CONTENTS:

1. Introduction to solar cars 2. Hybrid solar cars 3. Hybrid vehicle drive train Parallel hybrid solar vehicle Series hybrid solar vehicle Series-parallel hybrid solar vehicle

4. Solar vehicle design 5. Design of PV panels in hybrid solar cars 6. Maximum power point trackers 7. Telemetry system 8. Cost and efficiency of a hybrid solar car 9. Conclusion 10. Bibliography

INTRODUCTION TO SOLAR CARS

A solar car is a solar vehicle used for land transport. Solar cars depend on PV cells to convert sunlight into electricity. Unlike solar thermal energy which converts solar energy to heat for either household purposes, industrial purposes or to be converted to electricity, PV cells directly convert sunlight into electricity. When sunlight (photons) strike(s) PV cells, they excite electrons and allow them to flow, creating an electrical current. PV cells are made of semiconductor materials such as silicon and alloys of indium, gallium and nitrogen. Silicon is the most common material used and has an efficiency rate of 15-20%. Another important aspect of solar cars is the solar car races which are held around the world for various teams to exhibit their versions of solar cars and evaluate the performance. The first solar car race was the Tour de Sol in 1985 which led to several similar races in Europe, USA and Australia. In the era where energy has itself become currency, the concept of solar cars comes as a boon to mankind. There are many research facilities which make the dream of solar cars a reality, if not a commodity. Solar cars need sunlight to run. Most solar energy devices depend upon photovoltaic technology to convert sunlight to electricity. This principle is the same in the solar car. Solar cells are made up of a pure form of silicon. These solar cells can convert up to twenty percent of the sunlight hitting them into electricity. This electricity is channeled to and used by the electric motor of the car if it is running. When the car is not running the current is used to charge a battery pack. Battery power is used when sunlight conditions are not optimal. The battery pack is usually a collection of lithium ion batteries. This is the same kind of battery that operates cell phones and laptops. It usually takes only one day to fully charge the typical battery pack using the solar cell array. The main advantage of using solar cars is that it runs on solar energy which is a renewable source of energy. Solar cars also do not produce any harmful emissions and are not expensive while in use (only the initial cost of obtaining the solar car). Solar cars are also recognized for their ability to work silently and produce no noise pollution. Unlike regular cars, solar cars are able to utilize their full power at any speed and they also have a low maintenance. While they are still a possibility, solar-powered cars are a long way off. There are a number of practical problems with solar-powered cars. Most importantly, it's difficult for the car's solar array to gather enough power to move the car. That's why most solar race cars only carry one person -- the extra weight of a passenger would tax the car's power. 2

The way solar cars gather and store power is also a big issue. Solar power makes sense for buildings, the space station and even satellites because those structures are regularly exposed to the sun. These applications also have the ability to use batteries to store the energy the sun generates. A large battery pack -- with enough storage to power the car from sunset to sunrise -would make an electric car far too heavy, so a solar-powered car must be in the sun at nearly all times to be effective. That means solar-powered cars aren't very practical if you're in a tunnel, a covered parking garage or even if it's cloudy. Building rooftops, the space station and satellites also have the space for much bigger, more powerful solar arrays that allow them to gather more energy. For a car to harness the equivalent amount of energy, the vehicle proportions would have to be huge. Beyond that, there's the high cost of the solar panels. The type of solar panels used on solarpowered cars is very expensive. With that said, all of the hard work that's gone into solarpowered cars hasn't been a waste. The information that engineers have learned from building solar-powered cars has guided their work in other areas. This includes aiding in the development of smaller, more efficient solar arrays, as well as the development of solar panels that can be attached to gasoline-powered cars to increase their efficiency and decrease their fuel consumption. Another efficient method is the implementation of hybrid solar cars which may be run on either fuel, solar energy or on electrical energy.

Some examples of solar cars are: The Tokai Challenger Sunraycer HMAS Albatross The Quiet Achiever

HYBRID SOLAR CARS

Automotive consumers are growing increasingly more interested in highly fuel efficient vehicles, environmentalists are concerned over vehicle emissions, and politicians are fighting to ease foreign relations and maintain international oil trade. The effects of the combustion engine automobile are diverse and widespread. Research in ethanol, hydrogen, biodiesel and electric vehicles aims to improve energy efficiencies while decreasing pollution and dependency on foreign oil. In the early 1900s, the majority of pleasure vehicles sold in the United States were electrically powered. Since the acceptance of the internal combustion engine, electric vehicles became an insignificant portion of the automobile market, but have been gaining market share in recent years. As a result, the electric vehicles in todays market are primarily produced by smaller companies but are slowly becoming more common in the market. The development of electric vehicles as practical, marketable automobiles has been a continual, though slow process. Numerous technologies have developed that continue to increase range and performance while decreasing expense to consumers. For three decades, considerable academic efforts have been applied to the development of solar powered cars. This research has produced many advances, though the technologies have not yet been applied to the more general electric vehicle. Many of the improvements could benefit electric cars and further their efficiencies in a demanding market. In the progress of engineering efforts, a reliable yet efficient idea which was envisaged was the production of hybrid vehicles which run on fuel as well as other forms of renewable energy so that the driver feels comfortable in having a back-up, yet reduces his carbon footprint and fuel consumption. The kinds of hybrid cars existing today can be broadly classified as: 1. Hybrid Electrical Vehicle (HEV) 2. Hybrid Solar Vehicle (HSV) A hybrid solar vehicle, as history and science dictate, is more reliable and marketable than a purely solar car. It uses the photovoltaic technologies to harness the solar energy which is in turn, provided to a motor which runs the vehicle. HYBRID VEHICLE DRIVETRAIN Hybrids are classified by the division of power between sources; both sources may operate in parallel to simultaneously provide acceleration, or they may operate in series with one source exclusively providing the acceleration and the second being used to augment the first's power reserve. The sources can also be used in both series and parallel as needed, the vehicle being primarily driven by one source but the second capable of providing direct additional acceleration if required. Current hybrids use both an internal combustion (IC) engine and a battery/electric drive system to improve fuel consumption, emission, and performance. Electrically assisted pedal bicycles are a form of hybrid drive. Other combinations of energy storage and conversion are possible, although not yet in commercial production. Hybrid vehicles are classified as: 1. Series hybrid 4

2. Parallel hybrid 3. Series-parallel hybrid PARALLEL HYBRID SOLAR VEHICLE Parallel hybrid systems, which are most commonly produced at present, have both an internal combustion engine (ICE) and an electric motor coupled. If they are joined at an axis in parallel, the speeds at this axis must be identical and the supplied torques add together. Most electric bicycles are of this type. When only one of the two sources is being used, the other must either rotate in an idling manner, be connected by a one-way clutch, or freewheel. With cars, the two sources may be applied to the same shaft- for example with the electric motor lying between the engine and transmission. The speeds are thus equal and the torques add up, with the electric motor adding or subtracting torque to the system as necessary. The Honda Insight uses this system. An alternative parallel hybrid layout is the 'through the road' type. Here a conventional drive train powers one axle, with an electric motor or motors driving the other. The batteries can be recharged through regenerative braking, or by loading the electrically driven wheels during cruise. Power is thus transferred from the engine to the batteries through the road surface. This layout also has the advantage of providing four-wheel-drive in some conditions. An example of this principle is a bicycle fitted with a front hub motor, which assists the cyclist's pedal power at the rear wheel. Parallel hybrids can be further categorized depending upon how balanced the different portions are at providing motive power. In some cases, the combustion engine is dominant (the electric motor turns on only when a boost is needed) and vice versa. Others can run with just the electric system operating. But because current parallel hybrids are unable to provide all-electric (ICE=OFF) propulsion, they are often categorized as mild hybrids.

SERIES HYBRID SOLAR VEHICLE Series hybrids have also been referred to as range-extended electric vehicles (REEV) where they are designed to be run mostly by the battery, but have a petrol or diesel generator to recharge the battery when going on a long drive. However, range extension can be accomplished with either series or parallel hybrid layouts. Alternatively, it can be viewed as an electric transmission, with the battery storing reserve power until it is needed. 5

Series-hybrid vehicles are driven only by electric traction. Unlike piston internal combustion engines, electric motors are efficient with exceptionally high power-to-weight ratios providing adequate torque over a wide speed range. Unlike combustion engines, with electric motors matched to the vehicle a multiple-speed transmission is not essential and often only a simple constant-ratio gearbox is required. Transmissions add weight, bulk and sap power from the engine. Mechanical automatic shifting transmissions can be very complex. In a series-hybrid system, the combustion engine drives an electric generator instead of directly driving the wheels. The generator provides power for the driving electric motors. In short, a series-hybrid is simple, the vehicle is driven by electric motors with a generator set providing the electric power. This arrangement is common in diesel-electric locomotives and ships. Ferdinand Porsche used this setup in the early 20th century in racing cars, effectively inventing the series-hybrid arrangement. A wheel hub motor arrangement, with a motor in each of the two front wheels was used, setting speed records. This arrangement was sometimes referred to as an electric transmission, as the electric generator and driving motor replaced a mechanical transmission. The vehicle could not move unless the internal combustion engine was running. The setup was difficult for production cars being unable to synchronize the electric driving motors with the generator set power, resulting in higher fuel consumption. This is no longer an issue with modern computer engine management systems optimizing when the generator runs to match the power needed. Electric motors have become substantially smaller, lighter and efficient over the years. These advances have given the advantage to the electric transmission in normal operating conditions, over a conventional internal combustion engine and mechanical automatic transmission. One of the advantages is the smoother progressive ride with no stepped gear ratio changes. Modern series-hybrids contain: Electric motor system - using only one or more electric motors to turn the wheels. Combustion engine - that turns only a generator. A generator - turned by the combustion engine to make up a generator set that also acts as an engine starter. A battery bank - which acts as an energy buffer. Regenerative braking - Driving motor becomes a generator and recovers potential and kinetic (inertial) energies through its conversion to electrical energy, a process which in turn is able to slow the vehicle and thus preventing wasteful transfer of this energy as thermal losses within the friction brakes.

SERIES-PARALLEL HYBRID SOLAR CAR They incorporate power-split devices allowing for power paths from the engine to the wheels that can be either mechanical or electrical. The main principle behind this system is the decoupling of the power supplied by the engine (or other primary source) from the power demanded by the driver. A combustion engine's torque output is minimal at lower RPMs and, in a conventional vehicle, a larger engine is necessary for acceptable acceleration from standstill. The larger engine, however, has more power than needed for steady speed cruising. An electric motor, on the other hand, exhibits maximum torque at standstill and is well-suited to complement the engine's torque deficiency at low RPMs. In a power-split hybrid, a smaller, less flexible, and highly efficient engine can be used. The conventional Otto cycle (higher power density, more low-rpm torque, lower fuel efficiency) is often also modified to a Miller cycle or Atkinson cycle (lower power density, less low-rpm torque, higher fuel efficiency). The smaller engine, using a more efficient cycle and often operating in the favorable region of the brake specific fuel consumption map, contributes significantly to the higher overall efficiency of the vehicle.

SOLAR VEHICLE DESIGN 7

Because solar cars are not built in production quantities, each vehicle is unique, though many common characteristics are shared as some components have few variations. All solar vehicles must be light and efficient in order to be practical given the low power output of a solar array. For the most part, each vehicle is composed of the same basic elements. Most modern solar vehicles use either a tubular space frame chassis or a composite monocoque shell. Space frame designs tend to be easier and less expensive to build than a monocoque chassis. The monocoque structure is lighter and simpler than a space frame, and allows for vehicles to easily be split into compartments to separate different mechanical and electrical subsystems. The composite designs are more difficult to analyze and integrate with suspension and steering components without compromising the structural integrity of the shell. The outer body of a solar vehicle is crucial for minimizing the aerodynamic drag induced by air flow at higher speeds. The drag forces are characterized by the shape of the vehicle as well as the vehicles frontal area, the projection of the vehicle onto a plane perpendicular to the flow of air. Solar cars therefore have very low profiles and tend to be completely enclosed. To maintain proper air flow, the only moving parts outside the vehicle body are the portions of the wheels contacting the road. All suspension, brakes and inner structural components are enclosed by smooth surfaces to avoid altering the air stream. Small openings are occasionally used to help ventilate the driver and battery pack.

COMPOSITE TYPE FRAME

TUBULAR SPACE FRAME

The power needed to maintain a constant velocity V must overcome the aerodynamic drag, road grade and rolling resistance of the vehicle and is written as P(V ) = Paero + Pgrade + Proll where Paero = 0.5 air Cd Af V3 Pgrade = mgzV Proll = mgV Cr for _air, the density of the air, Cd, the coefficient of aerodynamic drag of the vehicle, Af , the frontal area of the vehicle, V , the velocity, m, the mass of the vehicle, g, the acceleration due to 8

gravity, z, the road grade and Cr, the vehicles coefficient of rolling resistance. In any given environment, air, g and z are constants not within the control of the vehicle. The greatest power loses are due to aerodynamic drag, Paero, being a function of V 3. As discussed above, solar vehicles tend to have very low frontal area. Most solar cars accommodate only one person, and those that carry a passenger usually do so in a tandem configuration. The drivers lay at a low seating angle, minimizing their height within the vehicle and generally have very little room around them. These optimizations lower the frontal area of the vehicle a great deal but are generally not practical for a marketable vehicle. In addition, limiting suspension travel, battery pack height and the vertical size of other components can decrease the required height of the vehicle. For control and stability issues, decreasing the vehicle width is not always advisable. Further suspension and braking refinements, in conjunction with decreased tire width, limits the frontal area of the wheel wells. In addition to providing aerodynamic advantages, the outer shell also functions as the primary support for the solar array. Though any array size would constitute a solar vehicle, competition cars are usually limited in the total square footage of array space. Numerous materials have been found to be photovoltaic, though the most common cells are made of single junction silicon (Si) or multi-junction gallium-arsenide (GaAs). Silicon cells represent the majority of the solar market and, as a result, remain the most inexpensive type of solar cell available. The most efficient Si cells only reach energy efficiencies of 20% while GaAs cells have been made with efficiencies as high as 40%. GaAs cells are manufactured for space grade applications and remain very expensive for the higher efficiency units. Performance drop offs in low light conditions and a narrow wave length spectrum limit the applications of GaAs cells while Si cells tend to perform well in these situations. Solar vehicles remain one of the few electric vehicles to utilize brushless DC motors. Though many early vehicles used lower efficiency brushed motors and chain drives, modern vehicles generally use wheel mounted brushless motors that are capable of maintaining highway speeds and achieving electrical efficiencies of 96%-98%. Hub mounted motors eliminate the need for a transmission or other gear reductions. Some motors allow the user to vary the gap between the rotor and stator, changing the relationship between speed and torque. These adjustments allow the vehicle to maintain optimal performance through a variety of driving scenarios. Further optimizations allow the motor poles to be reversed to produce power on deceleration, limiting the power loss of the system. Managing the power from a solar array is an important aspect in the operation of a solar vehicle. The unique shape of a photovoltaic IV curve (Figure 3) results in variations in the available power as the load varies. To maximize the power produced from an array, designers use peak power trackers (PPTs) to guarantee the cells remain at their peak energy output. Because the shape and magnitude of the curve vary with temperature, light intensity and angle of incidence, a precalculation of the peak power point is not practical and almost certain to be incorrect. PPTs employ various methods to track the maximum power point as light levels and other conditions vary over time. More advanced trackers are also able to overcome local maximums caused by imperfections in array manufacturing and assembly. Power trackers generally also include a method for transforming the array power to a voltage consistent with the vehicle bus voltage and maintain electrical efficiencies as high as 97%-99%. 9

Though not essential, most vehicles utilize a storage element, typically in the form of a battery pack. The storage is used as a reserve to compensate for poor weather conditions or harsh driving environments. The power needed for propulsion varies with speed, grade, wind and road surface. Likewise, the available solar power varies with weather, incident light angle and temperature. Efficient management of a battery pack or other storage system can minimize the performance effects caused by these variations. Generally, vehicles track the state of charge of a battery system to plan power usage over various terrains and weather conditions. Battery storage density varies as a function of discharge current, but an accurate state of charge estimate can be calculated through the use of Peukerts equations. Peukerts equation is as follows:

Where is the capacity at a one-ampere discharge rate, which must be expressed in Ah (amperehour). I is the actual discharge current relative to 1 ampere, which is then dimensionless. t is the actual time to discharge the battery, which must be expressed in hours. k is Peukert constant.

The greatest advance in solar vehicles over the last few decades is due to improvements in battery technology. Early vehicles used lead-acid batteries, chemistry still found in most combustion engine vehicles. Though this type of battery is inexpensive and easy to manage, lead-acid cells can represent nearly half the weight of a typical solar vehicle. Improvements in technology led to the use of nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) and nickel-cadmium (NiCad) batteries which have better power to weight ratios than lead-acid batteries. Both nickel based cells are more costly and require more maintenance than their lead-acid counterparts. Today, vehicles must use lithium-ion (Li-ion) or lithium polymer (Li-poly) batteries in order to be successful in competition. Lithium based cells have approximately six times more power per weight over leadacid batteries. This improvement resulted in cars that weigh as little as 400 lbs (i.e. 181.437kg) and achieve speeds over 60 mph (i.e. 96.56 kmph). Similar to the introduction of NiMH and NiCad, lithium based batteries offer great weight improvements but increase cost and complexity. Lithium technology requires active monitoring of cell voltage, current and temperature to avoid chemical instabilities that degrades the life of the cell and has been known to lead to chemical fires.

DESIGN OF THE PV SYSTEM IN HYBRID SOLAR CARS

S. No. 1 2 3 Dimensions of hybrid solar car Wheel Base Wheel track Height of car Length in mm 2813 mm 1160 mm 1221.46 mm

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Ground clearance

280 mm

Given in the table above are the general measurements of an average sized hybrid solar car. With these specifications in mind, the PV panel would be designed as follows. Total Area of PV panel = 835396 (mm2) = 0.835 meter2 No of panel mounted in roof = 3, single-single panel mounted in bonnet and backside of car Total power generated by panel = No. PV panel X Power = 5 X 150Watt = 750 Watt = 0.75 K Watt

MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKERS

As seen from the graph above, there is a certain point in the P-V graph of photovoltaic cells where, the curve reaches a maximum value which indicates that the power delivered by the cell at that point is higher than at any other condition. Hence a very promising output and efficiency is guaranteed if the circuit is operated at that temperature. MPPTs or Maximum Power Point Trackers which are also called as Peak Point Trackers are used in the circuits which optimize the performance of the photovoltaic cells at the condition. It is also a fact that the power output of a PV cell is also influenced by the temperature and the solar irridation. These factors vary continuously throughout the day and hence, it is necessary to maintain the operating point at the Maximum Power Point (MPP). This is done using MPPTs. There are many MPPT techniques available with the Constant Voltage Method, being the simplest of them. The operating point of 11

the PV array is kept near the MPP by regulating the array voltage and matching it to a fixed reference voltage Vref. The Vref value is set equal to the VMPP of the characteristic PV module.

TELEMETRY SYSTEM
Recent automotive developments have led to vehicles that are considerably more practical than those of the 20th century. In order to continue to develop these vehicles, designers must understand their limitations. From Sun to road, an understanding of all aspects of the car is crucial to the development of more efficient vehicles. To gain a better understanding of the issues involved, a telemetry system is used to track the power usage of a modern solar car.

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The figure shown above is a representation of a basic telemetry system. The abbreviations are as follows: ADC- Analog to digital converter DIO- Digital Input- Output device RS232- a standard serial port SPI- serial peripheral interface bus The single board computer controls the acquisition and scaling of all telemetry data, as well as the onboard storage of data and transmission of data to the chase car. The interfacing board is used to collect and consolidate the data from all the sensors for the computer to analyze and convert into usable information. The various data regarding current, voltage, speed, temperature and solar energy captured are collected using sensors which are strategically placed in the solar car such that their reading are accurate with very less error. The SBC will listen at one of its RS-232 ports, through an RS-485 to RS-232 converter, for data being sent to and from the motor control, maximum power point tracking, and battery management subsystems. The SBC will capture the relevant data that is being transmitted; for instance, motor controller amps, efficiency of the solar cells, and battery faults. Once per second, the SBC will compile a record set of desired parameters and store it to a 2 GB USB flash drive. The single board computer operates and performs the required functions using the C language.

COST AND EFFICIENCY OF A HYBRID SOLAR CAR

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As seen from the graph above, the hybrid solar car clearly consumes lesser fuel than a conventional car. Even though a typical solar car consumes no fuel at all, it is not as reliable as a hybrid solar car and this reliability factor makes it more favorable to the commercial world. CASE STUDY: ASTROLAB Venturi Battery used: Lithium Iron Phosphate Takes about 5 hours for 80% charge Torque: 50Nm Power: 16kW 3.6m2 of solar panels with a daily in-take of 18km

CONCLUSION
Although the solar cars and solar hybrid vehicles are not used in abundance, there are many places and organizations which are harnessing the true potential of solar energy to a favorable extent. This motivates future research and emerging technologies and soon, it will become a self-sufficient system which requires zero fuel and gives out no emissions.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hybrid Solar Vehicles, Gianfranco Rizzo, Ivan Arsie and Marco Sorrentino, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Salerno, Italy A Study and Design Based Simulation of Hybrid Solar Car , Ranjeet Singh, Manoj Kumar Gaur, Chandra Shekhar Malvi On the Subject of Solar Vehicles and the Benefits of the Technology, John Connors, Jack Baskin School of Engineering http://en.venturi.fr/vehicles/venturi-range/astrolab/specifications http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_vehicle_drivetrains http://www.thermoanalytics.com/docs/batteries.html http://ijset.com/ijset/publication/v1s4/p%20139-148%20manoj%20published %20paper.pdf

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