I.

H E A T
A. TEMPERATURE 1. Nature of Temperature 2. Temperature Scales (Measurement of Heat) 3. Conversion of Temperature Scales B. HEAT 1. Nature of Heat 2. Sources of Heat a. Natural Sources b. Artificial Sources 3. Measurement of Heat 4. Heat Capacity and Specific Heat 5. Method of Mixtures 6. Effects of Heat 6.1. Expansion and Contraction a. Linear Expansion b. Volumetric Expansion 6.2. Change in Phase a. Melting, Heat of Fusion and Regelation b. Freezing c. Evaporization and Heat of Vaporization d. Sublimation e. Condensation f. Boiling 6.3 Chemical Change 7. Heat Transfer and Its Application a. Conduction b. Convection c. Radiation II. T H E R M O D Y N A M I C S: 1. Heat and Work 2. Laws of Thermodynamics 3. Heat Engines a. The Carnot Cycle b. The Heat Pump c. The Steam Engine / Turbine d. The Gas Turbine d.1 The Two-stroke Engine d.2. The Four-stroke Engine e. The Turbojet f. The Ramjet g. The Rocket Engine 4. Heat Engines and Environmental Pollution 5. Matter at Low Temperature 6. Matter at High Temperature

A. TEMPERATURE: + + + + the measure of the ability of a body to give up heat or to absorb heat from other bodies. the measure of thermal energy possess by a body. the average kinetic energy of all the molecules possess by the body. the degree of hotness or the intensity of heat in a body.

The instrument used to measure temperature is the thermometer. 1. The Thermometer: - the first to devise a tool for measuring temperature was the Italian scientist Galileo Galilei which he called the thermoscope. It consists of a glass bulb with a tube immerse in water which drops when the bulb is heated and rises when the bulb is cooled. It has no calibrated scales but simply shows the changes in temperature. Nowadays, thermoscopes are replaced with thermometers. It has graduations on its body and may contain alcohol or mercury (this is now discouraged due to its harmful effect on the body and on the environment) as indicators. Types of Thermometers: 1. Clinical Thermometers - used in determining patients body temperature in clinics and hospitals. 2. Laboratory Thermometers - used in science laboratories in their experiments. 3. Thermocouple - thermal junction, thermoelectric thermometer, or thermel a temperature-measuring device consisting of two wires of different metals joined at each end. One junction is placed where the temperature is to be measured, and the other is kept at a constant lower temperature. Temperature can be read from standard tables, or the measuring instrument can be calibrated to read temperature directly. It is used in measuring slight differences in temperature or at very high temperature. 4. Minimum-Maximum Thermometer - used in meteorology to determine the highest and lowest temperature during certain periods. 5. Beckman Differential Thermometer - used for taking very precise temperature measurement. Thermometer scales: Today there are 4 temperature scales commonly used today. The Fahrenheit (F) temperature scale devised by the German scientist Gabriel Fahrenheit, is used in the United States and a few other Englishspeaking countries. The Celsius (C) temperature scale attributed to the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius, is standard in virtually all countries that have adopted the metric system of measurement, and it is widely used in the sciences. The Kelvin (K) scale, is credited to the Englishman Sir William Thompson commonly known as Lord Kelvin, an absolute temperature scale (obtained by shifting the Celsius scale by 273.15 so that absolute zero coincides with 0 K), is recognized as the international standard for scientific temperature measurement. In certain fields of engineering, another absolute temperature scale, the Rankine (R) scale as developed by William Rankine, is preferred over the Kelvin scale. Its unit of measurethe degree Rankine (R) equals the Fahrenheit degree, as the kelvin equals one Celsius degree. A scale rarely used in recent years is the Raumur (Re) temperature scale developed by the French naturalist Rene Antoine Ferchault de Reaumus. See the table on the next page for details on the relationships between these various temperature scales and instructions for converting values from one scale to another.

Fixed Points of a Thermometer: 1. Boiling Point - the temperature in which a liquid specifically water starts to turn into gas. 2. Freezing Point - the temperature in which a liquid specifically water starts to turn into solid. Absolute Temperature - the lowest temperature attained when a body has given up all the thermal energy it can. Comparison of the different scales: Scale Boiling Point Freezing Point Absolute Temperature Interval Fahrenheit (oF) 212 32 -459.67 100 o Celcius ( C) 100 0 -273.15 180 Kelvin (oK) 373 273 0 100 o Rankine ( R) 672 492 -460 180 o Reaumur ( Re) 80

Using the intervals between the two points, conversion from one scale to another is made possible by establishing the proportion between them. Thus, oC to oF:
C 00 1000 = 0 F 32 1800
0
o o Thus we have: C = ( F 32)

this can be reduced into

o

C 00 5 = 0 F 32 9
0

5 9

and

9 F = ( oC + 320 ) 5

or

F = 1.8oC + 32

In the Kelvin scale the interval is 100. This implies that for every Co rise in temperature, there is a corresponding rise of 1 Ko. But since in 0 oC is equivalent to 273 oK, thus we have:
o

K = oC + 273

In case of the Rankine scale, the interval between the fixed points is similar to that of the Fahrenheit scale. Thus it follows the same process. Summary: 1. oC to oF
o

4. oK to oC
o

F=

9 o C + 32o or oF = 1.8 oC + 32o 5

C = oK - 273o

2. oF to oC
o

5. oF to oR
o

C =

5 o ( F - 32o) 9

R = oF + 460o

3. oC to oK
o

6. oR to oF
o

K = oC + 273o

F = oR - 460o

Sample Problem: 1. The air temperature on a hot summer day is 95 oF. What is its Celsius equivalent?
o

C =

5 o ( F - 32) 9 5 = (95o - 32o) 9 5 = (63o) 9

= 35 oC 2. Nitrogen freezes at -210 oC. What is its equivalent in oF and oK?

o

F = 1.8 oC + 32o = 1.8 (-210oC) + 32o = -378o + 32o = -346 oF

K = oC + 273o = -210 oC + 273o o 63 K

3. A child's temperature is 105 oF. The normal body temperature is 37oC. Does the child have a fever?
o

C =

5 o ( F - 32) 9 5 = ( 105o - 32o) 9 5 = (73o) 9

= 40.56 oC

YES

the child has a fever!

Exercises: 1. The melting point of lead (pb) is 330 oC and its boiling point is 1170 oC. Express these temperatures on the Fahrenheit scale. 2. The normal temperature of the human bofy is 98.6 oF. What is this temperature in the Celsius scale? 3. At what temperature would a Celsius and Fahrenheit thermometers give the same reading? 4. Mercury freezes at -40 oC. What is this temperature at the Fahrenheit and Kelvin scales? 5. Dry Ice (solid carbon dioxide) vaporizes at -112 oF. What is this temperature at the Celcius, Kelvin and Rankine scales 6. Liquid helium boils at -452.02 oF. What is its boiling point in Kelvin scale? 7. Liquid oxygen boils at 90 oK. What is its temperature in the Fahrenheit scale? 8. The melting point of Sulfur is 115 oC. What is the corresponding Fahrenheit and Kelvin temperature? 9. Some rocks melt at 2000 oF. What is this temperature in the Celsius and Kelvin scales? 10. Liquid oxygen freezes at -218.4 oC. and boils at 90 oK. Express these temperature in oF and oK for freezing and oF and oC for boiling.

B. HEAT: + the thermal energy which is being taken up by a body, given upp by a body or being transferred from one body to another. + the total kinetic energy of all the molecules in a body. thermal energy = the potential and kinetic energy of the particles of the body which can be evolved as heat. 1. Sources of Heat: a. Natural Sources: 1. Sun - directly and indirectly our heat comes from the sun as a result of nuclear fusion 2. Earth's interior - molten lava from the volcanoes and the boiling water oozing fron geysers b. Artificial Sources 1. Chemical action - fuels that we need in cookong - foods that we take 2. mechanical Energy - brought about by friction 3. Electric Energy - due to the resistance of electrical conductors to electric current 4. Nuclear energy - due to fission and fusion 2. Measurement of Heat: - There is no instrument that directly measure the amount of heat energy that a body absorbs or given off. - The amount of heat transfer involved in a system is measured indirectly by the effects that heat produce in the system example: 1000 g 1 oC Units: There are three common units for measuring heat energy which is based on water. a. In S.I. Unit: 1 Joule (J) = the standard unit for energy. b. In Metric Units: In MKS System: 1 kilocalorie (kcal) - the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of water to 1 oC. 1 Kcal = 1000 calories In cgs system: 1 Calorie (cal) - the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1g of water 1 oC. 1 cal = 4.184 J c. In English System (FPS = BTU or British thermal unit): 6

1 Btu = is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 lb of water to 1 oF. 1 Btu = 252 calories

3. Heat Capacity: + the amount of heat needed to raise its temperature by 1o

HeatCapacity = Q T

where: Q = amount of heat needed to produce a change in temperature T (Tf - Ti) = change in temperature It is expressed in cal/oC or Btu / oF

4. Specific Heat (c) of materials: + is the ratio of its heat capacity to its mass. - its mathematical expression is:

Q c=

T m

or

c=

Q mT

- to raise the quantity of heat needed to raise the temperature of materials: Q = m c T Where: Q = quantity of heat c = specific heat of material

T = change in Temperature m = mass of the material

Specific Heats of Some Common Substances (20 oC and 1 atom) Substance Ice (-5 oC) Iron or steel Lead Mercury Soil (average) Steam (110 oC) Water (15 oC) Wood (average) Air (50 oC) Ethyl Alcohol Aluminum Copper Glass J / kgCo 2100 460 130 140 1050 2010 4186 1680 1050 2430 920 390 840
Kcal / kgCo or cal / g Co or BTU/lboF

0.50 0.11 0.031 0.033 0.25 0.48 1.00 0.40 0.25 0.58 0.214 0.093 0.20

Sample Problems: 1. How much heat is needed to raise the temperature of 0.28 kg of water from 18 oC to 48 oC? Given: m = 0.28 kg or 280 g T = Tf Ti = 48 oC 18 o C = 30 oC c = refer to the table Solution: Q = mcT = 280 g (1 cal / g Co)(30 oC) = 8400 calories or Q = mcT = 0.28 kg (4186 J / kg Co) (30 oC) = 35000 J 2. What will be the final temperature of a half-liter of water at 50 oC with the removal of 25 Kcal of heat? Given: m = 500 g or 0.5 kg (1L = 1kg) Ti = 50 oC c = 1 Kcal / kg Co (see table) Q = -25 Kcal Solution: Q = mcT Q = mc (Tf Ti) Tf =
Q + Ti mc 25 Kcal + 50 C = 0 oC = 0.5kg (1Kcal / kg C o

3. How much heat must be removed from 14 g of aluminum in order to cool it from 80 oC to 15 oC. Given: m = 14 g Ti = 80 oC Tf = 15 oC Exercises: 1. How many calories of heat are required to raise the temperature of 150 g of brass from 35 oC to 85 oC? (the specific heat of brass = 0.0900 cal / g oC) 2. A cube of iron weighs 4.0 lb. How many Btu will be needed to raise its temperature from 70 oF to 500 oF. 3. How many calories will be needed to change te temperature of 0.5 kg of water from 20 oC t o 100 oC. 4. How much heat is given out when 35 g of lead cool from 200 oC to 10 oC. 5. A 25 kg storage battery has an average specific heat of 0.84 kJ / kg oC. When fully charged, the battery contains 1.4 MJ of electrical energy. If all this energy were dissipated within the battery, find the increase in its temperature. 6. Twenty kilojoules of heat are added to a 400 g block of wood at 20 oC. The final temperature of the wood is 50 oC. Find its specific capacity. 7. A person decides to lose weight by eating only cold food. A 100 gram piece of apple pie yields about 1.5 MJ of energy content at 50 oC when eaten. If its specific capacity is 1.7 kJ / kg oC, how much greater is its energy content at 50 oC than at 20 oC? What percentage difference is this? 8. In an oil-fired central heating system, 0.60 kg of water is heated in a boiler to 75 oC each second. This water is circulated through the radiators in the house and returns to the boiler at 8 Solution: Q = m c T = 14 g (0.214 cal / g oC) (15 oC - 80 oC) = 14 g (0.214 cal / g oC) (-65 oC) = -194.74 cal.

30 oC. The heat of combustion of the oil is 45MJ/kg, of which actually goes into heating the water. How much oil does the system use per hour? 9. A space vehicle returning to earth is first slowed by its retro jets rockets to a speed of 450 m/s and then is slowed further to 100 m/s by air resistance in the atmosphere. Its average specific heat capacity is 0.60 kJ / kg oC. Find the increase in its temperature on the assumption that half of the heat produced is absorbed by the vehicle and that this heat is distributed uniformly throughout its volume. 10. A 50 gal water heater is rated 55000 Btu/h. If 20% of the heat escapes, how long does the heater take to raise the temperature of 50 gal of water from 50 oC to 140 oC?

5. Methods of Mixtures: - Whenever two materials or substances with unequal temperatures are mixed, heat flows from warmer body to the cooler one until thermal equilibrium is attained or common temperature is acquired. - Heat movement is unidirectional, that is, from the hotter body to the cooler body. The hot object is considered to lost heat while the cooler one gains heat during the transfer process. Thus we have the this law: Law of Heat exchange: The heat given off by hot objects equals the heat received by cold objects Qgiven off = Qabsorbed Examples: 1. In a laboratory experiment, 100 g of iron at 80 oC was added to 53.5 g of H2O at 20 oC. What is the final temperature of the mixture? Given: m of Fe = 100 g m of H2O = 53.5 g o c of Fe = 0.107 cal/g C c of H2O = 1.0 cal/ goC o Tf of Fe = 80 C Ti of H2O = 20 oC Asked: Tf of mixture Solution: Heat loss by Fe = Heat gained by H2O mFe cFe (TFe Tmix) = mw cw (Tmix Tw)
Tmix = mFe cFeTFe + mwcwTw mFe cFe + mwcw
100 g (0.107cal / g o C )(80o C + 53.5 g (1.0cal / g o C )(20o C ) 100 g (0.107cal / g o C ) + 53.5 g (1.0cal / g o C )

= 30 oC 2. Given the following data, calculate for the specific heat of brass. Mass of calorimeter = 110 g Initial temperature of water = 20 oC Mass of brass = 202 g Initial temperature of brass = 100 oC Mass of water = 405 g Final Temperature of brass, o c of calorimeter = 0.1 cal/ g C water, and calorimeter = 23.5 oC Asked: c of brass 9

Solution: Brass losses heat while water and calorimeter gains heat Q lost = Q gained mb cb Tb = mw cw Tw + mcal ccal Tcal
cb = mwcw Tw + mcal ccal Tcal mb Tb

405 g (1cal / g o C )(23.5o C 20o C ) + 110 g (1cal / g o C )( 23.5o C 20o C ) = 202 g (100o C 23.5o C )

1417.5 cal + 38.5cal 15453 g o C

= 0. 0942 cal/goC Sample Problems: 1. A 300 g of aluminum pot containing o.50 L of water is placed on the 1.0 kg iron hot plate of an electric stove. The heating element of the hot plate is rated at 1.5 kW. If the hot plate, the pot, and the water are all at 20 oC when the heating element is switched on, how long will it take until the water begins to boil? Neglect heat loses to the room. 2. The 30 kg copper tank of a 5.0 kW water heater has a capacity of 100 kg of water. Thwater temperature in the tank is 15 oC when it is switched on and is 50 oC an hour later. What percentage of energy input was lost? 3. A bath tub contains 70 kg of water at 26 oC. If 10 kg of water at 90 0C is poured in, what is the final temperature of the mixture. Neglect the heat absorbed by the bath tub. 4. A 100g piece of silver is taken fron a bath of oil and placed in an 80 g glass jar containing 200 g of water at 15 oC. The temperature of the water increases by 8 oC. What was the temperature of the oil? 5. A 600 g copper container holds 1.5 kg of water at 20 oC. A 100 g iron ball at 120 oC is dropped into the water. What is the final temperature of the water? 6. When a 2.0 lb of brass at 210 oF is dropped into 5.0 lb of water at 35 0F, the resulting temperature is 41.2 oF. Find the specific heat of the brass. 7. If 10.0 g of water at 0.0 oC is mixed with 20.0 g of water at 30.0 oC, what is the final temperature of the mixture? 8. What is the final temperature of a mixture of 0.300 lb of water at 70 oF in a 0.100 lb brass calorimeter, and a 0.400 lb of silver at 210.0 oF. 9. An aluminum calorimeter has a mass of 60.0g. Its Temperature is 25 oC. What is the final temperature attained when 75.0 g of water at 95 oC is poured into it? 10. EFFECTS OF HEAT:

10