Chapter 4

Laplace Transform
Laplace transform

Modelling and Closed-Loop Control

Topics to cover: 1. Transfer Function 7. PID Control 2. Block Diagram 8. Cascade Control 3. Control Performance 9. State Space 4. Second-Order System 10. State Feedback 5. Time and Frequency Domain 11. Discrete-Time Control 6. Root Locus 12. MATLAB/SIMULINK

Existence condition Properties

f (0) = lim sF ( s )
s

f (t ) e t dt <

lim f (t ) = lim sF ( s )
t s 0

L[ f (t )] = sF ( s ) f (0)
L[e at f (t )] = F ( s + a )

1 L f (t )dt = F ( s ) 0 s

L[tf (t )] = F ( s )

L f (t )g ( )d = F ( s )G ( s ) 0
t

LTI (linear time-invariant) systems

Transfer Functions
Mathematical representation of the relation between the input and output of a LTI system: Zeros & Poles
s m + bm 1 s m 1 + ... + b1 s + b0 G (s) = n , n m. s + a n 1 s n 1 + ... + a1 s + a 0
K ( s + p1 )

Block Diagram
Cascade (series)/ Parallel connection
( s + z1 ) (s + p2 )

(s + z m ) (s + p m )

1 (s + pn )

U(s)
C0

Y(s)

Partial Factor Expansion (PFE)

G(s) = K ( s + z1 )( s + z 2 ) ... ( s + z m ) ( s + p1 )(s + p 2 ) ... ( s + p n )

C1 ( s + p1 )

Y(s)

Gc ( s )G ( s ) Y ( s) = R( s ) 1 + Gc ( s )G ( s )
u(t)

U(s) . .
Cn ( s + pn )

_ e(t)

G ( s) = C 0 +

C1 Cn C2 + . + ... + ( s + p1 ) ( s + p 2 ) (s + pn )

Open Loop/ Closed Loop

Open loop
Disturbances d(t) Uncertainties G(s)

Time Domain Test signals

Step response
r (t ) = 1(t )

Y ( s ) = D ( s )G ( s ) R ( s ) + G ( s ) w( s )

Closed loop
Sensor noise n(t)
D( s )G ( s ) Y (s) = R( s) 1 + D( s )G ( s ) G (s) D ( s )G ( s ) w( s ) n( s ) + 1 + D ( s )G ( s ) 1 + D ( s )G ( s )

Impulse response r (t ) = (t )
Impulse Responses for various Poles

1 1 Y ( s ) = G ( s ) R( s ) = G ( s ) y (t ) = L1 G ( s ) s s

Y ( s ) = G ( s ) 1 h(t ) = L1 {G ( s )}

Ramp Parabolic Sine Square

Second-order system - Transient performance

Second-order system Step response
Maximum percent overshoot Settling time (2% of desired output) Rise time, t r Peak time, t p Step response
4
2 n G(s) = 2 2 s + 2 n s + n

Steady-state performance
Steady state error ess = lim e(t ) = lim sE ( s ) = lim
t s 0

1 R( s) s 0 1 + D ( s )G ( s )

P.O.% = exp 1 2

D ( s )G ( s ) = s
N

i =1 n

( s + zi ) (s + pk )

, N = 0,1,2,..

k =1

ts =

Position/Velocity/ Acceleration error constant

k P = lim D( s )G ( s )
s 0

1 1+ kP A kV
B 2k A

kV = lim sD( s )G ( s )
s 0

k A = lim s 2 D( s )G ( s )
s 0

Stability
BIBO: A dynamic system is stable if for every bounded input the output is bounded
y (t ) =

Frequency Response
Open loop transfer function
D( s) = K G ( s) = K sN

h( )u (t )d

u (t ) M <

y (t ) M

h( ) d

h( z ) dz bounded

Magnitude and Phase k =1 Num( s ) G ( s ) s = j = s = j = M ( ) ( ) Den( s )

M ( ) = G ( j ) , ( ) = G ( j ) = tan 1

i =1 n N

( s + zi ) (s + pk )

, N = 0,1,2,..

BIBO Stability Condition

BIBOstable lim h ( t ) = 0

{ i ,

Re( p i ) < 0 }

Rouths test Linearization

20 log j + z 20 log j + p ( ) = G ( j ) = arg( j + z ) arg( j + p )

i i k i k

Bode plot 20 log G ( j ) = 20 log K +

Im{G ( j )} Re{G ( j )}
k

Phase Margin (PM), Gain Margin (GM)

>> sys=tf([num],[den]); bode(sys)

Robustness
Against parameter variations, disturbances and uncertainties

Root Locus
Characteristic equation:
1 + KG ( s ) = 1 + K sN

Root locus sketching rules

i =1 n N k =1

( s + zi ) ( s + pk )

=0

Y ( s) KG ( s ) = R ( s ) 1 + KG ( s )

The number of branches = n (the number of closed loop poles) Symmetry about the real axis For K>0, RL exists on the part of the real axis to the left of an odd number of real, finite poles and zeros of G(s) Begin at poles and end at zeros (finite or infinite) k pk i zi ; = (2l + 1) , l = 0,1,..., n m 1 Asymptotes = l nm nm Breakaway (saddle) points dK d 1 = corresponding to multiple roots =0
ds ds G ( s )

Root Locus: Examples

Some typical Root Loci
rlocus(tf(num,den))

Proportional Control (P)

Amplifier with an adjustable gain
u(t)=f(t)

fdis(t)

U ( s ) = K p E ( s ) = K p ( X d ( s ) X ( s ))

X (s) 1 = U (s) s 2

2 KP

X (s) =

KP s + KP
2

Xd

1 s + KP
2

Fdis

Derivative Control (D)

Improve damping and increase the stability margin fdis(t) Steady-state performance degrades u(t)=f(t) U ( s ) = sK D E ( s ) = sK D ( X d ( s ) X ( s ))

Integral Control (I)- PI Control

Reject disturbances and reduce the steady-state error u(t)=f(t) Destabilise the system
U (s) = KI K E ( s ) = I ( X d ( s ) X ( s )) s s KI s X ( s) = 3 Xd 3 Fdis s + KI s + KI
R oot Locus 1

fdis(t)
Imaginary Axis

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1 -1

KI

KD 1 X (s) = Xd Fdis (s + K D ) s(s + K D )

-0.5

0.5

PI control

R o o tL o cu s R eal Axis

K K U ( s ) = K P + I E ( s ) = I ( X d ( s ) X ( s )) s s KPs + KI s X (s) = 3 Xd 3 Fdis s + KPs + KI s + KPs + KI

1 Imaginary Axis

KP

-1

-2

reject a constant disturbance

-3

-4 -1

-0 .5

0 .5

PD Control- PID Control

PD: Stabilise the system PD: Decrease accuracy
Imaginary Axis R oot Locus 0.8 0.6 0.4

PID Design
PID Controller Ziegler-Nichols
KP
Control Type P PI KP 0.5Kc 0.45Kc 0.6Kc KI 1.2KP / Pc 2KP / Pc KD KPPc / 8

D(s) = K P +

KI 1 + K D s = K P (1 + + TD s ) s TI s

U ( s ) = ( K P + K D s ) E ( s ) = ( K P + K D s )( X d ( s ) X ( s )) K s + KP 1 X ( s) = 2 D Xd 2 Fdis s + KDs + KP s + KDs + KP

0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4

PID Control
U ( s) = ( K P +

PD cannot reject a disturbance

-0.6

-0.8 -1
2

-0.9

-0.8

-0.7

-0.6

-0.5
Root R ealLocus Axis

-0.4

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

KI + K D s )( X d ( s ) X ( s )) s 2 K s + K s + KI X (s) = 3 D 2 P Xd s + KDs + KPs + KI Possible to improve s 3 Fdis Steady-state error Transient response s + KDs2 + KPs + KI

PID

1.5

0.5

Imaginary Axis

KI

-0.5

-1

-1.5

Kc : "critical gain" at which the output of the loop starts to oscillate. Pc : oscillation period
-1 -0.5 Real Axis 0 0.5 1

Effects of increasing parameters Parameter Rise Time Overshoot Settling Time S.S. Error Kp Decrease Increase Small Change Decrease Decrease Increase Increase Eliminate Ki Kd Small Decrease Decrease Decrease None

-2 -2.5

-2

-1.5

Cascade control
Inner Loop

First Loop
G p1 ( s ) = s
m N

Cascade Control Design

Ke Td s
2 2 r m k =1 (Tk s + 1) j =1 (T j s

+ 2 j T j s + 1)

K s (s + 1)(T s + 1)
N

= Td +
Design Gc1(s) from GP1(s) and G0,1d(s) Obtain GA(s) and G0,2d(s)

k =1

Tk +

2 T
j j =1

T ; T smallest timeconstant of the innerloop process

Gc1 ( s )G p1 ( s ) =
B o d e D ia g r a m 50 Magnitude (dB) 0

Outer Loop
Design Gc2(s) from GA(s) GP2(s) and G0,2d(s); Obtain GB(s) and G0,3d(s) .

1 2T s (T s + 1)

N = 0 : PI - control, K P = N = 1 : PD - control, K P =

TI

, TI = 2 KT

-50

Symmetric Optimum
G0, kd ( s ) = 1 2kT s (kT s + 1)
Phase (deg)

-100 -90

1 2kT

s N (s + 1) Gc1 ( s ) = ; 2 KT s

Second Loop
1 kT
10
0

GA =

Gc1G p1 1 + Gc1G p1

-135

PM=63o4
-2

1 , TD = K P 2 KT 1 1 = 2T s (T s + 1) + 1 2T s + 1
1 ; Gc 2 ( s ); ... 4T s (2T s + 1)

-180 10

>> sys=tf([1],[2 2 0]); bode(sys)

10 10 Freq ue nc y ( r a d /s e c )

-1

10

Gc 2 ( s )G A ( s )G P 2 ( s ) =

State Space
State: minimum set of variables that can completely describe the systems dynamic behaviour State variables x1 (t ), x2 (t ), ... xn (t ), determine the system state system. Example x 2 (t ) = i L (t ) x1 (t ) = v c (t )
dx1 (t ) 1 1 = x 2 (t ) + u (t ) dt C1 C1
dx 2 (t ) 1 R = x1 (t ) 1 x 2 (t ) dt L1 L1

State Equations
Differential equations
&i = f i ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn , u1 , u2 ,..., u m ), i = 1,2,.., n x &1 = a11 x1 + a12 x 2 + ... + a1n x n + b11u1 + b12 u 2 + ... + b1m u m x
. .

& 2 = a 21 x1 + a 22 x 2 + ... + a 2 n x n + b21u1 + b22 u 2 + ... + b2 m u m x

& n = a n1 x1 + a n 2 x 2 + ... + a nn x n + bn1u1 + bn 2 u 2 + ... + bnm u m x
State equations x R n
&1 a11 x x & 2 = a 21 . . & n a n1 x a12 a 22 . an 2

v0 (t ) = y (t ) = R1 x 2 (t ).

u Rm
b11 b12 b 21 b22 . . bn1 bn 2 ... b1m u1 ... b2 m u2 ... . . ... bnm u m

In vector-matrix form y (t ) = Cx (t ) LTI, time-varying, nonlinear, multivariable, SISO, MIMO, discrete-time

& (t ) = Ax ( t ) + Bu(t ) x

... a1n x1 ... a 2 n x2 + ... . . ... a nn x n

A R n n
B R n m

& (t ) = Ax (t ) + Bu (t ) x

& (t ) = f ( x (t ), u (t )) x

State Equations: example

Differential equation
Mechanical translational system: From Newtons second law:
M d 2 y(t ) dy(t ) = f (t ) B Ky(t ) 2 dt dt

Modelling Dynamic Equations

& s Newtons second law: F = m&
F: total external force
B M y(t)

Eulers equation:

N=I

Transfer function State equation

&1 (t ) = x2 (t ) x

Y ( s) 1 = f(t) 2 F ( s) Ms + Bs + K x1 (t ) = y(t ) x 2 (t ) = dy (t ) = dx1 (t ) = x &1 (t ) dt dt G ( s) =

U : inertial coordinate frame. D: linear momentum about the centre of mass G & with the position vector s: D = ms N: total external moment about G : angular velocity vector I: inertial matrix

d + (I) (expressed in U ) dt

K B 1 & 2 (t ) = f (t ) x 2 (t ) x1 (t ) x M M M

x (t ) y (t ) = [1 0] 1 x 2 (t )

Lagrangian formulation: difference between potential and kinetic energy

d L Qib = &i dt q L q i

L = PK

Qib =

d K &i dt q

K P q + q i i

Model of Electromechanical Systems

- State Equations Simulation: a great number of numerical methods, such as Euler method, Runge-Kutta method, and TLM method, etc., can be used for solution of state equations. Assume a system of two state variables:
dx1 ( t ) dt a 11 dx ( t ) = 2 a 21 dt a12 x1 ( t ) v1 ( t ) + a 22 x2 ( t ) v2 ( t )

Numerical Integration
RungeKutta 4: commonly used, Then, the RK4 method for this problem is given by the following equation:

or

X(t ) = AX(t ) + V (t )

with initial conditions:

x1 ( 0) x10 ( ) = x x 2 0 20 or X ( 0) = X o

MATLAB/SIMULINK

State Feedback Control

& (t ) = Ax (t ) + Bu (t ) x y (t ) = Cx (t ) State Feedback Control u (t ) = Fx (t ) + r (t )

Pole Placement
Desired eigenvalues

System

{1 , 2 , ..., n }
pc ( s ) = ( s + 1 )( s + 2 )...( s + n ) = 0
pc ( s ) = s n + n 1s n 1 + ... + 1s + 0 = 0.

F R m n
x(t ) y (t )
C

Desired characteristic equation

Closed-loop characteristic equation

r (t )
+

det{sI ( A BF )} = 0.

u (t ) B

& (t ) x

Design

det{sI ( A BF )} = pc ( s) =
0 0 A= . 0 a0 1 0 . 0 0 1 . 0

s n + n1s n1 + ... + 1s + 0
... ... ... ... 0 0 . , 1 an 1

In canonical form
F = [F1 F2 ... Fn 1 Fn ]

a1 a2 ...

0 0 B = . . 0 1

s n + (an 1 + Fn ) s n 1 + ... + (a2 + F3 ) s 2 + (a1 + F2 ) s + (a0 + F1 ) = 0

Schematic Diagram of State Feedback Control

ai 1 + Fi = i 1; i = 1,2,..., n.

place(A, B, p)

acker(A, B, p)

Butterworth ITAE Symmetric Optimum

n Factors of Polynomial Bn(s) 1 (s + 1) 2 + 1.4142s + 1 s2 + 1.505s + 1 1)(s2 s2

Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR)

Performance Index Control law

Normalised Butterworth vs ITAE Symmetric Optimum

J=

(xT Qx + u T Ru)dt

(s + + s + 1) 3 3 s + 1.783 s2 + 2.172s + 1 4 5 6 7

2T s (...( 2T s (2T s (T s + 1) + 1) + 1) + ...) + 1

u (t ) = Fx (t )

(s2 + 0.7654s + 1)(s2 + 1.8478s + 1) 1.000 1.953 3.347 2.648 1.000 (s + 1)(s2 + 0.6180s + 1)(s2 + 1.6180s + 1) 1.000 2.068 4.499 4.675 3.257 1.000 (s2 + 0.5176s + 1)(s2 + 1.4142s + 1)(s2 + 1.9319s + 1) 1.000 2.152 5.629 6.934 6.792 3.740 1.000 (s + 1)(s2 + 0.4450s + 1)(s2 + 1.2470s + 1)(s2 + 1.8019s + 1)

Solution

F = R 1B T P

F=lqr(A, B, Q, R)
B1 = BR 1B T

Continuous time algebraic Riccati Equation

A T P + PA PBR 1B T P + Q = 0
Note the continuous time Lyapunov Equation

P = are(A, B1, Q)
A T P + PA + Q = 0

1.000 2.217 6.745 9.349 11.580 8.680 4.323 1.000

(s2 + 0.3902s + 1)(s2 + 1.1111s + 1)(s2 + 1.6629s + 1)(s2 + 1.9616s + 1) 8 1.000 2.275 7.849 11.888 17.588 16.116 11.339 4.815 1.000

P = lyap(A, Q)

Discrete Time Control

z-transform

Discrete Time Control

ZOH

Z { f (k )} =

k =0 Properties Z { f (k 1)} = z 1 F ( z )

f (k ) z

GZOH ( s ) =

Approximation
Fwd : s =

1 e sT s

z e aT z-Transform Inversion sT Long division z = e z = e sT = eT (cos T + j sin T ) Table Sampling period, T 2 S = T Nyquist frequency
Sample at least twice as fast as the signals highest frequency

Z e akT =

z 1 T z 1 Bwd : s = Tz 2 z 1 Tustin : s = T z +1

Stability

z i < 1, i = 1,2,..., n
Steady state error
k

lim e(k ) = ess = lim(1 z 1 ) E ( z )

z 1