LABORATORY MANUAL

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING, JABALPUR

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Contents
Metal removal processes Single point tool operations 1. Turning Experiment no. 1 Experiment no. 2 2. Shaping Experiment no. 3 Multipoint tool operations 1. Milling Experiment no. 4 Experiment no. 5 2. Fitting, drilling and taping Experiment no. 6 Measurement of parts Metal joining processes Arc welding MMAW

Experiment no. 7

Oxyfuel gas welding Oxyacetylene welding Experiment no. 8 Sheet metal forming Development of surfaces Experiment no. 9 Inspection of parts Non destructive testing 1. Pulse echo method Experiment no. 10 2. Magnetic particle inspection Experiment no. 11

MACHINING PROCESSES Machining is one of the processes of manufacturing in which the specified shape to the work piece is imparted by removing surplus material. Conventionally this surplus material from the work piece is removed in the form of chips by interacting the work piece with an appropriate tool. This mechanical generation of chips can be carried out by single point or multi point tools or by abrasive operations. These are summarized below. Machining Processes Single point tool operations 1. Turning 2. Boring 3. Shaping 4. Planing Multi-point tool operations 1. Milling 2. Drilling 3. Tapping 4. Reaming 5. Hobbing 6. Broaching 7. Sawing Abrasive operations 1. Grinding 2. Lapping 3. Honing 4. Super-finishing

The process of chip formation in metal cutting is affected by relative motion between the tool and the work piece achieved with the aid of a device called machine tool. This relative motion can be obtained by a combination of rotary and translatory movements of either the tool or the work piece or both. The kind of surface that is produced by the operation depends on the shape of the tool and the path it traverses through the materials. When the work piece is rotated about an axis and the tool is traversed in a definite path relative to the axis, a surface of revolution is generated. When the tool path is parallel to the axis, the surface generated is a cylinder as in straight turning or boring operations. Similarly, planes may be generated by a series of straight cuts without rotating the work piece as in shaping and planning operations (Fig.3). In shaping the tool is reciprocating and the work piece is moved crosswise at the end of each stroke. Planning is done by reciprocating the work piece and crosswise movement is provided to the tool. Surface may be machined by the tools having a number of cutting edges that can cut successively through the work piece materials. In plane milling, the cutter revolves and moves over the work piece as shown Fig. 4. The axis of the cutter is parallel to the surface generated. Similarly in drilling, the drill may turn and be fed into the work piece (Fig. 5). The machine tools, in general, provide two kinds of relative motions. The primary motion is responsible for the cutting action and absorbs most of the power required to perform the machining action. The secondary motion of the feed motion may proceed in steps or continuously and absorbs only a fraction of the total power required for machining. When the secondary motion is added to the primary motion, machine surfaces of desired geometric characteristics are produced.

Fig. 1 Straight turning

Fig. 2: Straight boring

Fig. 3: Shaping and planing

Tool

Work piece Fig. 4: Plain milling Fig. 5: Drilling

INTRODUCTION TO LATHE MACHINE AND EXERCISE ON TURNING TIME: 9.00 Hours PART (A) OBJECTIVE To study the characteristic features of lathe. OUTLINE OF PROCEDURE i) Run the machine at low speed and observe the motions, which control the shapes of the surfaces produced. Note particularly the features, which control the geometrical form of the surface. Learn the names of the major units and the components of each machine. Record these details (Table A). (Please ensure that the main isolator switch is off and check that the machine cannot be inadvertently started. Do not remove guards). Use the manufacture's handbook for details that cannot be inspected. Record the obtainable speed and feed values (Table B). Note down the special features of the speed and feed control on each machine. Pay attention to the following: a. Size specification of various machine tools. b. Machine tool structures and guide ways I slide ways. c. Drive mechanism for primary (cutting) motion. d. Drive mechanism for secondary (feed) motion.

ii)

iii) iv) v)

OBSERVATIONS (a) Record the following in a tabular form: Machine Tool Specifications (Table A) Machine Lathe Type & Make Size Speed given to Tool Work Feed given to Tool Work Type of Surface Produced

Speed and Feed Data (Table B) No. 1. 2. (b) Plot the lathe speeds against No. from Table B on a semi-log graph paper and show that the speed steps are in G.P. Lathe Speed Feed

PART (B) Experiment # 1: To make the part shown in the sketch from a mild steel rod on a Lathe having three jaw chuck.

Fig. 6: Part to be produced using lathe machine EQUIPMENT List all tools and instruments used. OUTLINE OF PROCEDURE Hold the bar in a three jaw chuck and face the end with a right hand facing tool. Turn the bar to the required diameter with rough cuts. Face the steps and finish the diameters to the required sizes. Machine the roots and the groove with form tools. Knurl the required surface. Cut the threads.

OBSERVATIONS (a) Measure all dimensions (up to second decimal place) on the specimen turned by your group. Make a neat sketch and indicate all measured dimensions. (b) Show the calculation of the required gear ratio for thread cutting. (c) Sketch the main drive unit of the lathe and show how the speed steps are obtained. (d) Make the process plan to manufacture the part. (e) Note down the time required to perform different operations. (f) Calculate the manufacturing cost of part by taking various assumptions.

Experiment # 2: To make the part shown in the sketch from a mild steel rod on a Lathe using four jaw chuck.

Fig. 7: Part to be produced using lathe machine EQUIPMENT List all tools and instruments used. OUTLINE OF PROCEDURE Hold the bar in a four jaw chuck and face the end with a right hand facing tool. Make central hole with a center drill. Adjust the position of the workpiece and match the centre with the axis of the machine. Turn the bar to the required diameter with rough cuts. Face the steps and finish the diameters to the required sizes. Machine the roots and the groove with form tools. Machine the taper with the help of the cross-slide swiveling arrangement. Mark the centre of the eccentric circle. Readjust the position of the job piece and align the centre of the eccentric circle with the axis of the machine. Turn the bar upto the required diameter and length.

OBSERVATIONS (a) Measure all dimensions (up to second decimal place) on the specimen turned by your group. Make a neat sketch and indicate all measured dimensions. (b) Discuss briefly how tapered portion was turned. (c) Make the process plan to manufacture the part. (d) Note down the time required to perform different operations. (e) Calculate the manufacturing cost of part by taking various assumptions (Same assumptions should be taken for similar type of manufacturing activities). 7

SHAPING: INTRODUCTION AND PRACTICE TIME: 2.15 Hours PART (A) OBJECTIVE To study the characteristic features of Shaper OUTLINE OF PROCEDURE i) Run the machine at low speed and observe the motions, which control the shapes of the surfaces produced. Note particularly the features, which control the geometrical form of the surface. Learn the names of the major units and the components of each machine. Record these details (Table A). (Please ensure that the main isolator switch is off and check that the machine cannot be inadvertently started. Do not remove guards). Use the manufacture's handbook for details that cannot be inspected. Record the obtainable speed and feed values (Table B). Note down the special features of the speed and feed control on each machine. Pay attention to the following: a. Size specification of various machine tools. b. Machine tool structures and guide ways / slide ways. c. Drive mechanism for primary (cutting) motion. d. Drive mechanism for secondary (feed) motion.

ii) iii)

iv) v) vi)

OBSERVATION Record the following in a tabular form: Machine Tool Specifications (Table A) Machine Shaper Type & Make Size Speed given to Tool Work Feed given to Tool Work Type of Surface Produced

Speed and Feed Data (Table B) No. 1. 2. Shaper Speed Feed

PART (B) Experiment # 3: To machine a V-groove as shown in the sketch out of the work piece provided.

Fig. 8: Part to be produced using shaper machine EQUIPMENT List all tools and instruments used. OUTLINE OF PROCEDURE Hold the work piece in a vice and machine the top surface till the desired height is obtained. Machine the inclined faces using right and left hand tools. OBSERVATIONS (a) Measure all dimensions (up to second decimal place) on the specimen machined by your group. Make a neat sketch and indicate all measured dimensions. (b) Calculate the machining time for the bottom surface of the specimen. (c) Explain the quick return mechanism. (d) Explain the use of clapper box on the machine.

MILLING: INTRODUCTION AND PRACTICE TIME: 9:00 Hours PART (A) OBJECTIVE To study the characteristic features of Milling machine. OUTLINE OF PROCEDURE i) Run the machine at low speed and observe the motions, which control the shapes of the surfaces produced. Note particularly the features, which control the geometrical form of the surface. Learn the names of the major units and the components of each machine. Record these details (Table A). (Please ensure that the main isolator switch is off and check that the machine cannot be inadvertently started. Do not remove guards). Use the manufacture's handbook for details that cannot be inspected. Record the obtainable speed and feed values (Table B). Note down the special features of the speed and feed control on each machine. Pay attention to the following: a. Size specification of various machine tools. b. Machine tool structures and guide ways I slide ways. c. Drive mechanism for primary (cutting) motion. d. Drive mechanism for secondary (feed) motion.

ii)

iii) iv) v)

OBSERVATION Record the following in a tabular form: Machine Tool Specifications (Table A) Type & Make Speed given to Tool Work Feed given to Tool Work Type of Surface Produced

Machine Milling (Vt) Milling (Hz)

Size

Speed and Feed Data (Table B) No. 1. 2. Milling Speed Feed

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PART (B) Experiment # 4: Milling keyway on the specimen shown in the sketch.

Fig. 9: Part to be produced using vertical milling machine EQUIPMENT List all tools and instruments used. OUTLINE OF PROCEDURE 1. Clamp the work piece in vice. 2. Mount the cutter on the spindle & set it in position with respect to work piece. 3. Test the cutter for run. 4. Cut the keyway to required depth using end milling cutter. 5. Change the cutting tool to T-slot cutter. 6. Complete the T-slot with the help of T-slot cutter. OBSERVATIONS (a) Measure the width of keyway. (b) Observe the roughness of the surface produced and compare it with the surfaces produced in other manufacturing processes

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Experiment # 5: Spur gear cutting using Indexing on Milling Machine. Introduction Gears are one of the most commonly used elements in almost all simple or complex mechanisms. It is therefore essential for all engineering students to know all about gears, their manufacturing, machines and processes used for gear making. In this experiment, it is expected that students, learn the principles, processes, procedures and practices used for gear manufacturing. Concepts used 1. Milling processes. 2. Cutter mounting in correct position. 3. Knowledge of spur gear. 4. Indexing process.

Fig. 10: Part to be produced using horizontal milling machine

EQUIPMENT List all tools/cutters and instruments used. 1) Dividing head. 2) Gear cutter for cutting 5 modules.

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OUTLINE OF PROCEDURE Fit the form cutter on the arbor and the specimen between the centers of the dividing head and the tail center. Carefully adjust the work piece so that the cutter just touches the top surface of the specimen. Calculate the necessary depth of cut and then mill the teeth of the spur gear in succession. Stepwise Procedure 01 Mount and align the dividing head and tailstock on machine table. (use Dividing head, tail stock, dial indicator) 02 Mount the gear-milling cutter on the arbor and test for concentricity. (use gear cutter) 03 Hold the work piece on the mandrel and adjust the mandrel between centres. (use Try square, slip gauges) 04 Adjust the work piece to the centre of cutter. 05 Set the revolutions, and feed for milling. 06 In the beginning the cutter should have touched slightly on the work piece. 07 Withdraw the work piece out of range of the cutter and lift the milling table by the height of the tooth depth in the increments of the depth of cut. 08 Milling of first tooth space. 09 Withdraw the work piece from the cut and turn the indexing handle by the tooth pitch & mill next tooth space. 10 Repeat the procedure for next tooth. OBSERVATIONS (a) Measure all dimensions (up to second decimal place) on the specimen milled by your group. Make a neat sketch and indicate all measured dimensions. (b) Explain in brief how the required indexing was obtained with the dividing head. (c) Explain up-milling and down-milling operations. Which one did you use for slot milling and why? (d) Explain the advantages of using a helical milling cutter. Gear Milling Setup For The Forming Method: -

Fig. 11: Milling gear with a form cutter 13

DRILLING AND FITTING TIME: 4:30 Hours PART (A) OBJECTIVE To study the characteristic features of Drilling machine. OUTLINE OF PROCEDURE i) Run the machine at low speed and observe the motions, which control the shapes of the surfaces produced. Note particularly the features, which control the geometrical form of the surface. Learn the names of the major units and the components of each machine. Record these details (Table A). (Please ensure that the main isolator switch is off and check that the machine cannot be inadvertently started. Do not remove guards). Use the manufacture's handbook for details that cannot be inspected. Record the obtainable speed and feed values (Table B). Note down the special features of the speed and feed control on each machine. Pay attention to the following: a. Size specification of various machine tools. b. Machine tool structures and guide ways I slide ways. c. Drive mechanism for primary (cutting) motion. d. Drive mechanism for secondary (feed) motion.

ii)

iii) iv) v)

OBSERVATION Record the following in a tabular form: Machine Tool Specifications (Table A) Type & Machine Make Drilling Speed and Feed Data (Table B) No. 1. 2. Drilling Speed Feed Speed given to Tool Work Feed given to Tool Work Type of Surface Produced

Size

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PART (B) Experiment # 6: To drill, file, as shown in the sketch, ream and tap holes on the mild steel plate.

Fig. 15: Part to be produced in fitting shop EQUIPMENT List all tools and instruments used. OUTLINE OF PROCEDURE File all the sides of the mild steel work piece ensuring with a trisquare that all the angle are 90o. Mark the centers of the hole. Mark the circle for the diameter to be drilled. Punch at the center and at four points on the periphery of the required hole. Drill and ream the holes as required. Tap the hole using a set of three taps. OBSERVATIONS (a) Measure all dimensions (up to second decimal place) on the specimen made by your group. Make a neat sketch and indicate all measured dimensions. (b) Explain how power is transmitted from drill spindle to drill shank. (c) Sketch a reamer and show its main features. (d) Explain why a set of three taps was used.

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MEASUREMENT OF PARTS Measurement is the key on which the whole production is based. Dimensions given on the job drawing help the operator to produce the job of required size. For every particular measurement a particular instrument should be used. For example caliper can not substitute micrometer or rule cannot substitute vernier gauge. Measuring instruments, tools, equipments & various kinds of gauges are used for measurement and inspection of the manufacturing or production accuracy of parts and articles. Measuring instruments may be classified according to the accuracy. According to the accuracy there are the two types of measuring instrument. (1) Precision instruments:By which instruments we can take measurement within accuracy of 0.01mm or 0.001 inch is known as precision instrument. (2) Non precision instruments:These types of instruments are limited to the measurement of parts to a visible line graduation on the instrument used, such as a graduated rule or scale. The following principle measuring instruments are used in the work shop. (1) Linear measuring/ marking tools (a) Steel rule /scale (b) Calliper:- outside, inside and Odd legs (c) Divider (d) Depth gauge (2) Surface measuring tools (a) Surface plate (b) Angle plate (c) Try square (d) Surface gauge (e) V block (f) Straight edge (3) Precision instrument (a) Micrometer: - out side, inside (b) Depth micrometer (c) Varnier calliper (d) Height gauge (4) Angular measuring tools (a) Bevel protractor (b) Combination set (c) Sine bar (5) Gauges (a) Feeler gauge (b) Snap gauge (c) Ring gauge (d) Thread gauge (e) Slip gauge 16

-: Linear Measuring tools :(1) Steel rule or scale: - Strip of a hard steel having line engraved at interval of fraction of a standard unit of the length. It is in different sizes and styles. Scale is usually marked in inches and centimeter both. Inches divided into 1/8, 1/16, 1/32, 1/64, and in metric system scale divided into millimeter 1.0 mm and 0.5 mm. Least count in inch 1/64 Least count in metric system is 0.5mm Kinds: (1) Steel rule (2) Contraction rule (3) Wooden box scale

(2) Callipers:- Callipers is an indirect measuring tool. It is generally used to transfer or compare a dimension from one object to another and measurement count with the help of steel scale. (a) Outside spring callipers:- Outside spring callipers consists of two legs and both legs bent inwards. Top of the calliper joint between the two legs is fixed around a leaf spring. The leaf spring applies force to open the legs at the bottom. An adjusting screw and nut keep the legs in position to set the point of callipers according to the object. (b) Inside spring calliper:- Inside calliper is similar to outside calliper. Its points of legs are bent outwards to make contact with the side of hole and grooves. (c) Odd leg spring Callipers:- Odd leg caliper is similar to inside calliper. One leg of it is straight having sharp point and other leg bent inward. It is used for scribing the parallel lines to the edge of the work and also used for finding the center of a round work. (1) Calipers are specified by the greatest distance it can be opened between legs. (2) A sense of feel or touch is necessary to use a caliper successfully. (d) Divider:- A divider is similar in construction to a caliper except that both legs are straight with sharp hardened point at the end. It is used for transferring dimensions, scribing circles, and doing general surface working. (f) Depth gauge:- The narrow steel rule having a sliding head is clamped with an adjustable screw at right angle. Depth gauge is used to measure the depth of blind holes, grooves and slots. -: Surface measuring and Marking Tools :(a) Surface plate: - Surface plates are made in rectangular and square shapes in various sizes. The flatness of surface plate is highly accurate and smooth. Surface plate is used for marking out the object with the help of angle plate, surface gauge, try square and v block. Surface plate must be protected from rust, dust and apply grease and oil time to time after use. It is made up of cast iron. For very precision work glass surface plate is used.

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(b) Angle plate:- It has two plane surfaces at right angle to each other. This is used in conjunction with the surface plate for supporting work in perpendicular position. It is made up of cast iron. (c) Try square:- Try square is made in two pieces of steel. Blade is perfectly fixed by riveting in the middle of one end at right angle of beam. It is used for testing the trueness of plain surface and also used for checking the right angle of object. Some time it is used for surface making purpose. (d) Surface gauge:- Surface gauge is made of steel. Bottom of the base is exactly flat for resting or setting on the face plate. The centre of the bottom is provided with V shaped groove for resting the block on the round bar. Pole of the surface gauge is adjusted by the adjusting screw. Marking pin or scriber is clamped with screw in the pole. It is often used for scribing the line on the object. (e) V block:- V block is made of Steel with V shaped grooves. It is used for supporting and setting the round bar in the v groove in horizontal position, so object cannot rotate easily. V block is used for marking out the round bar. (f) Straight edge:- Straight edge is commonly used for testing the straightness and flatness of plane surface. It is made up from carbon steel plate in different sizes. -: Precision measuring instrument :(1) Out side micrometer:- Micrometer is used for measuring the dimension to the outside of any round or thickness of object. The principle parts of instrument are. (i) Frame:- U shape flat is known as frame and it is made of cast steel or malleable cast iron. (ii) Hardened Anvil:- A small round piece of hardened steel fixed at the end of frame with contact to the object. (iii) Spindle:- The spindle is an actual measuring rod having threads of 0.5mm pitch in metric system and 40 T.P.I. in English (inch) system. (iv) Sleeve or Barrel:- Sleeve is measuring scale. It is engraved or graduated in mm or inches. (v) Thimble:- This is a tubular cover attached with the spindle and moves with spindle. The beveled edge of tubular is divided into 50 equal parts 0, 5, 10, 15,, so on in mm and 25 equal parts in inch. (vi) Ratchet:- It is small extension piece of the thimble. This is to prevent and damage of the instrument. (vii) Lock Nut or Clamping Ring:- This is used to lock the spindle at any desired setting. READING OF MICROMETER: In MM:- The graduations on the barrel are in two parts namely one above the reference line is graduated in 1mm of intervals. The first and every fifth are long and numbered 5, 10, 15, 25. The lower graduations are graduated in 1mm intervals but each graduation shall be placed at the middle of two successive upper graduations to be read 0.5mm. The micrometer screw has a pitch of 0.5mm and thimble has a scale of 50 divisions round its circumference. Thus on going through one complete turn of thimble = 0.5mm is opened one division of its scale
0.5 1 mm = 0.01mm. 50

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Least count =

1 1 = 0.01 50 2

In INCH:- The spindle is the threaded 40 TPI. The sleeve is graduated 40 divisions in one inch. It means one division on sleeve is 1/40 or 0.25. The thimble is divided in 25 divisions. If the thimble is rotated one complete rotation it will move 0.025. If it is rotated only one division out of 25 divisions, it moves 1/25 of 0.025 or 0.001. Every fourth division on the sleeve is marked 1,2,3,4 and so on up to the length line. These represent 0.100, 0.200, 0.300, 0.400 and so on. Every fifth line of thimble is marked 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25. These represent 0.005, 0.010, 0.015, 0.020, 0.025. (2) Inside Micrometer:- The inside micrometer is used for measurement of internal hole an accuracy of 0.01mm or 0.001inch. It is similar to an external micrometer and is used for measuring holes with a diameter over 50mm or 2 inch. The inside micrometer head has only 13mm or movement. Any size can be obtained by fixing the required size of extension rod. Extension rods of the following size are in common use, 13, 25, 50, 100, 150, 200 and 600mm and , 1, 2, 4, 6, and 8 in inch. Reading:- The beveled edge of the thimble is divided into 50 division round the circumference. One round turn by one thread pitch of 0.5mm, and one division of its scale is therefore equivalent to a thimble movement of 0.5 0.01mm. (3) Depth Micrometer:Depth micrometer is used for measuring depth of hole to an accuracy of 0.01mm and 0.001inch. Parts of depth micrometer:1. Ratchet stop 2. Thimble 4. Locking ring 5. Head 3. Sleeve 6. Spindle
1 1 1 = 0.01 or = 1/100 = 50 50 2

The principle of measuring is similar to an external micrometer. Each depth micrometer is supplied with three interchangeable spindles. (4) Vernier Height Gauge:- The vernier height gauge consists of a vertical scale fixed on a heavy base. The vertical scale carries a sliding jaw containing the vernier and a sliding clamp for making the fine adjustment. There is a flat scriber on the sliding jaw for marking the lines. It is very useful for direct marking and it saves lot of time in transferring the measurement by means of surface gauge. The measurements are read in the same way as in the vernier calipers. (5) Vernier Calipers:- The vernier calipers is a precision instrument which can measure up to 1/1000 of an inch and 0.02 or 0.01 in metric system. A vernier scale is the name given to any scale making use of the difference between two scales. Beam or main scale carries the fixed graduations. It has two measuring jaw fixed and adjustable vernier head having a vernier scale. The sliding vernier scale or vernier head can be locked to the main scale by the knurled screw attached to the vernier.

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Reading:- One division of main scale =

1 40

"

Now 25 division on vernier scale = 24 division of the main scale or say

24 1 24 = 40 25 1000

24 40

"
.

One division on vernier scale =

1 24 25 24 Difference = = = 40 1000 1000

1 1000

"

Metric system:- One division of main scale =

1 mm 2 24 2

25 division on vernier scale = 24 division of main scale or say One division on vernier scale = Difference =
24 1 24 = 2 25 50

1 24 25 24 1 = = mm. 2 50 50 50

VERNIER GEAR- TOOTH CLIPER It is used for measuring the chordal thickness of gear tooth of pitch circle of gear. The verniar tooth caliper consists of two vernier calipers perpendicular to each. The horizontal vernier caliper which measures the tooth thickness is similar to an out side vernier caliper whereas the vertical version caliper is adjusted for measuring the distance from the top of a tooth (or addendum circle) to the pitch circle of a gear. The table which gives these distance and chordal tooth thickness for gear of different diameter pitches and different number of teeth are available. -: Angular measuring tools :(1) Bevel Protractor:- This is also called vernier bevel protractor. It can measure an angle directly up to an accuracy of 5 minutes. The protractor disc is graduated in degree over an arc of 1800, reading 00 to 900 way. Any angle can be measured by setting the stock at the particular angle on the disc. The blade can slide both ways. Reading:- The vernier scale in bevel protractor has 12 division both to right and left, to the 0 line. These 12 divisions are equal to 23 degree on the protractor dial. 1 division on protractor dial = 10 12 division on vernier scale = 23 division on the protractor
23 12 23 24 23 1 difference = 2 = = or say 5 minutes. 12 12 12

1 division on vernier scale =

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(2) Combination Set:- The combination set is combined with square head, bevel protractor and a center head. These heads are fitted in the steel rule having a groove. The square head is used as a tiny square and bevel protractor for checking the angle. The center head is used for finding the center on the end of round work. (3) Sine Bar:- Sine bar is an indirect measuring instrument. It is used for measuring an angle. Sine bars are used in conjunction with slip gauges for setting of angle. It is a flat of metal stepped or lapped on both the ends. Two roller are fixed in each lapped with a screw. The sine bar is specified by the distance between the centers of two rollers. A 100 mm sine bar is very common
Perpendicular = sin ( ) Hypotenuse

-: Gauges :(1) Pitch Gauge or Screw Pitch Gauges:- These are steel strips hardened with various blade. The blades are fixed in a pocket for opening and closing like knife. These blades are having one end teeth to the various pitches of the specific threads. These gauges are made in British, American and metric thread size. The pitch or number of threads per inch is stamped on the every blade. (2) Feeler Gauge:- They are made in set of leaf and fixed in the metal pocket for opening and closing. The thickness of the blade is stamped on every leaf. These are used for checking the clearance between two mating parts (3) Snap Gauge:- These are also known as Go and not Go. They are used for checking diameters, lengths, and thickness of the parts. The snap gauges are made in fix and adjustable size stamped on the gauge. (4) Ring Gauge:- Ring Gauges are used for testing the external dimension of shafts and cylindrical parts. (5) Thread Gauges:- Threads are checked with thread gauges. For checking internal threads plug thread gauges are used, while checking for external threads ring thread gauges are used. (6) Slip Gauges:- Slip gauges are rectangular blocks of steel. The surfaces of slip gauges are highly polished. Slip gauges are made in sets. In English measurement there are five sets containing 81, 49, 41, 35 and 28 pieces. For general purpose a 49 pieces set is used. These are used for precise measurement of parts and for verifying measuring tools such as micrometers and various limit gauges.

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INTRODUCTION TO WELDING PROCESSES TIME: 4.30 Hours PART(A) OBJECTIVE To study and observe the welding methods through demonstration and practice (Arc and Gas) Background Solid materials need to be joined together in order that they may be fabricated into useful shapes for various applications such as industrial, commercial, domestic, art ware and other uses. Depending on the material and the application, different joining processes are adopted such as, mechanical (bolts, rivets etc.), chemical (adhesive) or thermal (welding, brazing or soldering). Thermal processes are extensively used for joining of most common engineering materials, namely, metals. This exercise is designed to demonstrate specifically: arc welding, gas welding and brazing. WELDING PROCESSES Welding is a process in which two materials, usually metals, are permanently joined together by coalescence, resulting from temperature, pressure, and metallurgical conditions. The particular combination of temperature and pressure can range from high temperature with no pressure to high pressure with any increase in temperature. Thus, welding can be achieved under a wide variety of conditions and numerous welding processes have been developed and are routinely used in manufacturing. To obtain coalescence between two metals following requirements need to be met: (1) perfectly smooth, flat or matching surfaces, (2) clean surfaces, free from oxides, absorbed gases, grease and other contaminants, (3) metals with no internal impurities. These are difficult conditions to obtain. Surface roughness is overcome by pressure or by melting two surfaces so that fusion occurs. Contaminants are removed by mechanical or chemical cleaning prior to welding or by causing sufficient metal flow along the interface so that they are removed away from the weld zone. In many processes the contaminants are removed by fluxing agents. The production of quality welds requires (1) a satisfactory heat and/or pressure source, (2) a means of protecting or cleaning the metal, and (3) caution to avoid, or compensate for, harmful metallurgical effects. ARC WELDING In this process a joint is established by fusing the material near the region of joint by means of an electric arc struck between the material to be joined and an electrode. A high current low voltage electric power supply generates an arc of intense heat reaching a temperature of approximately 3800C. The electrode held externally may act as a filler rod or it is fed 22

independently of the electrode. Due to higher levels of heat input, joints in thicker materials can be obtained by the arc welding process. It is extensively used in a variety of structural applications. There are so many types of the basic arc welding process in the market such as shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), gas metal arc welding (GMAW), gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), submerged arc welding (SAW).

5.

Fig.16: The basic circuit for an arc welding

Fig. 17: Schematic diagram of shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) GAS WELDING Gas welding usually refers to oxyacetylene welding or, as the name implies, the burning of acetylene, the fuel gas, with the addition of oxygen to create a high-temperature flame. The flame temperature normally obtained with 2 parts oxygen to 1 part of acetylene is about 5850oF (3232oC). The gases are fed through the torch on a 1:1 ratio with the remaining 1 parts of oxygen coming from the surrounding air. The chemical reaction may be shown as 3Fe + 2O2 Fe3O4 + heat In this process, a joint is established by fusing the material near the region of joint by means of a gas flame. A filler rod is used to feed molten material in the gap at the joint region and establish a firm weld. Oxyacetylene Flame Three distinct flame variations are produced with an oxyacetylene gas mixture, reducing or carburizing, neutral and oxidizing. The acetylene flame is long and bushy. As the oxygen is turned on, the long flame reduces in size and a feathery inner cone appears, 23

producing a reducing flame. When the oxygen proportion is further adjusted, the feathery, white cone disappears and a rounded inner cone and outer envelope indicate a neutral flame. The length of the luminous inner cone is usually between 1/16 and 5/8 (1.57 and 15.87 mm) long. If more oxygen is turned on, the flame as a whole grows smaller and the inner cone is reduced in size to produce an oxidizing flame. All three flames are shown in Fig. 18.

Fig. 18: Three types of oxyacetylene flames Each of the three flames may be used as follows: Carburizing flame may to used to advantage in welding high-carbon steels, for hard-facing operation, and for welding such nonferrous alloys as nickel and Monel. It is also used in silver- brazing operations. In this operation, only the intermediate and outer flames are used so that a low temperature soaking heat will be imparted to the parts being joined by silver solder. If a carburizing flame is used in welding steel, the excess carbon will enter the metal, causing porosity in solidified metal. Neutral flame is used for most welding operation. Oxidizing flame is used for fusion welding of brass and bronze; however, the flame is only slightly oxidizing. An oxidizing flame used on steel will cause the metal to foam and spark.

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PART(B) Experiment # 7: To prepare a butt joint with mild steel strip using MMAW technique.

Fig. 19: Joining the M.S. plates using arc welding EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS Welding unit, MS Electrode, mild steel flats (150*100*10 mm), Wire Brush, Tongs etc. PROCEDURE (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Clean the mild steel flats to be joined by wire brush Arrange the flat pieces properly providing the gap for full penetration for butt joint (gap 1/2 thickness of flats). Practice striking of arc, speed and arc length control Strike the arc and make tacks at the both ends to hold the metal pieces together during the welding process Lay beads along the joint maintaining proper speed and arc length (Speed 100-150 mm/min). Clean the welded zone and submit.

Report the following 1. Precautions to be taken during various arc welding processes. 2. What is the electrode coating and what its function. 3. Give the common arc welding defects and their reasons. 4. Limitations of arc welding. 25

Experiment # 8: To prepare a Lap joint with mild steel strip using oxyacetylene welding technique.

Fig. 20: Joining the M.S. plates using gas welding Equipment & materials Gas welding set, gas-welding wire, fluxes, mild steel strips, wire brush, tongs etc. PROCEDURE 1. Clean the mild steel strip removing the oxide layer and flatten it. Keep the metal strip in lap position. 2. Tack at the two ends. 3. Deposit filler metal at the joint maintaining proper speed and feed. Clean the joint and submit Report the following 1. Nature of flame used in gas welding. 2. Composition of the filler rod used in gas welding. 3. Composition of flux used in and its role. 4. Precautions to be taken during Gas welding. 5. Advantage and limitations of Gas welding.

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SHEET METAL FORMING TIME: 4.30 Hours PART(A) OBJECTIVE To study and observe the sheet metal forming process. Background Many products are manufactured from sheet metal involving combination of processes such as shearing, bending, deep drawing, spinning etc. In all these operations, some plastic deformation of the metal is involved. They are essentially cold working operations. BENDING Bending is a very important process in the sheet metal forming by which metal can be plastically deformed according to the requirement. Bending generally refers to deformation about one axis only. It is a flexible process. Air bending is one of the bending process in which the punch touches the work piece and the work piece does not bottom in the lower cavity. When the punch is released, the work piece return back a little and ends up which less bend then that on the punch. This is called spring back. Spring back depends on the material, thickness, grain and temper. Bottoming and coining are the other popular bending process. Demonstration (Self secured sheet metal joints) (a) Internal grooved joint Mark out portions of given sheets near edges to be joined with a marker (Fig. 21.1a) Fold the sheets at edges in the portion marked, first at right angles to the plane of the sheet (Fig. 21.lb) and then at 180o to the plane (Fig. 21.lc) Insert one folded sheet into the other (Fig. 21.ld) Groove the seam using grooving die (Fig. 21.1e) (b) Double grooved joint Fold sheets after making them as per the instructions given (Fig. 21.2a) Cut a piece of sheet (called strap) of required width Strap width = (4x size of marked edges) + (4 x thickness of sheet) Close the edges of the strap slightly as shown in Fig. 21.2(b) Slip the strap on the bent edges of the sheets after bringing them together (Fig. 21.2c) (c) Knocked-up joint Fold one sheet and close edges slightly (Fig. 21.3a) Bend one sheet to form a right angle band (Fig. 21.3b) Slip the second sheet in the folded one (Fig. 21.3c) Close the right angled sheet using a mallet (Fig. 21.3d)

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21.1

21.2 Fig. 21: Sheet metal joints

21.3

PART(B) Experiment # 9: To prepare a funnel using the concept of development of surfaces as shown in the figure.

Fig. 22: Sheet Metal Funnel

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Equipment & material Mallet, hand shear, bench shear, grooving and riveting tool, metal sheet. Procedure Draw the elevation on full scale Complete the cone by extending the lines A and G Choose a point O and draw curves with O as a center, and OA and OX as radii Draw the vertical line O3, meeting the internal curve at D, and external curve at 3 Starting from D mark lengths DC, CB, BA, DE, EF and FG, each equal to ml/6 Again starting from 3 mark length 3-2, 2-1, 1-0, 3-4, 4-5 and 5-56, each equal to nd/6. (D and d are major and minor diameters) Draw another curve with O as a center and OX +5 mm as radius. Joint AO and G6 and extend it to cut the outer curve at points H and I, respectively. Provide a margin of 5 mm on one side, and 10 mm on another side for joint. Cut out the required portion and form the conical portion. Make the bottom half of the funnel. Report the following 1. Precautions to be taken during sheet metal working. 2. Report the spring back during the bending operation of given metal sheet. 3. Draw the sketches showing the principle of the development of the job as shown in the sheet metal forming demonstration. 4. What are the machines used in the shearing and bending operation.

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INSPECTION OF PARTS TIME: 2.15 Hours PART(A) OBJECTIVE To study different non destructive methods for inspecting flaws in the welding joints. Background (WELD INSPECTION) Weld inspection methods can be broadly divided into two groups: (i) Nondestructive testing (NDT) and, (ii) Destructive testing. Nondestructive Testing (NDT ) Nondestructive testing includes visual examination, liquid penetrant, magnetic particle, eddy current, ultrasonic, radiography, acoustic emission, thermal and optical methods. Visual Inspection An experienced welder or inspector can detect most of the weld defects by careful examination. The following defects can be observed: undercut, overlap, surface checks, cracks slag inclusions penetration, and the extent of reinforcement. Some of these defects are shown in Fig. 23.

Fig. 23: Some welding defects that can be checked visually Liquid penetrant The liquid penetrant method involves flooding the surface with a light oil like penetrant solution that is drawn into the surface discontinuities by capillary action. After the excess liquid has been removed from surface, a thin coating of absorbent material is applied to draw the traces of penetrant from the defects to the surface for observation. Brightly colored dyes of fluorescent materials are added to the penetrant solutions to make the traces more visible. Magnetic particle Inspection Magnetic particle inspection is based on the principle that ferromagnetic materials, when magnetized, will have distorted magnetic fields in which there are material flaws and that these anomalies can be clearly shown with the application of magnetic particles. (Fig. 24) The magnetic filed can be set up by passing an electric current through all or a portion of the part. The current may be passed through the part or through a conductor in close proximity to the part. To be effective, the direction of the induced filed should be almost perpendicular to the expected flaw. Either ac or dc can be used to generate the magnetic filed. Magnetization 30

is better with ac for surface discontinuities, while dc is used to locate subsurface discontinuities or nonmetallic inclusions.

Fig. 24: Magnetic-particle inspection Eddy-current testing When electrically conductive material is subjected to an alternating magnetic field, small circulating electric currents are generated in the material. These eddy-currents are affected by variation in conductivity, magnetic permeability, mass, and homogeneity of the host material. Conditions that affect these characteristics can be sensed by measuring the eddy current response of the part. Ultrasonic Inspection Ultrasonic inspection consists of sending a high frequency vibration (beyond 20 kHz) through a component and observing what happens when the beam hits a discontinuity or a change in density. The altered ultrasonic signal can be used to detect flows with in the material, to measure thickness from one side and to characterize metallurgical structure. The sending transducer transforms a voltage burst in to ultrasonic vibration. The transducer is coupled to the work piece by a liquid medium such as water. A receiving transducer converts the received ultrasonic wave into a corresponding electrical signal. With appropriate instrumentation, the same transducer alternately serves both functions in a pitch-catch mode. The signals are sent through the part, and the time intervals that elapse between the initial pulse and the arrival of the various echoes are displayed on an oscilloscope screen. A flaw is recognized by the relative position and amplitude of the echo. Where contact directly above the part is impractical, an angle beam is used. Radiography Radiography is essentially a shadow pattern created when certain types of radiation penetrate an object and are differentially absorbed depending on variations of thickness, density, or chemical composition of the material. The shadowgraph is commonly registered on a photographic film to provide a permanent record. Three types of penetrating radiations are presently used for industrial radiography: X-rays, gamma rays, and neutron beams. Acoustic-emission Monitoring: Engineering materials undergoing stress or plastic deformation emit sound. The acoustic emission is in the form of short bursts or train of fast impulses in the ultrasonic range. These acoustic emissions can be related to the physical integrity of the material or structure in which they are generated and the monitoring of these events permits detection and location of flaws as well as prediction of impending failure. The pulse rate and amplitude of acoustic emission bursts are usually very high compared to most natural or artificial noises and therefore it is possible to isolate the significant signals by careful measurement of emission rates and amplitudes. 31

PART (B) Experiment # 10: To inspect the defects in the welding done in experiment no. 7 and in the given specimens using pulse echo method. 1. Introducing Einstein-II TFT Einstein-II TFT is a portable, compact, light in weight and user friendly Digital Ultrasonic Flaw Detector. Einstein-II TFT has COLOR LCD display, it provides wide viewing angle and allows fast scanning speed. Fully charged battery gives continuous working of eight hours and charging time is just 3 to 4 hours. Trace pattern can be directly printed out on conventional PC printer having serial port for interface or can be transferred to PC via RS232 Serial port for storage of data. 2. How an Ultrasonic Flaw detector Works Einstein-II TFT is a single channel Ultrasonic testing instrument used for the inspection of homogeneous material for the presence of inclusions, porosity and other discontinuities that could affect the performance of material and components. It can also be used for thickness gauging of homogeneous material, requiring access from only one side of the test piece. High frequency sound (Ultrasonic sound) waves are introduced into the test material/part from a transducer/probe that is usually coupled to the test piece by water or other suitable coupling liquid. The transducer converts electric signals to Ultrasound and vice versa. A short burst of Ultrasound is introduced into test material so some or all of the energy is reflected by discontinuities. The reflection of the ultrasound energy is a function of the ratio between the acoustic impedance of the discontinuity and the base material. The greater the impedance ratio the more sound energy will be reflected. The principal of Ultrasonic testing is shown in figure1. It shows the ultrasonic energy generated in the test piece and resultant instrument display. Thickness gauging with Einstein-II TFT operates on the principal of the time-offlight measurement. This principal utilizes the precise timing of the transit time of a short burst of ultrasound energy, through a material under test. The ultrasound waves travel to the far side of the test piece and reflect back to the transducer/probe and a measurement is obtained. Basically three type of transducer/probe is available for different types of applications: 1> Straight beam Probe (Normal probe) 2> TR probe (Dual crystal probe) 3> Angle beam Probe 1> Straight beam Probe: This probe introduces ultrasound normal to the test piece surface utilizing longitudinal or compression waves. Normal beam probe is used mostly for flaw detection and thickness gauging (refer figure 1.)

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2> TR probe: This probe contains separate transmitting and receiving elements as showing in figure 2 usually mounted on delay lines. This design improves near surface resolution by separating the initial pulse from the received echoes. TR probe is suitable for the thickness gauging of pitting and corrosion and also for better surface resolution.

3> Angle Beam Probe: This probe introduces ultrasound at angle to the surface of the test piece. In most angle beam probe, the wave energy is mode converted from a longitudinal wave to a shear wave by the refraction principal. This probe is suitable for inspection of the welds. The reason for this is its ability to position the transducer/probe away from the weld bead yet propagate energy into the weld zone. Another reason to use angle beam testing on the welds is to position the sound beam more normal to the expected discontinuities since the flaw in welds are usually perpendicular to the test piece (except porosity). Figure 3 shows the principal of angled beam weld testing. 3. Parts and Controls of Einstein-II TFT
16 17 15 18 19

14 13

12 3 11 2

10
9

20

Fig. 25: Parts and controls of Einstein-II TFT

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Report the following: 1. On the basis of observations, discuss the type of defect in each of the given samples. 2. Compare the result obtained in both the samples. 3. After testing the welded sample piece what conclusions will you draw. 4. Report of possibility of concluding false result.

Experiment # 11: To inspect the cracks in welding of the given specimen by magnetic particle inspection. Introduction Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) is a Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) method used for defect detection. MPI is fast and relatively easy to apply, and part surface preparation is not as critical as it is for some other surface NDT methods (Ex. LPI). These characteristics make MPI one of the most widely utilized nondestructive testing methods. MPI uses magnetic fields and small magnetic particles (i.e.iron filings) to detect flaws in components. The only requirement from an inspectability standpoint is that the component being inspected must be made of a ferromagnetic material such as iron, nickel, cobalt, or some of their alloys. Ferromagnetic materials are materials that can be magnetized to a level that will allow the inspection to be effective. The method is used to inspect a variety of product forms including castings, forgings, and weldments. Many different industries use magnetic particle inspection for determining a component's fitness-for-use. Some examples of industries that use magnetic particle inspection are the structural steel, automotive, petrochemical, power generation, and aerospace industries. Underwater inspection is another area where magnetic particle inspection may be used to test items such as offshore structures and underwater pipelines. Electromagnets Today, most of the equipment used to create the magnetic field used in MPI is based on electromagnetism. That is, using an electrical current to produce the magnetic field. An electromagnetic yoke is a very common piece of equipment that is used to establish a magnetic field. It is basically made by wrapping an electrical coil around a piece of soft ferromagnetic steel. A switch is included in the electrical circuit so that the current and, therefore, the magnetic field can be turned on and off. They can be powered with alternating current from a wall socket or by direct current from a battery pack. This type of magnet generates a very strong magnetic field in a local area where the poles of the magnet touch the part being inspected.

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Dry Particle Inspection In this magnetic particle testing technique, dry particles are dusted onto the surface of the test object as the item is magnetized. Dry particle inspection is well suited for the inspections conducted on rough surfaces. When an electromagnetic yoke is used, the AC or half wave DC current creates a pulsating magnetic field that provides mobility to the powder. Dry particle inspection is also used to detect shallow subsurface cracks. Dry particles with half wave DC is the best approach when inspecting for lack of root penetration in welds of thin materials. Half wave DC with prods and dry particles is commonly used when inspecting large castings for hot tears and cracks. PROCEDURE Prepare the part surface - the surface should be relatively clean but this is not as critical as it is with liquid penetrant inspection. The surface must be free of grease, oil or other moisture that could keep particles from moving freely. A thin layer of paint, rust or scale will reduce test sensitivity but can sometimes be left in place with adequate results. Specifications often allow up to 0.003 inch (0.076 mm) of a nonconductive coating (such as paint) and 0.001 inch max (0.025 mm) of a ferromagnetic coating (such as nickel) to be left on the surface. Any loose dirt, paint, rust or scale must be removed. Apply the magnetizing force - Use permanent magnets, an electromagnetic yoke, prods, a coil or other means to establish the necessary magnetic flux. Dust on the dry magnetic particles - Dust on a light layer of magnetic particles. Gently blow off the excess powder - With the magnetizing force still applied, remove the excess powder from the surface with a few gentle puffs of dry air. The force of the air needs to be strong enough to remove the excess particles but not strong enough to dislodge particles held by a magnetic flux leakage field. Terminate the magnetizing force - If the magnetic flux is being generated with an electromagnet or an electromagnetic field, the magnetizing force should be terminated. If permanent magnets are being used, they can be left in place. Inspect for indications - Look for areas where the magnetic particles are clustered. Report the following: 1. No. of cracks found on the surface of the given specimen. 2. Report of possibility of concluding false result.

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