Howard Community College Introduction to Sociology SOCI 101-901 Summer Session I 2013 Midterm Review Chapter 1 What is Sociology?

? Sociology is one of the social sciencesdisciplines that examine the human or social world. Sociology can help you develop a sociological perspectivea way of taking a sociological approach or thinking sociologically about the world. C. Wright Millss the Sociological Imagination Mills says, To understand social life, we must understand the intersection between biography and history. Sociological imagination: a quality of the mind that allows us to understand the relationship between our particular situation in life and what is happening at a social level

Bernard McGranes beginners vs. experts mind Like it sounds, the beginners mind is the opposite of an experts mind. Bernard McGrane says that to explore the social world, it is important that we clear our minds of stereotypes, expectations, and opinions so that we are more receptive to our experiences. Theorists and theories (Harriet Martineau, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx, Max Weber) Auguste Comte: Stated that sociology needed to be treated like any other scientific discipline Laid the groundwork for future sociologists and helped build the discipline Harriet Martineau: A social activist who traveled the United States and wrote about social changes that were radical for this time period Martineau translated Comtes work into English, making his ideas accessible to England and America.

Herbert Spencer Herbert Spencer was the first great English-speaking sociologist Spencer believed in evolution and coined the phrase survival of the fittest. He believed that societies evolve through time by adapting to their changing environment. His philosophy is often referred to as social Darwinism mile Durkheim mile Durkheim worked to establish sociology as an important academic discipline.
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Interested in the social factors that bond and hold people together Studied the correlation between social isolation and suicide Karl Marx Karl Marx was a German philosopher and political activist. Marx contributed significantly to sociologys conflict theory. Marx believed that capitalism was creating social inequality between the bourgeoisie, who owned the means of production (money, factories, natural resources, and land), and the proletariat, who were the workers. According to Marx, this inequality leads to class conflict. Max Weber Max Weber was also interested in how society was becoming industrialized. -He was concerned with the process of rationalization, applying economic logic to all human activity. -He believed that contemporary life was filled with disenchantment, the result of the dehumanizing features of modern societies. George Herbert Mead George Herbert Mead was interested in the connection between thought and action between the individual and society. Mead suggested that the meanings that we give to objects in our society are social processespeople interact, and meanings come from these interactions. Erving Goffman Erving Goffman was interested in how the self is developed through interactions with others in society. Goffman used the term dramaturgy to describe the way people strategically present themselves to others. Modern schools of thought (structural functionalism, conflict theory, symbolic interactionism) Structural functionalism: Society is viewed as an ordered system of interrelated parts, or structures, which are the social institutions that make up society (family, education, politics, the economy). Conflict theory: Sees social conflict as the basis of society and social change Symbolic interactionism: Sees interaction and meaning as central to society and assumes that meanings are not inherent but rather are created through interaction Feminist theory:

Looks at both gender inequalities in society and the way that gender structures the social world and considers remedies to these inequalities Queer theory: Proposes that categories of sexual identity are social constructs and that no sexual category is fundamentally either deviant or normal Postmodernist theory: Suggests that social reality is diverse, pluralistic, and constantly changing

Chapter 2 What is the scientific method? -The scientific methoda procedure for acquiring knowledge that emphasizes collecting data through observation and experiment. Steps of the scientific method Methods (What are they? And their main advantages/disadvantages) o Ethnographic methods ethnographystudying people in their own environments in order to understand the meanings they give to their activities o Interviews Interviews involve direct, face-to-face contact with respondents. -Can generate large amounts of qualitative data -Researcher identifies the target population of interest, then selects a sample of people to be interviewed from that population o Surveys Surveys are questionnaires that are administered to a sample of respondents selected from a target population. Survey research tends to look at large-scale social patterns and employs statistics and other mathematical means of analysis. o Existing sources Existing sources refer to any data that has already been collected by earlier researchers and is available for future research. o Experimental methods Experiments are formal tests of specific variables and effects that are performed in a setting where all aspects of the situation can be controlled.

Many experiments involve: An experimental groupparticipants that receive the experimental treatment A control groupparticipants that continue without intervention so they can be compared with the experimental group
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Chapter 3 What is culture? -Culture is the entire way of life for a group of people. Includes things such as language, standards of beauty, hand gestures, styles of dress, food, and music. Ethnocentrism and cultural relativism -Ethnocentrism occurs when a person uses their own culture as a standard to evaluate another group or individual, leading to the view that cultures other than ones own are abnormal -Cultural relativism is the process of understanding other cultures on their own terms, rather than judging according to ones own culture.

Material and symbolic (non-material) culture -Material culture includes the objects associated with a cultural group, such as tools, machines, utensils, buildings, and artwork -Symbolic culture includes ways of thinking (beliefs, values, and assumptions) and ways of behaving (norms, interactions, and communication). Values, norms, and sanctioning -Norms are the formal and informal rules regarding what kinds of behavior are acceptable and appropriate within a culture. More is a norm that carries greater moral significance, is closely related to the core values of a group, and often involves severe repercussions for violators. Folkway is a loosely enforced norm that involves common customs, practices, or procedures that ensure smooth social interaction and acceptance. Taboo is a norm engrained so deeply that even thinking about violating it evokes strong feelings of disgust, horror, or revulsion for most people. Sanctions are positive or negative reactions to the ways that people follow or disobey norms, including rewards for conformity and punishments for norm violators. Sanctions help to establish social control, the formal and informal mechanisms used to increase conformity to values and norms and thus increase social cohesion. -Values are shared beliefs about what a group considers worthwhile or desirable; these guide the creation of norms. Dominant culture, subculture, counterculture -Dominant culture refers to the values, norms, and practices of the group within society that is most powerful in terms of wealth, prestige, status, and influence

-Subculture is a group within society that is differentiated by its distinctive values, norms, and lifestyle. -Counterculture is a group within society that openly rejects and/or actively opposes societys values and norms.

Chapter 4 What is socialization? -Socialization is the process of learning and internalizing the values, beliefs, and norms of our social group. Theorists and theories of the self (Sigmund Freud, Charles Cooley, Erving Goffman, George H. Mead)

-self is our personal identity that is separate and different from all other people Sigmund Freud is usually associated with psychoanalysis, but his theories have helped sociologists gain a better understanding of social behavior. Charles Cooley believed that ones sense of self depends on seeing oneself reflected in interactions with others. The looking-glass self refers to the notion that the self develops through our perception of others evaluations and appraisals of us. George Herbert Mead expanded Cooleys ideas. Mead also believed that the self was created through social interaction and that this process started in childhood. Mead believed that the self develops through several stages, including the preparatory stage, the play stage, taking the role of the significant other, and the game stage. Erving Goffman believed that meaning is constructed through interaction. His approach, called dramaturgy, compares social interaction to the theater, where individuals take on roles and act them out for an audience. Goffman sees social life as a sort of game, where we work to control the impressions others have of us, a process he called impression management.

Agents of socialization

Agents of socialization are the social groups, institutions, and individuals that provide structured situations where socialization occurs. Major agents include Family The family is the single most significant agent of socialization in all societies and teaches us the basic values and norms that shape our identity. Schools Schools provide education and socialize us through a hidden curriculum (a set of behavioral traits such as punctuality, neatness, discipline, hard work, competition, and obedience) that teaches many of the behaviors that will be important later in life. Peers Peers provide very different social skills and often become more immediately significant than the family, especially as children move through adolescence The mass media media has become an important agent of socialization, often overriding the family and other institutions in instilling values and norms Adult socialization

A status is a position in society that comes with a set of expectations. -An ascribed status is one we are born with that is unlikely to change. -An achieved status is one we have earned through individual effort or that is imposed by others. -Our master status is a status that seems to override all others and affects all other statuses that we possess. Roles are the behaviors expected from a particular status. Emotion work refers to the process of evoking, suppressing, or managing feelings to create a public display of emotion. Sociologists are interested in interactions that occur in copresence (when individuals are in one anothers physical presence) and the way that modern technology enables us to interact with people very far away. Postmodern theorists claim that the role of technology in interaction is one of the primary features of postmodern life. Resocialization Resocialization is the process of replacing previously learned norms and values with new ones as a part of a transition in life.

A dramatic form of resocialization takes place in a total institution, which is an institution (such as a prison, cult, or mental hospital) that cuts individuals off from the rest of society so that their lives can be controlled and regulated.

Chapter 5 What is a group? What is primary group / secondary group? A group is a collection of people who share some attribute, identify with one another, and interact with each other. -Primary groups usually involve more face-to-face interaction, greater cooperation, and deeper feelings of belonging -Larger, less personal groups are known as secondary groups. Secondary groups are usually organized around a specific activity or the accomplishment of a task. A crowd is different because it is simply a temporary gathering of people in a public place whose members may interact but do not identify with each other and will not remain in contact. A crowd is one example of an aggregate, a collection of people who share a physical location but do not have lasting social relations. In these groups, we are closely associated with the other members, such as family and friends. Anomie and virtual communities -A social network is the web of direct and indirect ties connecting an individual to other people. -You and your family, friends, peers, colleagues, teachers, and co-workers constitute your social network. -Since groups provide values, norms, and rules that guide peoples lives, is it possible that the modern world makes people disconnected from their groups and creates feelings of anomie, or normlessness? Social influence (peer pressure) -Social influence (peer pressure) is the influence of ones fellow group members on individual attitudes and behaviors. -Generally we conform to group norms because we want to gain acceptance and approval (positive sanctions) and avoid rejection and disapproval (negative sanctions). Group cohesion -Group cohesion is the sense of solidarity or loyalty that individuals feel toward a group to which they belong. -A group is more cohesive when the individual members feel strongly tied to the group
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-Too much cohesion can lead to the kind of poor decision making called groupthink, the tendency of very cohesive groups to enforce a high degree of conformity among members, creating a demand for unanimous agreement. Power Power is the ability to control the actions of others. It includes: Coercive powerbacked by the threat of force Influential powersupported by persuasion

Levels of conformity (compliance, identification, internalization) Compliance: the mildest form of conformity; actions to gain reward or avoid punishment Identification: conformity to establish or maintain a relationship with a person or group Internalization: the strongest type of conformity; an individual adopts the beliefs or actions of a group and makes them his or her own

Chapter 6 Deviance across cultures -Deviance is a behavior, trait, or belief that departs from a norm and generates a negative reaction in a particular group. -Defining something as deviant requires us to examine the group norms and how the group reacts to the behavior.

Theories of deviance o Functionalism Deviance serves a function in our society. According to mile Durkheim, deviance serves a positive social function by clarifying moral boundaries and promoting social cohesion. o Conflict theory Deviance is a result of social conflict. In order for the powerful to maintain their power, they marginalize and criminalize the people who threaten their power. Inequality is reproduced in the way deviance is defined o Structural strain theory (conformist, innovator, ritualist, retreatist, rebel) Robert Merton It states that there are goals in our society that people want to achieve, but they cannot always reach these goals. This creates stress (or strain) because people are aware of the goals but do not have the means to achieve them.
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o Conformists accept the goals of the society and the means of achieving those goals. o Innovators accept the goals of the society, but they look for new, or innovative, ways of achieving those goals. o Ritualists arent interested in the goals of the society but they do accept the means of achieving those goals. o Retreatists do not accept the goals of the society or the means of achieving those goals. o Rebels dont accept the goals of the society or the means of achieving those goals, so they create their own goals using new means. o Symbolic interactionism Differential association theory Differential association: A symbolic interactionists perspective developed by Edwin Sutherland States that we learn deviance from hanging around deviant peers

Labeling theory: A symbolic interactionist perspective developed by Howard Becker States that deviance is caused by external judgments (labels) that change a persons self-concept and the way that others respond to that person Stigma and deviant identity Passing: Sometimes stigmatized individuals will try to pass as if they are part of the mainstream Stigma: Term coined by Ervin Goffman Describes any physical or social attribute that devalues a person or groups identity, and which may exclude those who are devalued from normal social interaction Deterrence and punishment (retribution, incapacitation, rehabilitation) Deterrence: prevent crime by threatening harsh penalties Retribution: retaliate or take revenge for a crime that has been committed Incapacitation: remove criminals from society by imprisoning them Rehabilitation: reform criminals so that they may re-enter society

Chapter 7 System of stratification (slavery, caste, class)

-Social stratification is the division of society into groups arranged in a social hierarchy ---Slavery is the most extreme form of social stratification, and is based on the legal ownership of people. -A caste system is a form of social stratification in which status is determined by ones family history and background and cannot be changed. Social classes in the U.S. The upper class: Wealthiest people in a class system Make up about 1% of the U.S. population Possess most of the wealth of the country The upper-middle class: Professionals and managers Make up about 14% of the U.S. population The middle class consists primarily of White-collar workers Have a broad range of incomes Make up about 30% of the U.S. population The working (lower-middle) class: Blue-collar or service industry workers Less likely to have college degrees Make up about 30% of the U.S. population

Theories of social class o Conflict theory Karl Marx believed that there were two main social classes in capitalist societies: -Capitalists (or bourgeoisie), who owned the means of production -Workers (or proletariat), who sold their labor for wages He believed that the classes would remain o Structural functionalism -Suggests that the system of stratification that has emerged is functional to society in many ways: -Certain roles are more important for the functioning of society, and these roles may be more difficult to fill, so more incentive is needed. -Greater rewards are necessary for work that requires more training or skill. o Symbolic interactionism -Symbolic interactionists examine the way we use status differences to categorize others and ourselves.

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-As Erving Goffman pointed out, our clothing, speech, gestures, possessions, friends, and activities provide information about our socioeconomic status Social mobility -Social mobility is the movement of individuals or groups within the hierarchal system of social classes. -A closed system is one with very little opportunity to move from one class to another. -An open system is one with ample opportunities to move from one class to another. o Intergenerational mobility Intergenerational mobility is the movement between social classes that occurs from one generation to the next. o Intragenerational mobility -Intragenerational mobility is the movement between social classes that occurs over the course of an individuals lifetime. Horizontal social mobility -Horizontal social mobility is the occupational movement of individuals or groups within a social class. Vertical social mobility -Vertical social mobility is the movement between social classes and is often called, depending on the direction, either upward mobility or downward mobility.

o Structural mobility -Structural mobility refers to changes in the social status of large numbers of people due to structural changes in society

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