Sedimentary Sequences, Seismic Facies, Subsidence Analysis, and Evolution of the Burdigalian Upper Marine Molasse Group, Central

Switzerland1
Fritz Schlunegger,2 Werner Leu,3 and Albert Matter4

ABSTRACT The sedimentological interpretation of seismic and borehole data derived from the Burdigalian Upper Marine Molasse Group of the central North Alpine foreland basin enables a detailed reconstruction of the shallow-marine architecture. The different seismic facies are assigned to the shoreface/foreshore, nearshore, and offshore depositional systems. Mapping of the seismic facies on the seismic line reveals the presence of two prograding sequences (Luzern and St. Gallen formations) that are separated by an unconformity. The subsidence analysis suggests that the evolution of the Upper Marine Molasse was primarily controlled by the interaction between tectonic subsidence and sediment supply. The distal transgressions of the Luzern and St. Gallen formations and the establishment of shallow-marine environments were caused by enhanced subsidence rates in the distal reaches associated with increased sediment supply rates. The development of the sequence boundaries separating the Luzern and St. Gallen formations and the regression at the end of the St. Gallen Formation, however, were controlled by uplift in the distal part of the basin. The subsidence and sediment flux analyses of the Upper Marine Molasse allow an improved understanding of the tectonic and denudation history of
Copyright 1997. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved. 1 Manuscript received March 28, 1996; revised manuscript received October 16, 1996; final acceptance February 24, 1997. 2Geologisches Institut, Universitt Bern, Baltzerstrasse 1, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland. Present address: Friedrich-Schiller Universitt Jena, Institut fr Geowissenschaften, 07749 Jena, Germany. 3Geoform AG, 8401 Winterthur, Switzerland. 4Geologisches Institut, Universitt Bern, Baltzerstrasse 1, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland. This project was supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation (grant no. 21-36219.91). We would like to thank B. Keller (Menggis and Lorenz, Luzern, Switzerland), A. Pfiffner, J. Mtys, G. Schreuers, O. Kempf, P. Strunck (University of Bern, Switzerland), and N. Ussami (University of So Paulo, Brazil) for fruitful discussions. The critical review of T. E. Jordan (Cornell University, Ithaca, New York) is kindly acknowledged. Thanks go to SEAG (Schweizerische Erdl AG) for allowing us to publish lines 8307 and 7525, as well as the geophysical and mud-log data of the Hnenberg 1 and Boswil 1 wells.

the northern Alps. Out-of-sequence thickening in the rear of the northern Alps by underplating of the Aar massif and forward thrusting of the Helvetic nappes is interpreted to have controlled uplift in the distal part of the basin and the formation of the sequence boundaries. In-sequence crustal thickening at the tip of the orogenic wedge by forward underthrusting of Lower Freshwater Molasse thrust sheets beneath Molasse deposits associated with enhanced erosion of the northern Alps caused a northward shift of the location of the major orogenic load and an increase of the sediment supply to the Molasse basin. These processes are interpreted to have controlled the distal shifts of the basin depocenter and the distal transgressions of the Luzern and St. Gallen formations. INTRODUCTION Foreland basins are a characteristic companion of mountain belts throughout the world. Important petroleum reserves exist in strata deposited in those basins. Furthermore, these strata chronicle in great detail the tectonic and denudation history of the bounding mountain belt (Jordan, 1981). Tectonic processes that control the stratigraphy and geometry of foreland basins include stable sliding of the entire wedge and crustal thickening or thinning at the toe and in the rear of the wedge (Sinclair et al., 1991). Sediment supply into the basin is another parameter that affects the evolution of foreland basins. According to Flemings and Jordan (1989, 1990), erosion in the hinterland and transport of sediment into the foreland basin decreases the orogenic load and increases the sediment load within the basin, resulting in an increase of the basin wavelength and in progradation of facies boundaries. A third variable that significantly controls the stratigraphy in foreland basins is eustatic sea level falls and rises that cause progradation and retreat of facies boundaries (Jordan and Flemings, 1991). Any change of these extrinsic factors results in creation or destruction of accommodation space in a basin and causes discordances to
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form, which are expressed by onlap and erosion of beds delimiting sedimentary sequences (Jordan and Flemings, 1991). Using stratigraphic models, Sinclair et al. (1991) and Sinclair and Allen (1992) revealed the large-scale (10 m.y.) stratigraphic and geometric response of the Molasse basin to crustal loading and erosional denudation in the Alpine orogene. Based on highresolution magnetostratigraphy and seismostratigraphy applied to the late Oligoceneearly Miocene fluvial clastics of the Molasse basin, Schlunegger et al. (1996, 1997) related progradational cycles and changes in the dispersion pattern to the loading and exhumation history of the bounding Alpine orogene. Given this initial success, we decided to reconstruct possible relationships between Alpine tectonic events, erosional denudation of the orogene, eustasy, and the formation of marine sequences in the Burdigalian Upper Marine Molasse Group in a section across central Switzerland. The data are a combination of seismic facies analysis and the stratigraphic evaluation of geophysical logs of two wells. In this paper, we focus on calculating the tectonic subsidence and the sediment flux during deposition of the Upper Marine Molasse. These parameters are then related to the loading and denudation history of the Alpine orogene. GEOLOGICAL SETTING The present-day Alps/Molasse basin system (Figure 1A) is the result of the Late Cretaceous Miocene continent-continent collision between the Adriatic promontory of Africa and the European plate; this collision resulted in a total of 120 km of post-Eocene shortening (Schmid et al., 1996). Based on the geological interpretation of geophysical data, Laubscher (1990), Pfiffner (1992), and Schmid et al. (1996) showed that collision between the two plates occurred by insertion of the Adriatic lower crust into the interface between the southdipping European lower crust and the European upper crust (Figure 1B). In the northern part of the study area, the presentday Alpine edifice consists of the Helvetic zone, which is subdivided into a lower infra-Helvetic complex (Aar massif and its autochthonousparautochthonous cover) and the upper Helvetic thrust complex (nappes), separated by the northvergent basal Alpine thrust (Figure 1B). In the eastern part of the Swiss Alps, the Helvetic zone is overlain by a piggyback stack of Penninic and Austroalpine sedimentary nappes (Figure 1A). The Central Alps comprise a stack of north-vergent Penninic and Austroalpine sedimentary and crystalline nappes. They are separated from the southverging Southern Alps (Schnborn, 1992) by the

east-weststriking Insubric line (Figure 1A). This suture partly accommodated the indentation of the Adriatic promontory by steep south-directed synmagmatic reverse faulting and right-lateral strike-slip movements (Pfiffner, 1992; Schmid et al., 1996). The Upper Marine Molasse of central Switzerland is part of the Late CretaceousMiocene North Alpine foreland basin that is interpreted to have formed as a mechanical response to the tectonic load of the evolving Alpine thrust wedge (Figure 2A) (Homewood et al., 1986; Sinclair et al., 1991; Schlunegger et al., 1997). The sedimentological development of the North Alpine foreland basin can be described in terms of an early deep-water stage and a later shallow-water/continental stage; these stages are referred to as the Flysch and Molasse, respectively, in the classic Alpine literature [see discussions in Sinclair et al. (1991) and Sinclair and Allen (1992)]. The Molasse has been traditionally divided into four lithostratigraphic units, for which the conventional German abbreviations are used in this paper (Figure 2A) (Matter et al., 1980; Keller, 1989): Lower Marine Molasse (UMM), Lower Freshwater Molasse (USM), Upper Marine Molasse (OMM), and Upper Freshwater Molasse (OSM). These lithostratigraphic units form two shallowingupward megasequences. The oldest megasequence comprises the Rupelian Lower Marine Molasse, which is overlain by the Chattian and Aquitanian fluvial clastics of the Lower Freshwater Molasse. The second megasequence, with the Burdigalian onlap at its base, consists of shallow-marine sandstones (Upper Marine Molasse), which interfinger with major fan-delta deposits adjacent to the thrust front (Berli, 1985; Keller, 1989; Hurni, 1991; Schlunegger et al., 1993). This megasequence is overlain by LanghianSerravalian fluvial clastics of the Upper Freshwater Molasse. Along the southern border of the foreland basin, the Molasse deposits are present in a stack of southdipping thrust sheets referred to as the Subalpine Molasse in classic Alpine literature (Figure 2B). These thrust sheets are overlain by the Helvetic nappes. The Plateau Molasse, which represents the more distal part of the basin, is mainly flat-lying and gently dips toward the Alpine orogene; however, synsedimentary underplating of Lower Freshwater Molasse thrust sheets beneath the Plateau Molasse resulted in backthrusting of the latter unit and in the development of a classical triangle zone (Figure 2B) (Vollmayr and Wendt, 1987). The basin transect analyzed in this study (line 8307, Figure 2A) is located in central Switzerland and runs across the Plateau Molasse from the northern basin margin to the Alpine thrust front (Figure 2A). The Upper Marine Molasse has a total preserved thickness of approximately 1000 m adjacent to the Alpine border and thins to 70100 m near

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Figure 1(A) Geological map of the OligoceneMiocene Swiss Molasse basin and the adjacent Alpine orogene. The major tectonic units are labeled. Note that in the eastern Alps, the Penninic and Austroalpine nappes are part of the northern Alps. In the analyzed cross section, however, they crop out in the central Alps south of the Aar massif. (B) Synthetic cross section through the present-day Alpine hinterland. The eroded Penninic and Austroalpine nappes are projected into the cross section to illustrate the architecture of the Alpine edifice prior to erosion. (Modified after Schmid et al., 1996.)

the northern edge of the basin (Berger, 1983; Allen et al., 1985; Keller, 1989). The unit comprises a thick succession of sandstones with mudstone interlayers that record the predominance of a wave and microtidal to mesotidal depositional regime (Homewood and Allen, 1981; Keller, 1989). The physical evaluation of nearshore to offshore wave oscillation ripples, together with numerical analysis of the Burdigalian tidal conditions, indicates

that the Upper Marine Molasse was deposited in an approximately 50-km-wide basin (Homewood and Allen, 1981; Allen, 1984; Allen et al., 1985; Keller, 1989; Martel et al., 1994). A well-exposed characteristic section of the Upper Marine Molasse is located in central Switzerland at the southern basin margin (Luzern section, Figure 2B) (Keller, 1989). There, the Upper Marine Molasse comprises the Luzern and St.

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Figure 2(A) Geological map of the OligoceneMiocene Swiss Molasse basin and the adjacent Alpine orogene showing the general stratigraphy of the foreland basin and the location of the studied transect, the boreholes, and the Luzern section. (B) Cross section through the proximal Molasse of central Switzerland, showing the tectonic architecture and the location of the Hnenberg 1 well. Conventional German abbreviations: OSM = Upper Freshwater Molasse, OMM = Upper Marine Molasse, USM = Lower Freshwater Molasse, UMM = Lower Marine Molasse.

Gallen formations, with preserved thicknesses of approximately 700 m and approximately 200 m, respectively (Figure 3) (Keller, 1989). The Luzern Formation, which was deposited between 20 and approximately 18 Ma according to the magnetostratigraphic calibration of contemporaneous highly fossiliferous sections (Schlunegger et al., 1996), consists of predominantly sandstones with mudstone and locally conglomerate interbeds. Three informal units are preserved in the Luzern Formation according to Keller (1989) (Figure 3): unit A comprises an approximately 250-m-thick section of alternating 2050-mthick wave-dominated glauconitic sandstones and 1030-m-thick mudstones; unit B is composed of an

approximately 250300-m-thick succession of fine- to medium-grained sandstones with approximately 5-m-thick mudstone interlayers, deposited by mesotidal currents; unit C, which is approximately 200 m thick, consists of alternating 1020-m-thick sandstones and 2050-m-thick mudstones that record deposition by both microtidal currents and strong wave-dominated conditions (Keller, 1989). Unit C is topped by approximately 1050-m-thick continental mudstones with locally conglomerate interbeds that are interpreted as sequence boundary (Schaad et al., 1992). The St. Gallen Formation, which overlies the sequence boundar y at the top of the Luzer n

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Figure 3Sedimentology and stratigraphy of the Luzern section showing the evolution of the Upper Marine Molasse at the proximal basin border. See Figure 2 for location of the Luzern section. (Modified after Keller, 1989.)

Formation, was deposited between approximately 18 and 17 Ma, according to the magnetostratigraphic calibration of contemporaneous sections (Schlunegger et al., 1996). This formation consists at its base of an approximately 80-m-thick section of alternating 10-m-thick sandstones and up to 30m-thick mudstones deposited in an approximately 20-m-deep offshore bay environment (Keller, 1989). These deposits are overlain by an approximately 130-m-thick succession of deltaic sandstones and conglomerates (Keller, 1989); however, 30 km east and west of the study area, the marine deposits of the Upper Marine Molasse interfinger with the Napf and Hrnli fan-delta conglomerates

of the Upper Freshwater Molasse, according to biostratigraphic data and magnetostratigraphic chronologies (Figure 4) (Bolliger et al., 1988; Keller, 1989; Hurni, 1991; Schlunegger et al., 1996). Heavy-mineral analysis of sandstones and paleoflow reconstructions (Allen et al., 1985; Keller, 1989) reveal that the sediment of the studied cross section was derived from three source areas (Figure 4). The detritus of the first source area is found north of the Boswil 1 well. There, the presence of the heavy minerals topaz and andalusite indicates erosion of the Bohemian massif located approximately 350 km northeast of the study area (Allen et

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that entered the Molasse basin 50 km west of the study area (Matter, 1964; Keller, 1989; Hurni, 1991). STRATIGRAPHY AND SEDIMENTOLOGY Methods The reconstruction of the depositional architecture of the central Swiss Upper Marine Molasse is based on the sequence stratigraphic analysis of two unmigrated seismic sections across the Plateau Molasse (line 8307 and line 7525, Figure 2A) tied to log analysis of two neighboring boreholes (Boswil 1 and Hnenberg 1, Figure 2A). The seismic data were sourced by vibrators and dynamite with shotpoint distances of 30 and 60 m for line 8307 and 75 m for line 7525. Recording of the data occurred every 2 ms with a 1890 Hz 10 s sweep (line 8307) and every 4 ms with a 1035 Hz 14 s sweep (line 7525). The data were resampled every 24 ms (line 8307) and 4 ms (line 7525), and the stacking fold was 3060 (line 8307) and 24 (line 7525). Additional surface corrections and further digital processing were performed using standard techniques (Sheriff and Geldart, 1983). The lithologic architecture and the stratigraphy of the Boswil 1 and Hnenberg 1 wells were established based on gamma-ray log, sonic log, and mud-log data using the methodology described by Blaser et al. (1994). Additionally, density data were available for Hnenberg 1 to constrain the lithologic interpretation of the other geophysical logs. The interpreted lithostratigraphies were then correlated to the lithostratigraphic scheme of Keller (1989). Reconstruction of the lithostratigraphy at Hnenberg 1 allowed a stratigraphic calibration of line 7525 that runs across this borehole (Figure 2A). The stratigraphic calibration of this line was then used to identify the lithostratigraphic units on line 8307 by comparison of the reflection pattern. Because this line has a much better resolution than line 7525, line 8307 was used to determine the seismic facies. A sedimentological interpretation of the seismic facies was achieved using the stratigraphic information of the neighboring boreholes and the detailed sedimentological studies done on well-exposed sections by Keller (1989). We justify along-strike projection of the well data into line 8307 because the facies and the thickness of the lithostratigraphic units are nearly constant along strike in the study area (Keller, 1989). Although actual practice for seismic and stratigraphic analysis in the industry requires a grid of seismic data, reconstruction of the basin architecture based on the available seismic data is justified by (1) detailed knowledge of the sedimentary facies and the sedimentary sequences at the southern and northern basin margins (Homewood, 1981;

Figure 4Map showing the location of the major dispersal systems during deposition of the Upper Marine Molasse. (Modified after Allen et al., 1985.)

al., 1985). Paleoflow and sedimentological data collected by Allen et al. (1985) indicate that these sediments were transported by strong axial tidal currents to the study area. These data imply that a large volume of sediments bypassed the analyzed cross section at a right angle. The presence of abundant zircon, apatite, tourmaline, and contributions of staurolite at Hnenberg 1 (M. Mange, 1995, personal communication) suggests denudation of the frontal Alpine nappes by local dispersal systems (Figure 4) (Gasser, 1966, 1967; Schlunegger et al., 1997). However, significant contributions of epidote (M. Mange, 1995, personal communication) indicate admixtures of the Napf River (Figure 4) (Matter, 1964) that originated in the central Alps of western Switzerland (Fchtbauer, 1959, 1964) and

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Allen et al., 1985; Homewood et al., 1986; Keller, 1989), (2) continuity of facies and depositional sequences along strike between the Napf and Hrnli fan deltas (Allen et al., 1985; Keller, 1989), (3) calibration of the seismic line with the stratigraphic data established at Hnenberg 1 that are, in turn, correlated with the exposed sections (see following sections), and (4) high-resolution magnetopolaritybased chronologies established on contemporaneous highly fossiliferous sections 30 km west of the analyzed cross section (Schlunegger et al., 1996) that allow verification of possible hiatuses. Two-way traveltime to depth conversion of the seismic lines was completed using the stacking velocities determined every 2 km. Results Borehole Data of Hnenberg 1 At Hnenberg 1, the Upper Marine Molasse has a preserved thickness of 970 m and comprises two coarsening- and thickening-upward sequences going from alternating sandstones and mudstones to alternating mudstones and conglomerates (Figure 5). These rocks are interpreted to represent the Luzern and St. Gallen formations of Keller (1989). The sequence boundary separating the two formations is present by a 10-m-thick sandstone bed that overlies 1015-m-thick red mottled mudstones. Measuring 700 m in thickness, the Luzern Formation comprises three units (Figure 5). The lowermost unit was encountered at a depth of between 1340 and 1120 m. It consists of an alternation of 2040-m-thick sandstones and 530-m-thick mudstones interpreted to represent unit A of Keller (1989). At Hnenberg 1, unit A displays a succession of sandstone beds tens of meters to 1 m thick alternating with thick mudstones at its base (unit A1) succeeded by several sandstones tens of meters thick with mudstone interbeds (unit A2). Unit A is overlain by a 390-m-thick succession of predominantly sandstones with occasional 5-m-thick mudstone interbeds (interval between 1120 and 730 m depth) that is considered to represent unit B of Keller (1989). The boundary between units A and B is expressed in the velocity and density data by a significant change from alternating high and low velocities and densities to constant velocities and densities upsection (Figure 5) that is ref lected in the seismic lines by a wave group of highamplitude low-frequency reflections (Figure 6). The boundary between units A1 and A2 is also ref lected by a wave group of high-density lowfrequency ref lections, probably because of the first appearance of several tens of meters thick sandstone beds. The uppermost unit of the Luzern Formation (inter val between 730 and 640 m

depth) consists of predominantly mudstones with sandstones and conglomerate interbeds that increase in abundance and thickness upsection. This succession is interpreted to represent unit C of Keller (1989) (Figure 5). The boundary between units B and C is expressed in the density data by a significant shift toward lower densities, indicating the presence of abundant mudstones. This boundary is visible on the seismic data by a wave group of strong reflections (Figure 6). The St. Gallen Formation was encountered at depths of between 640 and 370 m (Figure 5). The St. Gallen consists of a 130-m-thick alternation of 30-m-thick mudstones and 2050-m-thick sandstones (unit 1) overlain by 140-m-thick alternated conglomerates, sandstones, and mudstones (unit 2). At Hnenberg 1, the transgression of the St. Gallen Formation starts with mudstones more than 40 m thick that are underlain and overlain by sandstone and conglomerate beds (Figure 5). The sequence boundary separating the Luzern and St. Gallen formations is visible in the seismic data by onlap or truncation of reflections (Figure 6), implying the presence of a hiatus between both formations (see also Schlunegger et al., 1996, 1997). Borehole Data of Boswil 1 At Boswil 1, the Upper Marine Molasse is present by a 90-m-thick succession of predominantly marly sandstones (inter val between 810 and 720 m depth) overlain by a 100-m-thick section of marls topped by medium-grained sandstones (interval between 720 and 620 m depth) (Figure 7). The succeeding unit, encountered in the depth interval between 620 and 315 m, consists of a coarseningand thickening-upward sequence. This unit starts with a 200-m-thick succession of marly sandstones with occasional coarse-grained sandstone interbeds (interval between 620 and 400 m depth) overlain by a 85-m-thick alternation of conglomerates and mudstones (Figure 7). The lithostratigraphic correlation of the Upper Marine Molasse at Boswil 1 with the units of Keller (1989) is speculative because of the 20 km that separates the well and the exposed sections. Nevertheless, analogous to Hnenberg 1, we tentatively correlate the two coarsening- and thickening-upward sequences at Boswil 1 with the Luzern and St. Gallen formations (Figure 7). Seismic Stratigraphy The Molasse is highly ref lective, although numerous reflections are discontinuous, indicating limited lateral extent of beds. The boundar y between the Lower Freshwater Molasse and the Upper Marine Molasse is marked by reflections that

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Figure 5Stratigraphy of the Hnenberg 1 section and correlation to the Luzern section located 6 km farther south. See Figure 2 for the location of the stratigraphic sections; see Figure 3 for legend.

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Figure 6(A) Calibration of seismic line 2575 with the depth-to-timeconverted stratigraphy of the Hnenberg 1 well. Line 8307 is correlated with line 2575 through comparison of the reflection pattern. See Figure 2A for line location. (B) Stratigraphic interpretation of line 8307. Refer to text for further discussion. See Figure 2A for line location. OSM = Upper Freshwater Molasse, OMM = Upper Marine Molasse, USM = Lower Freshwater Molasse, TWT = two-way traveltime.

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are associated with truncation and onlap, whereas the boundary between the Upper Marine Molasse and the Upper Freshwater Molasse is characterized by continuous high-amplitude reflections (Figure 8) (Schlunegger et al., in press). The seismic expression of the boundary between the Luzern and St. Gallen formations is poor on line 8307 despite the lithologic change between the formations. Nevertheless, between kilometers 6 and 8, reflections of the St. Gallen Formation onlap southward on northward-inclined reflections derived from the top of the Luzern Formation (Figures 6, 8). On line 7525, the same boundary is characterized by truncation of reflections derived from the Luzern Formation or by onlap of reflections of the St. Gallen Formation on the top of the Luzern Formation (Figure 6B). Unit A is characterized by wave groups of highamplitude low-frequency reflections (Figure 8). This unit measures approximately 250 m at the southern basin margin (Keller, 1989), from where it thins to less than 50 m at kilometer 20 by onlapping on the Lower Freshwater Molasse (Schlunegger et al., in press). Unit B, characterized by wave groups of high-amplitude low-frequency reflections at Hnenberg 1 and a chaotic pattern of reflections with occasional short (<1 km) parallel reflections at Boswil 1, is lens shaped (Figure 8). It thickens from 250 to 300 m at the southern basin margin (Keller, 1989) to 390 m at Hnenberg 1, and thins to approximately 100 m at Boswil 1 (Figure 9). Unit C is characterized by a horizontal and a chaotic pattern of reflections south of kilometer 4 and wave groups of northward-inclined reflections between kilometers 4 and 10, where it pinches out (Figure 8). This implies that unit C is missing at Boswil 1 either due to erosion or nonsedimentation. The St. Gallen Formation onlaps southward on unit C between kilometers 6 and 8 and overlaps the Luzern Formation south of Hnenberg 1 (line 8307, Figures 6, 8). The St. Gallen Formation measures approximately 200 m at the southern basin margin (Keller, 1989), from where it thickens to 270 m at Hnenberg 1 and Boswil 1 (Figure 9). The presence of a rather continuous high-amplitude low-frequency reflection allows identification of two subunits on line 8307 that are tentatively interpreted to represent units 1 and 2 (Figures 6, 8), which have lens-shaped (unit 1) and wedge-shaped (unit 2) geometries (Figures 8, 9). Seismic Facies Unit A1 displays horizontal high-amplitude lowfrequency reflections that extend between 0.5 and 1 km (facies A1a). This facies is present between the southern end of the seismic section and km 3

(Figure 8). Farther north, the length of the reflections increases to more than 3 km (facies A1b). Seismic facies A1a was encountered at Hnenberg 1 in the depth interval between 1340 and 1250 m, where it is represented by an alternation of tens of meters to meter thick sandstones and 530-m-thick gray marls and mudstones (Figure 5). The same lithofacies is exposed at the southern basin margin 6 km farther south. There, the sandstone-mudstone alternations were interpreted to represent shallowingupward sequences going from the wave transformation zone in the lower shoreface (<4 m of water depth) (Homewood and Allen, 1981; Allen et al., 1985; Keller, 1989) to swamp deposits in the foreshore (Keller, 1989). Because the exposed lithofacies is similar to that at Hnenberg 1 and because the seismic facies is constant in the southern part of the section, we interpret that facies A1a represents the foreshore and shoreface depositional systems. The sedimentological interpretation of seismic facies A1b is speculative because no well data are available to calibrate this facies. Nevertheless, because the amplitudes and frequencies of reflections are similar in facies A1a and A1b, seismic facies A1b is interpreted to represent an alternation of sandstones, which are tens of meters to meters thick, and mudstones. Furthermore, the high lateral extent of the reflections (>3 km) suggests that the sandstone beds reveal sheet geometries. A similar lithofacies was described in detail by Diem (1986) for the more than 30-m.y.-old deposits of the Lower Marine Molasse Group. Diem revealed that sandstone beds of this geometry represent amalgamations of decimeter to meter thick sandstones deposited by turbidity currents in a nearshore or offshore depositional environment. We tentatively assign facies A1b to the nearshore depositional system because it is juxtaposed to facies A1a (shoreface and foreshore depositional systems) and because its interpreted lithologic architecture is similar to that of the more than 30-m.y.-old Lower Marine Molasse (Diem, 1986). Unit A2 consists of (1) wave groups of highamplitude low-frequency reflections with lateral extents of less than 1 km between the southern end of the seismic section and kilometer 6 (facies B1a), (2) wave groups of continuous high-amplitude lowfrequency reflections with lateral extents of more than 5 km between kilometers 6 and 12 (facies A2b), and (3) a chaotic pattern of seismic reflections associated with occasional horizontal reflections that are less than 1 km long north of kilometer 12 (facies A2c) (Figure 8). Facies A2a is encountered at Hnenberg 1 in the depth interval between 1250 and 1120 m, where it is represented by an alternation of sandstones that are tens of meters thick and several meters thick mudstones (Figure 5). Six kilometers farther south, the corresponding lithostratigraphic

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Figure 7Stratigraphy of the Boswil 1 section and correlation to the Luzern section located approximately 20 km farther south. See Figure 2 for the location of the stratigraphic sections; see Figure 3 for legend.

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Figure 8Unmigrated north-southoriented seismic section across the Plateau Molasse (line 8307) showing the surfaces which delimit the Molasse groups as well as the lithostratigraphic units in the Upper Marine Molasse (OMM). See Figure 2A for line location. OSM = Upper Freshwater Molasse, USM = Lower Freshwater Molasse, TWT = two-way traveltime.

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Figure 8Continued.

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Figure 9Depth conversion of line 8307 showing the thicknesses of the stratigraphic units and the projected position of the reference sections (Luzern, Hnenberg 1, and Boswil 1). See Figure 2A for line location.

unit consists of medium-grained sandstones that display parallel lamination, trough cross-bedding, and ripple cross-lamination. These sandstones were interpreted by Keller (1989) to have been deposited in shoreface and foreshore depositional systems under a wave-dominated regime. Because the lithofacies is similar at Hnenberg 1 and in the exposed sections, and because the seismic facies is constant in this transect (Figures 5, 8), we interpret that seismic facies A2a represents foreshore and shoreface depositional environments. No well data are available to calibrate seismic facies A2b; nevertheless, we tentatively assign the wave groups of high-amplitude low-frequency reflections that are more than 5 km long to the nearshore depositional system according to the sedimentological interpretation of seismic facies A1b. The calibration of seismic facies A2c is guided by the presence of predominantly marls at Boswil 1 (Figure 7). The chaotic pattern of seismic reflections suggests that these sediments are poorly stratified. According to Keller (1989), massive marls of the Upper Marine Molasse were deposited in an offshore depositional environment with water depths of approximately 100 m (see following sections). Unit B displays (1) wave groups of high-amplitude low-frequency ref lections less than 1 km long between the southern end of the seismic line and kilometer 3 (facies Ba), (2) a 0.05-s-thick group of 500-m-long reflections that dip northward at 34 between kilometers 3 and 7 (facies Bb), (3) a chaotic pattern of reflections between kilometers 7 and 20 (facies Bc) (Figure 8), and (4) 1-km-long, mediumfrequency, high-amplitude reflections that are parallel (facies Bd) north of kilometer 20. Facies Ba is

calibrated by the succession of medium-grained sandstones with occasional 5-m-thick mudstones in the depth interval between 1120 and 730 m at Hnenberg 1 (Figure 6). Approximately 6 km farther south, the corresponding lithostratigraphic unit consists of medium-grained sandstones that display parallel lamination, trough cross-bedding, and herringbone and tabular cross-bedding. These sandstones were interpreted by Keller (1989) to have been deposited in shoreface and foreshore depositional systems under a mesotidal regime. The time-to-depth conversion of facies Bb reveals that the 0.05-s-thick group of north-inclined reflections represents a 100130-m-thick unit with a depositional slope of approximately 15 that prograded northward. According to Johnson and Baldwin (1986), prograding units of these geometries represent the depositional fronts that form the transition from the coastline to the open sea. We interpret these units as a nearshore depositional system. Seismic facies Bc is calibrated by the succession of marls topped by medium-grained sandstones at Boswil 1 (top of the Luzern Formation, Figure 7). Because of the chaotic pattern of the seismic reflections, we interpret that the marls are poorly stratified. According to the interpretation of seismic facies A2c, we assign seismic facies Bc to the offshore depositional system. Because this facies is juxtaposed to the north-inclined deposits of the nearshore depositional environment (Figure 8), the marls were deposited at approximately 130 m water depth. No well data are available to calibrate facies Bd. Nevertheless, the sedimentological interpretation of facies Bd is guided by the occur rence of

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coarse-grained sandstone beds with abundant bioclastic debris along the northern basin margin north of Boswil 1; these beds are the Muschelsandstein of Bchi and Hofmann (1960). According to Allen et al. (1985), the Muschelsandstein consists of sandstone beds that are tens of meters to meter thick with decimeter-thick foreset beds. The individual sandstone beds are overlain by meter-thick mudstones and fine-grained sandstones that display ripple marks and herringbone cross-bedding (Allen et al., 1985). The Muschelsandstein is interpreted to have been deposited by strong axial currents in a 1035-mdeep offshore depositional environment (Allen et al., 1985). Because of the good stratification of this unit and because it was deposited along the northern edge of the Upper Marine Molasse north of Boswil 1 (Bchi and Hofmann, 1960), we interpret that the pattern of 1-km-long parallel reflections represent the offshore Muschelsandstein. Unit C consists of (1) a combination of parallel high-amplitude low-frequency ref lections less than 1 km long with a chaotic pattern of reflections (facies Ca) between the southern basin border and kilometer 4, and (2) slightly interrupted high-amplitude low-frequency reflections less than 500 m long that dip northward at 23 (facies Cb) (Figure 8). Seismic facies Ca is encountered at Hnenberg 1 in the depth interval between 730 and 640 m (Figure 6). There, it is represented by mudstones with sandstone and conglomerate interbeds that increase in abundance and thickness upsection (Figure 5). The same lithofacies crops out at the southern basin margin 6 km farther south (Matter, 1964). Detailed sedimentological analyses reveal that these sediments were deposited in a deltaic shoreface and foreshore depositional environment (Keller, 1989). The nor thwardinclined reflections of facies Cb, however, indicate progradation. The thickness of this group of reflections measures 0.04 s, which is equivalent to 80 m. According to the sedimentological interpretation of facies Bb, we assign facies Cb to the nearshore depositional system. Unit 1 of the St. Gallen Formation displays a chaotic pattern of reflections at Boswil 1. South of kilometer 10, however, parallel high-amplitude low-frequency reflections more than 500 m long become more abundant (Figure 8). The chaotic pattern of reflections at Boswil 1 suggests poor stratification of beds. Additionally, cutting data indicate a succession of marly fine-grained sandstones at the base of the St. Gallen Formation (Figure 7). Because of the similarity to facies Bc, we interpret that the chaotic pattern of reflections represents an offshore depositional environment. The increasing abundance of parallel reflections more than 500 m long south of kilometer 10 (Figure 8) suggests that the stratification becomes better southward. A

detailed sedimentological analysis of the sedimentary structures on well-exposed sections reveals that the sandstone-mudstone alternation of unit 1 was deposited by turbidity currents (sandstones) or from suspension (mudstones) in an offshore bay environment with water depths of approximately 20 m (Keller, 1989). The turbidites were most probably derived from the neighboring Napf fan delta (Matter, 1964) (Figure 4). The 1-km-long, medium-frequency, high-amplitude reflections that occur north of kilometer 20 are interpreted to represent the Muschelsandstein (see previous discussion). Unit 2 of the St. Gallen Formation consists of (1) 0.52-km-long high-amplitude medium-frequency reflections between the southern end of the seismic section and kilometer 10 (facies 2a), (2) a chaotic pattern of reflections associated with highamplitude medium-frequency reflections less than 1 km long that decrease in abundance northward between kilometers 10 and 17 (facies 2b) (Figure 8), and (3) 1-km-long, medium-frequency, highamplitude reflections north of kilometer 17 (facies 2c). Facies 2a was encountered at Hnenberg 1 in the depth interval between 510 and 370 m, where it is represented by an alternation of 10-m-thick conglomerates and more-than-40-m-thick mudstones (Figure 5). A careful sedimentological analysis of the corresponding lithofacies exposed at the proximal basin border indicates that this facies association was deposited in water depths of between 6 and 20 m in an offshore bay environment with deltaic influence (Keller, 1989; Schaad et al., 1992). Facies 2b is calibrated by the alternation of marls, sandstones, and meter-thick conglomerate beds encountered at the top of the Boswil 1 section (Figure 7). According to Keller (1989) and Schaad et al. (1992), this facies association represents an offshore bay environment with maximum water depths of approximately 20 m. Keller (1989) suggested that the conglomerate and sandstone beds represent turbidites and debris flows derived from the eastward-expanding Napf fan delta (Figure 4). Facies 2c is interpreted to represent the Muschelsandstein that is present along the northern basin margin. Facies Relationships and Chronology Mapping of the seismic facies on the northsouthoriented seismic line allows us to reconstruct the evolution of the depositional systems. Figure 10A reveals that the Luzern and St. Gallen formations represent two coarsening-, thickening-, and shallowing-upward sequences, formed as the coastline prograded approximately 5 km to the north. During deposition of the Luzern Formation,

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Figure 10(A) Facies relationships of the Upper Marine Molasse based on the sedimentological interpretation of the seismic lines calibrated by outcrop data and the neighboring boreholes. (B) Wheeler diagram of the studied Upper Marine Molasse showing heterochroneity of the depositional systems and the sequence boundaries. The magneto-polarity time scale is taken from Cande and Kent (1992) and Cande (1995).

the basinward expansion of the shoreface was accompanied by first an increase (unit AB) and then a decrease (unit C) of the basin width (Figure 10A). Despite the general shallowingupward trend in both formations, cyclic overlap of the nearshore deposits on the shoreface and foreshore sandstones indicates the presence of subordinate deepening-upward sequences. Consequently, the high-amplitude low-frequency reflections that delimit the lithostratigraphic units (Figure 8) represent flooding surfaces. The magnetostratigraphic chronologies established in the neighboring highly fossiliferous Napf fan delta (Schlunegger et al., 1996) and mammal fossil sites in the Upper Marine Molasse (Keller, 1989) indicate that the hiatus separating the Luzern and St. Gallen formations in the southern part of the basin spans the time interval between 18.1 and 17.7 Ma (Schlunegger et al., 1997) (Figure 10B). Beyond kilometer 12, however, unit C is not present either due to erosion or nondeposition.

Furthermore, sedimentation of the St. Gallen Formation started earlier at kilometer 12 than at the souther n basin margin (Figures 8, 10B). Therefore, in the central part of the basin, the hiatus spans a slightly older time interval between approximately 18.7 and 18.0 Ma (Figure 11B); however, the ages of the flooding surfaces delimiting the lithostratigraphic units are not known. Nonetheless, we achieved a temporal calibration of these horizons by assuming equal time intervals between the dated horizons. TECTONIC SUBSIDENCE AND SEDIMENT SUPPLY Methods The tectonic subsidence was determined by backstripping using the software PHIL (Marco Polo Software, Inc., 1994). The average sediment

Figure 11(A) Tectonic subsidence curves determined by backstripping. Note that the results of the subsidence analysis are highly dependent on the eustatic sea level. We chose three different eustatic sea level curves [labeled as 1, 2, and 3 on (B)] to test the significance of the eustatic sea level on the results of the subsidence analysis. See text for further explanations. (B) Eustatic sea level curves used for the subsidence analysis. The subsidence curves on (A) are labeled with the number of the eustatic sea level curve that is used for the backstripping. (Modified from Haq et al., 1987.) (C) Determination of the average sediment flux based on the preserved volume of strata in the basin. Note that this reconstruction represents a minimum estimate of the sediment flux. See text for further explanation.

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supply for different lithostratigraphic units was calculated based on the preserved volume of sediment. Because the flexural rigidity expressed by the thickness of the elastic plate (Te value), as well as the magnitudes of eustatic sea level change, significantly affects the reconstruction of the tectonic subsidence (Allen and Allen, 1990), we backstripped the lithostratigraphic units for variable Te values and different eustatic levels of the sea. The water depths of the different depositional environments form a further important input parameter (Allen and Allen, 1990) (see previous section). Results Tectonic Subsidence A careful assessment of the mechanical properties of the OligoceneMiocene North Alpine foreland plate was carried out by Sinclair et al. (1991) and Sinclair (1996). These workers concluded that the elastic thickness of the North Alpine foreland plate measured 10 5 km. We backstripped the lithostratigraphic units for Te values ranging between 5 and 15 km and for a constant eustatic sea level. There is no significant change in the resulting tectonic subsidence curve (see also discussion in Sinclair et al., 1991). However, determination of the tectonic subsidence is significantly dependent on eustasy. Figure 11 reveals that a difference of 120 m in the eustatic sea level can affect the tectonic subsidence by more than 30%; however, because the sea level affects the reconstruction of the tectonic subsidence curve by the same magnitude across the whole basin (Allen and Allen, 1990), the resulting shape of the tectonic subsidence curve does not depend on the eustatic sea level (Figure 11; see also Devlin et al., 1993). Despite the significant influence of the poorly constrained eustatic sea level on the results of the subsidence analysis, the reconstructed tectonic subsidence curves reveal two phases of basin formation during deposition of the Upper Marine Molasse (Figure 11A). During the first phase, between 20 and approximately 18 Ma (Luzern Formation, units AC), the basin width increased from approximately 15 km (unit A) to more than 30 km (unit B) and then decreased again to approximately 15 km during unit C deposition. Additionally, maximum tectonic subsidence rates increased from less than 500 m/m.y. during deposition of unit A1 to more than 800 m/m.y. during unit A2 and unit B deposition. During formation of unit C, rates finally decreased to less than 500 m/m.y. The second phase of basin formation occurred between approximately 18 and 17 Ma (St. Gallen Formation). During this time interval, the location of maximum subsidence shifted from the region

between kilometers 20 and 25 (unit 1) to the area between the thrust front and kilometer 10 (unit 2) (Figure 11A). Sediment Flux The calculated sediment f lux histor y of the Upper Marine Molasse is presented on Figure 11C. This figure reveals a continuous increase of the sediment flux from less than 2500 m2/k.y. to more than 15,000 m2/k.y. during deposition of unit A. Toward the end of unit B deposition, and especially during deposition of unit C, the sediment flux decreased to 2500 m2/k.y. A steady increase of the sediment flux to more than 15,000 m2/k.y. also occurred during deposition of the St. Gallen Formation; however, because the reconstruction of the average sediment flux is based on the volume of the preserved sediment within the basin, the calculated values represent minimum estimates. Significant underestimates of the sediment flux might arise from unknown volumes of sediment that possibly bypassed the analyzed cross section, and from erosion that might have occurred between deposition of the St. Gallen and Luzern formations. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Stratigraphic and Geometric Evolution of the Upper Marine Molasse Despite multiple possible controls on the evolution of foreland basins (Jordan and Flemings, 1991; Devlin et al., 1993), the results of the subsidence analysis suggest that the geometrical evolution of the Upper Marine Molasse, as well as the formation of the two sedimentar y sequences (Luzern Formation and St. Gallen Formation), were primarily controlled by the interaction between tectonic subsidence and sediment supply. Figure 11 shows that the distal transgression of the Luzern Formation (units A2 and B) was caused by an enhanced subsidence rate in the distal reaches. Furthermore, probably because the sediment flux increased simultaneously (Figure 11C), shallow-marine conditions prevailed during this time interval. However, the flooding surfaces separating unit A1 from unit A2, and unit A2 from unit B (Figure 10A), may be the result either of a short-term decrease of the sediment flux at a constant sea level or of an enhanced increase of the eustatic sea level at a constant sediment supply rate. The development of the sequence boundary separating the Luzern and St. Gallen formations appears to have been controlled by uplift in the distal part of the basin during unit C deposition (Figure 11A). Also during unit C deposition, the sediment

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flux decreased significantly (Figure 11C). However, probably because the decrease in sediment flux did not balance the reduction of accommodation space, the basin became overfilled, and terrestrial conditions were present at the end of deposition of the Luzern Formation. The northward transgression of the St. Gallen Formation (unit 1) appears to have been caused by an increase of the basin width by renewed subsidence in the distal part of the basin (Figure 11A). During the same time interval, however, no subsidence is recorded at the proximal basin border, resulting in a lens-shaped basin geometry and in a northward shift of the basin axes. Probably because the sediment flux increased simultaneously (Figure 11C), shallow-marine conditions prevailed during unit 1 time. Toward the end of the St. Gallen Formation (unit 2), enhanced subsidence occurred at the proximal basin border. In the more distal reaches of the basin, however, subsidence diminished. Also during unit 2 time, the sediment flux increased (Figure 11C), which appears to have caused overfilling of the basin; however, because the water depth did not exceed 20 m during deposition of the St. Gallen Formation (Keller, 1989), the regression at 17 Ma might also have been controlled by a short-term (less than 100 k.y.) eustatic sea level drop of more than 50 m, given the average subsidence rate of less than 300 m/m.y. (Schlunegger et al., 1997). Tectonic Processes in the Alpine Orogene, Basin Geometry, and Sediment Flux The modeled subsidence and sediment flux histories of the Upper Marine Molasse presented in the previous section record the development of the Alpine thrust wedge/Molasse basin system through time. Because the elastic thickness of the North Alpine foreland plate measured approximately 10 km during the Oligocene and Miocene (Sinclair, 1996), crustal loads within approximately 100 km distance from the thrust front (the northern Alps) (Figure 1B) controlled the tectonic subsidence of the Molasse basin (Sinclair et al., 1991). Within this part of the orogene, three major orogenic movements are recorded during deposition of the Upper Marine Molasse: (1) underplating of the Aar massif (Kiental and Calanda phase of deformations) (Milnes and Pfiffner, 1977, 1980; Burkhard, 1988), (2) initial out-of-sequence thrusting along the basal Alpine thrust at the end of Upper Marine Molasse sedimentation (Ruchi phase of deformation) (Milnes and Pfiffner, 1977, 1980; Schlunegger et al., 1997), and (3) continuous backthrusting of the Plateau Molasse due to forward underthrusting of Lower Freshwater Molasse strata (Schlunegger et

al., 1997) (Figure 2B). These tectonic processes resulted in significant shifts of the distribution of the tectonic loads (Sinclair et al., 1991; Schlunegger et al., 1997). As discussed in a previous section, the Napf River and locally sourced rivers were the major contributors of sediment for the southern part of the analyzed transect. Cooling ages from the source area of the Napf River (central Alps of western Switzerland) (Matter, 1964) suggest a decrease of the sediment flux into the Molasse basin after 20 Ma (Figure 12A). The northern Alps, however, which contributed the sediment for the locally sourced rivers, underwent intense denudation during deposition of the Upper Marine Molasse (Figure 12B). This area included the frontal Alpine nappes overlying the Aar massif and the basal Alpine thrust. Cooling ages and structural data provide relatively large ranges of ages for tectonic movements and denudation, but no well-constrained time limits for each phase. Using the combined information about depositional environment, tectonic subsidence, basin geometry, and provenance of the Upper Marine Molasse, does improve our understanding of the tectonic and denudation history of the northern Alps. Of the available types of information, the tectonic subsidence and the basin geometry are probably the most sensitive to crustal loading. Sediment flux is another parameter closely linked to thrusting-related uplift. Using a diffusion model for mountain belt uplift and erosion, Flemings and Jordan (1990), Sinclair et al. (1991), and Paola et al. (1992) revealed that initiation of a phase of thrust activity results in an increase of the tectonic subsidence rate:sediment flux ratio. As thrust activity is maintained, sediment supply increases, causing basin-margin facies to prograde and the basin axis to shift away from the deformation front. A further parameter that controls sediment supply to a sedimentary basin are changes in precipitation rates. Using chemostratigraphy and evaluating the record of fossil plants, Berger (1989) concluded that climate was nearly constant in the Burdigalian. As discussed in Sinclair et al. (1991), underplating of the Aar massif (Figure 1A) represents a phase of out-of-sequence thickening in the orogenic wedge. The numerical models of these authors suggested that crustal thickening in this part of the orogene caused a southward displacement of the major orogenic load by 4050 km, which in turn resulted in a significant southward shift of the basin axis and a decrease of the tectonic subsidence rates in distal sites. According to these models, we interpret that the decrease of the basin wavelength and the associated southward shift of the basin axis during deposition of unit C of the Luzern Formation (Figure 10A) reflects an episode of crustal loading

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Modeling the Upper Marine Molasse Group

Figure 12Thermal evolution of (A) the central Alps of western Switzerland (hinterland of the Napf dispersal system) and of (B) the northern Alps of central Switzerland (source area of the local dispersal systems). The exhumation history of the central Alps of western Switzerland is reconstructed based on cooling ages determined from Penninic gneiss samples. For detailed discussion of methodology and sample location maps, see Hurford (1986) and Hurford et al. (1989). The reconstruction of the thermal evolution of the northern Alps is based on temporally and thermally calibrated metamorphic fabrics and cooling ages determined from crystalline rock samples of the Aar massif. Refer to Michalski and Soom (1990) and Soom (1990) for detailed discussion.

in the Aar massif. Similarly, the basin formation during unit A1 deposition might reflect a former episode of crustal thickening in the Aar massif. These two possible episodes of crustal loading should be succeeded by two phases of enhanced denudation, according to numerical models (Sinclair et al., 1991). Whereas cooling ages indicate that the northern orogene underwent high erosion between 20 and 15 Ma (Figure 12b), the sediment flux history reconstructed from the preserved strata in the Upper Marine Molasse indicates two phases of enhanced erosion of the northern Alps that postdate the interpreted loading events in the Aar massif (Figure 11C).

Forward underthrusting of Lower Freshwater Molasse thrust sheets beneath the Plateau Molasse represents a phase of stable sliding of the entire wedge. If this process is associated with tectonic quiescence and ongoing exhumation in the area of the Aar massif, the location of the major orogenic loads that controls the basin-subsidence shifts from the rear of the northern orogene to the thrust front (Sinclair et al., 1991). As a result, the basin axis shifts northward, and distal sites experience enhanced subsidence. According to these theoretical models, we interpret that the increase of the basin width and the distal shift in the depocenter of

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Figure 13 Tectonic and stratigraphic configuration of the Alpine border during deposition of the Upper Marine Molasse (OMM). (Modified after Schlunegger et al., 1997.) USM = Lower Freshwater Molasse, UMM = Lower Marine Molasse.

the Upper Marine Molasse between approximately 2019 and 1817 Ma (units A2 and B of the Luzern Formation and unit 1 of the St. Gallen Formation, Figure 10B) are the result of northward underthrusting of Lower Freshwater Molasse strata in association with tectonic quiescence and ongoing erosion in the area of the Aar massif. Furthermore, northward underthrusting of Lower Freshwater Molasse strata caused a counterclockwise rotation of the proximal Plateau Molasse (Figures 2B, 13), which, in turn, explains the diminished subsidence at the southern basin border and the distal shift in the depocenter of the Upper Marine Molasse. Crustal loading by forward thrusting of the Helvetic nappes and the piggyback stack of North Penninic and Ultrahelvetic Flysch nappes along the basal Alpine thrust 10 km south of the thrust front (Figure 13) represents a final phase of out-ofsequence crustal thickening in the northern orogene (Ruchi phase of deformation; Milnes and Pfiffner, 1977, 1980). According to Schlunegger et al. (1997), initiation of the Ruchi phase of deformation coincides with unit 2 deposition of the St. Gallen Formation. Crustal loading in this part of the orogene is interpreted to have caused a southward shift of the location of the major orogenic load compared to that during unit 1 deposition (see previous discussion). Therefore, initiation of this tectonic event is interpreted to have caused the southward shift of the basin axis and the formation of a wedge-shaped basin during unit 2 deposition. In addition, increased relief caused by forward thrusting of the frontal Alpine thrust nappes is likely to have increased the denudation rate of these units (Schlunegger et al., 1997),

which, in turn, would explain the first appearance of Helvetic clasts and the increasing admixture and size of North Penninic and Ultrahelvetic Flysch clasts in the 17.515-Ma conglomerates of the neighboring fan deltas (Leupold et al., 1942; Tanner, 1944; Matter, 1964). Foreland basins play an important role with respect to the worldwide occurrences of hydrocarbon reserves. The North Alpine foreland basin is relatively small compared to other systems such as the Western Canada basin or the United States Rocky Mountain foreland basin (Macqueen and Leckie, 1992). Nevertheless, in the German part of the Molasse basin approximately 50 km east of the analyzed transect, oil has been found mainly in Eocene reservoirs, and gas has been explored from Oligocene and Miocene strata (Brink et al., 1992). In the Swiss part of the Molasse basin, however, no economic reserves have been discovered so far despite numerous gas indications in wells and at the surface (Greber et al., 1995). There, most exploration concentrated on the Mesozoic reservoirs underlying the Tertiary section (Lahusen and Wyss, 1995). Nevertheless, a detailed understanding of the stratigraphic evolution of the foreland basin fill is crucial to understanding the evolution and distribution of possible seals and reservoir rocks even within Switzerland (see also discussion in Kempter, 1994). REFERENCES CITED
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Fritz Schlunegger Fritz Schlunegger is a postdoctoral research fellow at Cornell University and Penn State University, where he moved following receipt of his Ph.D. from the University of Bern, Switzerland, in 1995. His current research interests include the evaluation of erosional denudation in orogenes vs. crustal thickening as controls on the evolution of mountain belt/foreland basin systems. Werner Leu Werner Leu graduated in geology at the University of Bern, Switzerland, and proceeded to a Ph.D. in geology in 1986. He then joined Shell International, where he worked in the research laboratories in the Netherlands. Since 1991 he has been a consulting geologist in Switzerland with Geoform Ltd. He was involved in petroleum exploration projects in Germany, the North Sea, Australia, Egypt, Bulgaria, and Switzerland. His main interests are in basin modeling, stratigraphic simulation, and the reconstruction of the thermal history of sedimentary basins. Albert Matter Albert Matter received his Ph.D. in geology from the University of Bern, Switzerland, in 1964. Following postdoctoral appointments at Rice University and Johns Hopkins University, he returned to Bern in 1966, where he is now a full professor and chairperson. His major research interests are in clastic sedimentology and diagenesis.