their chosen cultural identity and plays down the operation of inequalities of power (Martin-Jones (M ti J 1989: 1989
114)

indexicality between social identity and language, between peasantness peasantness and Hungarian Hungarian, e.g. e g code-switching among middle-generation bilinguals is a sign of being committed neither to the peasant nor to the worker way of life life
(21)

states categorically that code-switching mirrors the process of language shift implying that language is normally and ideally monolingual, even in bilingual speech communities
(Musk 2006a: 73 73-74) 74)

Accounting for language shift/ language maintenance

Models of analysis
(Martin(Martin -Jones 2001)

Three categories of accounts (Hyltenstam (H lt t & Stroud St d 1996 1996: 568 568-73) 73)
1. 2. Studies focussing on macro-societal framing conditions Studies focussing on the connections between societal factors speaker perceptions & actual language practices factors, 3. Studies focussing on speakers language competence & the structural (linguistic) consequences

L Language competence t & structural t t l consequences 1

Linguistic g p perspective p - how the social p processes operating p g in situations of language contact & language shift impact on the linguistic y language g g resources of a minority convergent innovations changes analogous with dominant contact language divergent innovations changes not analogous with d i dominant t contact t tl language

L Language competence t & structural t t l consequences 2

Nancy y Dorians ( (1981) ) study y of language g g death in East Sutherland (a dialect of Scottish Gaelic) in three coastal fishing villages Participants divided into three groups according to their language competence (traditional linguistic features present among the older Gaelic speakers): 1. 2. 3. older fluent speakers younger fluent speakers semi-speakers (criteria: conditions of transmission, competence & language use)

Yet both types may be responsive to the presence of a more dominant language
(Woolard 1989: 363)

Deviant (incorrect) marking of gender in East Sutherland Gaelic

(Dorian 1981: 124124-129)
100 90 80 70 60 % 50 40 30 20 10 0 Sem i-speakers Younger fluent speakers Speaker category Older fluent speakers
7 0 41 33.5 20 33.5 52.5 71 100

L Language competence t & structural t t l consequences 3

Conclusions of Dorians (1981) study y There have been no startling departures to report in terms of types

Incorrect m utation after definite article ti l (f (fem . nouns) ) Incorrect m utation of attrib. adj. after fem . noun Mas c c. pronoun to replace fem . noun

of change. g [ [] ] But if the types yp of change g are not unusual, , it seems possible that the amount of change is.
(151, my highlighting)

Thus her crucial p point is that change g in six rather prominent p categories g of the nominal and verbal grammar taking place at about the same y be symptomatic y p of language g g death time may
(152 , my highlighting)

Nevertheless, sociolinguistic factors, rather than purely linguistic features, g change g in dying y g languages g g from change g in healthy y distinguish languages.
(154 , my highlighting)

Bibliography 1
Coulmas, F. (2005) Diglossia and bilingualism: functional restrictions on language choice. Sociolinguistics. The study of speakers choices. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 126-139. Dorian, N. C. (1981) Language Death. The life cycle of a Scottish Gaelic dialect. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Fasold, R. W. (1990 [1984]). The Sociolinguistics of Society. Oxford: Blackwell. Fishman, Fi h J. J A. A (2000 [1967]) Bili Bilingualism li with ith and d without ith t di diglossia; l i di diglossia l i with ith and d without ith t bilingualism. Ed. L. Wei. The Bilingualism Reader. London: Routledge, 89-106. Ferguson, C. A. (2000 [1959]) Diglossia. Ed. L. Wei. The Bilingualism Reader. London: Routledge, 65 80 65-80. Gal, S. (1979) Language Shift: Social Determinants of Linguistic Change in Bilingual Austria. New York: Academic Press. Giles, H., R. Bourhis & H. Taylor. (1997) Towards a Theory of Language in Ethnic Group Relations. Language, Ethnicity and Intergroup Relations. Ed. H. Giles. London: Academic Press, 307-349. Grosjean, F. (2002) An interview of Franois Grosjean on bilingualism. By J. Navracsics (14 April 2006) <http://www.unine.ch/ltlp/pub/grosjean_interview.rtf> Hamers J H J. F F. & M M. H H. A A. Bl Blanc. (2000 (2000, 2nd edition) diti ) Bilinguality Bili lit and d Bilingualism Bili li . Cambridge: C b id Cambridge University Press.

Bibliography 2
Haugen, E. (1953) The Norwegian Language in America: a Study in Bilingual Behavior. Vol 1 Vol. 1, The Bilingual Community. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Press Hudson, A. (2002) Outline of a theory of diglossia. International Journal of the Sociology of Language 157: 1-48. Hyltenstam, K. & C. Stroud. (1996) Language maintenance. Kontaktlinguistik. Contact Linguistics. Linguistique de contact. Ein internationales Handbuch zeitgenssischer Forschung An International Handbook of Contemporary Research. Forschung. Research Manuel international des recherches contemporaines. Eds. Goebl, Nelde, Stary & Wlck. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 567-578. Martin-Jones, M. (1989) Language, power and linguistic minorities: the need for an alternative approach to bilingualism, language maintenance and shift. Social p gy and the Politics of Language g g . Ed. R. Grillo. London: Routledge, g , 106Anthropology 125.

Bibliography 3
Martin-Jones, M. (2001). Unpublished lecture notes accompanying the course modules: Bilingual Education: ED30810 ED30810 & Bilingualism: Bilingualism: ED32220 ED32220 at the University of Bilingual Wales, Aberystwyth. Musk, N. (2006a, Final Seminar Draft) Performing Bilingualism in Wales with the Spotlight on Welsh. Linkping: Linkping University. Musk, N. (2006b) Performing Bilingualism in Wales with the Spotlight on Welsh. Linkping: LiU-Tryck LiU-Tryck. <http://www <http://www.liu.se/isk/research/avhandlingar/#Musk> liu se/isk/research/avhandlingar/#Musk> Williams, G. (1992) Sociolinguistics. A Sociological Critique. London: Routledge. Woolard, K. (1989) Language convergence and language death as social processes. Investigating obsolescence. Studies in language contraction and death. Ed. N. Dorian. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 41-59.