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H2O
Two atoms of hydrogen
(one proton +, one electron -)
HYDROGEN BONDS
The positive side of the molecule is attracted to negative charges, e.g. the opposite sides of other water molecules The attraction forms a weak bond = HYDROGEN BOND NB A hydrogen bond is much weaker than a the bond between atoms (covalent bond)
HYDROGEN BONDS
Hydrogen bonds help give water some of its properties Including SURFACE TENSION the skin on glass of water or a pond COHESION .molecules pulling together to form droplets CAPILARITY The ability to pull molecules behind it up a narrow tube (capillary) e.g. the xylem of plants
Capillarity
Surface Tension
= HYDRATION Because water molecules not only interact with other molecules, but also with polar substances water can dissolve almost anything = THE UNIVERSAL SOLVENT If water cannot dissolve a substance it is because it is not polar (e.g. oil)
LATENT HEATS
The heat energy needed to turn 1 g of a substance at the melting point temperature from solid to liquid= THE LATENT HEAT OF MELTING
(i.e. the energy require to break bonds)
If enough energy is then added it turns into gas (@BOILING POINT) [100 C; 212 F]
o o
If energy is removed the gas reverts back into liquid (@CONDENSATION POINT) And more energy removes turns into a solid (@FREEZING POINT)
The heat energy needed to turn 1 g of a substance at the boiling point temperature liquid to gas= THE LATENT HEAT OF VAPOURIZATION
LATENT HEATS
The heat energy needed to BE REMOVED to turn 1 g of a substance at the boiling point temperature from gas to liquid= THE LATENT HEAT OF CONDENSATION
(i.e. the energy required be removed to slow molecules down and to allow bonds to reform) The heat energy needed to BE REMOVED to turn 1 g of a substance at the melting point temperature from liquid to solid=
Sea surface temperatures are usually less than 20oC nowhere near the boiling point Therefore how does liquid turn to vapor at the oceans surface? To escape the liquids surface a water molecule must take enough energy from its neighboring molecules to become a gas Because energy is taken when evaporation occurs it cools the molecules left behind = THE LATENT HEAT OF EVAPORATION NB: A greater amount of energy than the latent heat of vaporization
WATER DENSITY
Density = Mass / Volume How heavy something is Density of pure water =1g/cm3 Normally the density of a substance increases as it cools Molecules loose energy slow down closer together = THERMAL CONTRACTION BUT from 4oC to 0oC the density of water DECREASES i.e. instead of contracting it expands Therefore ice is LESS DENSE than liquid water ICE FLOATS Why? The density of water increases as it becomes cooler e.g. cold water is heavier than warm water
Below 4oC ice crystals start forming These crystals are large and bulky They take up more volume than liquid water Therefore they are less dense than liquid water When water freezes its volume increase by 9% (this is why pipes burst in winter etc) BUT adding dissolved substances INHIBITS ice crystal formation, so water can become colder before the density starts to increase THERFORE seawater becomes ice at temperature below 0oC
MARINE BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF WATER DENSITY In warmer water (i.e. not as dense) plankton have to be smaller in order to float (higher surface area : volume ratio) Or have structure on their surface to help floatation
Ice floats when it freezes In the polar regions a layer of unfrozen, slightly warmer water is often found under ice Fish etc. can live in this slightly warmer water layer
SALINITY Salinity = total amount of solid material dissolved in water (including gases) Salinity of seawater = 3.5% i.e. 96.5% pure water content 220 time saltier than fresh water NB salinity does not include particles and sediments FLOATING in water = TURBIDITY
SALINITY Salinity is usually measured in parts per thousand 3.5% = 3.5 parts per hundred = 35 parts per thousand = 35 o/oo or 35 ppt or 35 g/kg3
MAJOR COMPONENTS
MINOR COMPONENTS
TRACE COMPONENTS
SALINITY Salinity varies in the oceans from 35 to 38 parts per thousand In coastal areas salinity can be much reduced e.g. only 10 parts per thousand in river estuaries =BRACKISH WATER (fresh water & seawater mixing)
SALINITY However, in the Red Sea salinity = 42 parts per thousand =HYPERSALINE WATER Occurs in areas with high evaporation and limited connection to / circulation with the open ocean THE DEAD SEA = 330 parts per thousand 10 times saltier than sea water
SALINITY Salinity can also vary seasonally e.g.1 Miami Beach 34.8 ppt in October to 36.4 ppt in May & June
i.e. when evaporation is high
SOURCES OF SEAWATER COMPONENTS Largest source of seawater components is from streams and runoff But the composition of dissolved substances in stream water is not the same as seawater Why? Because some components have a high RESIDENCE TIME and accumulate high concentrations over years e.g. Na+ has a residence time of 260 million years BUT on average rate of salt added = rate of salt removal
Sea also enters the crust near hydrothermal vents and picks up minerals etc. The entire volume of the ocean may pass through hydrothermal vents every 3 million years = major influence on seawater composition
In addition to some losses in tectonic boundaries/faults Some salts etc are lost when sea spray etc. hits the land Also living organisms extract minerals from seawater and when they die biogenous sediment Finally, some components may be absorbed (attach to the surface of) sediments
Addition of water content: Precipitation Melting of sea ice, icebergs and glaciers Streams, rivers & runoff
ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY H+ and OH- are always present in small quantities because water molecules dissociate and reform
i.e. H2O H+ + OH-
An ACID is a compound that releases hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water The resulting solution = ACIDIC An ALKALINE or BASE releases OH- ions when dissolved in water A stronger acid or alkaline releases more ions
In pure water
number of H+ ions = number of OHTherefore the solution is neutral (pH =7) The pH scale measure acidity (pH<7) and alkalinity (pH>7)
ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY In the ocean CO2 reacts with water and releases hydrogen ions
i.e. H2O + CO2 H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-
= CARBONIC ACID So, theoretically the ocean should be acidic BUT this is prevented by the CARBONATE BUFFERING SYSTEM
The bicarbonate ion can also loose a second hydrogen ion HCO3
-
H+
+ CO3
2-
If the ocean becomes too alkaline/basic The carbonate ion can then react with calcium ions to form Calcium Carbonate
(which precipitates onto the seafloor = hydrogenous sediment)
H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-
(acidity increases)
VARATION IN SALINITY
VARATION IN SALINITY Why are there variations in oceanic salinity? High latitudes increase precipitation & runoff Polar regions melting of ice Cooler temperature - Less evaporation Tropical regions little precipitation Higher temperature more evaporation At the Equator High evaporation but high precipitation balances out
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DEPTH VARATION IN SALINITY Salinity also varies with depth In low latitudes (near the tropics equator) Salinity at the surface is HIGH As depth increases salinity decreases In high latitudes (temperate & polar) Salinity at the surface is LOW As depth increases salinity increases Most of the factors affecting salinity only alter surface waters
DEPTH VARATION IN SALINITY At a depth of 300m to 1000m there is a rapid change in salinity In low latitudes a decrease in salinity In high latitudes an increase in salinity This area of rapid change is called the HALOCLINE
SEAWATER DENSITY In the ocean seawater density varies 1.022 - 1.030 g/cm3
(depending on salinity)
SEAWATER DENSITY Several factors effect seawater density As temperature increases density decreases
(thermal expansion)
Density has important effects on ocean water Denser bodies of water will sink below less dense bodies of water Therefore low density water is found at the surface, high density water found in the depths
Only temperature and salinity effect surface waters Pressure only effects very deep waters (e.g. trenches) (density in greatest depths only 5% more than surface)
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SEAWATER DENSITY & DEPTH In Low Latitudes (equator/tropics) Seawater density in surface stays the same until a depth of about 300m
(due to good mixing of the surface waters)
Increases in temperature at higher temperatures cause greater decreases in density than the same number of degrees increased at lower temperatures. Increases in water temperature in low latitudes (tropics and equator) have three times the effect on water density than in high latitudes
Below 300m density increases rapidly until a depth of 1000m From 1000m the density remains relatively constant until the ocean floor
SEAWATER DENSITY & DEPTH In High Latitudes (temperate etc.) Density is high at the surface
(because temperature is low)
Therefore the density remains relatively constant whether surface waters or deep waters
SEAWATER DENSITY & DEPTH In Low Latitudes the layer of rapid changing density = THE PYCNOCLINE The layer of rapid changing temperature = THE THERMOCLINE They occur between 300m & 1000m
The pycnocline acts as a barrier between deep and surface waters preventing mixing
Although above the pycnocline the surface waters are well mixed by currents/tides/waves
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Deep water
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