CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Back ground.

Prime Radio was founded in October 2002 as an Adventist Religious Radio station to serve the Adventists society in Uganda and Africa as a whole to contribute to the overall Religious Development in the country. Since then, it has built a strong reputation for delivering quality alternatives radio solutions to clients in government, the Ngo and private sectors. It has all along been offering services to clients, ranging from large to small and medium enterprises, focusing on developing and building corporate brands and services that meet critical community development initiatives and needs.

1.1Vision
To be a global player and one of Africa s leading Christian radio station.

1.2 Motto
Eweweza omutima

1.3 Mission
To excel in speaking and sharing a wholesome, balanced and informative message of hope in Jesus Christ through effective and efficient broadcasting services.

1.4 Our values

~ Integrity Trust is everything in our business ~ High quality 8 professional service delivery We pledge to be true to our customers and radio leadership. Every day we endeavour to be the best in the business. ~ Value for money in all our services Excel in service delivery. .~Excellence -Leadership -Competence -Teamwork- we believe that together as a team we achieve more. -Superior customer services

1.5 Objectives
-To promote enhance development through announcements, endorsements, sponsorship and volunteer fund raising efforts carried out by our friends and the church. - To participate in other programmes and exhibitions which help improve our coverage. -To serve customers in a better 8 more efficient manner and to strive to re-in force its position in this competitive radio industry. To become the leading Christian radio station truly The masters radio for all Ugandans.

1.6 Organisational structure of prime radio

Conference council B.O.D

M.D

Technical manager

News editor

Production manager

Marketing manager

Program manager

Finance Manager

Reporters

News readers Production Assistant Marketing Assistant

Program Assistant Director of Religious Affairs

Accountants

Cashiers

CHAPTER TWO
NETWORKING
2.0 INTRODUCTION Networking is the connection of different computers together to be able to communicate to each other. Throughout the tutorials I went through I was able to understand a lot about networking. This below is a detailed explanation of what I did in those tutorials practically and theoretically. 2.1TYPES OF NETWORKS y Local Area Networks

Local area data networks, which we normally refer to as LANS, are used to interconnect distributed communities of computer based DTES located within a single building or a localised group of buildings. For example we use a LAN to interconnect workstations distributed around offices within a single building or a group of buildings such as a university campus, to interconnect computer based equipment distributed around a factory or hospital complex. LANS are normally installed and maintained by the organisation since they are located within a single building. There are 2 different types of LANS; wired and wireless LANS. Wired LANS utilise fixed wiring such as coaxial cable and twisted pair as transmission medium whereas wireless utilise radio or light waves.
y y

Wide Area Networks Metropolitan Area Network

2.2 TOPOLOGIES This is the physical layout of a network. The different types include

y y y y

Ring Bus Star Tree

2.2.1 Ring Topology With this type, the network cable passes from one DTE to another until the DTES are interconnected in form of a loop. A feature of this topology is a direct point to point link between each neighbouring DTE which is unidirectional in operation. Appropriate MAC algorithm then ensure the use of the ring is shared between communities of users.

Advantages.
y y

Easy to install and wire Messages flow from one device to another in one direction around the ring

Disadvantages.

y y

Failure of one device leads to failure of the whole network. Requires much cable length.

PC B PC C PC A PC D

2.2.2 Bus Topology. Often referred to as a linear bus because the computers are connected in a straight line. This is the simplest and most common method of networking computers. Atypical bus topology consists of a single cable called trunks or a segment that connects all of the computers in a network in a single line.

Advantages.
y y

Easy to connect a computer or a peripheral device to a linear bus. Requires less cable length than the star.

Disadvantages
y y y

Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down. Incase of a breakage in the main cable, the entire network shuts down. Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.

PC A

PC B

Cable FIGURE

PC D

PC E

PC F

2.2.3 Star Topology. It is designed with each node connected to a central network hub. Data passes through the hub before continuing to its destination. Connecting computers to cable segments that branch out from the single point or hub is referred to as setting up a star topology.

Advantages.
y y

Easy to install and wire. Easy to detect a fault and remove parts.

Disadvantages.
y y y

Requires much cable length. If the hub fails, nodes attached are disabled. It is costly.

PC C PC B Hub PC D

PC A

2.2.4 Tree Topology This type of topology combines the characteristics of bus and star. It also consists of groups of star configured workstations connected to a linear bus backbone cable. Hubs can also be connected in a hierchical way to form a tree topology.

Advantages.
y y

Supported by several hardware and software vendors. Point to point wiring four individual segments.

Disadvantages.
y y y

More difficult to wire and configure than other topologies. Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling. If the backbone line breaks the entire segment goes down

Repeaters

2.3 NETWORK ADDRESSING. 2.3.1 IP Addressing. Introduction to IP addressing

In an IPV4 network, the IP address consists of 4 numbers called octets (8 bits each) each separated by dots. Each IP address is 32 bits in length (48 bits) an example of an IP address 192.168.2.1.Each of the octets range from 0.255.An IP address can also be displayed in binary values. In this case, each bit in the octet can either be 1 or 0.when calculating the IP address, the left most bit starts with a value of 128 and counts down from there according to the binary values of binary to decimal conversion.128,64,32,16,68,4,2,1=255. IP Address This is the number associated with the computer similar to the address of a house or a number of a telephone. Each IP address is composed of 2 parts that is the Network ID and Host ID.Network ID represents the network the computer belongs while the host ID uniquely identifies the computer on that network. Every network ID on the TCP/IP (e.g. Internet).Further, every host ID on the network, must also be unique to that network.
2.3.2 Subnet mask It is used to divide the IP address into the network portion and host portion. It is a required TCP/IP setting. Without the subnet mask, the computer has no idea what network it belongs to .the subnet mask is also a 32 bit binary number broken down into 4 octets .e.g. 255.255.0.0.

Subnet mask is displayed in decimal and binary Decimal 255.255.0.0.binary Binary 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000 The subnet mask tells you that the 1st 16 binary numbers are the network numbers which when you convert back to decimal will be 192.168. Table showing address classes Address class Class A Class B Class C Address format Network-host-host-host Network-network-host-host Network-network-networkhost 1st byte is always 1 to 126 128-191 192-223

Network class address possibilities IP address format A N.H.H.H 7bits for network 24bits for hosts B N.N.H.H 14bits for network 16bit for hosts C N.N.N.H 21bits for network 8bits for hosts Number of networks 2^7-2=126 Number of hosts 2^24-2=16,777,214

2^14=16,384

2^16-2=65,534

2^21=2,097,152

2^8-2=254

Restrictions on Network Addressing Restrictions 1. Zero not permitted a network address 2. Zero not permitted as host address 3. Network 127.0.0.0 is reserved for testing. Reason Zero in the network address position indicates a host address on the local address. Zero in the host address position indicates a network address segment address. Messages to network 127 are not transmitted. They are reflected back to the TX machine Example. 0.0.0.22 identifies host 22 on the local network 122.0.0.0 which identifies network segment 122 127.0.0.1 is the reserved loop address.

2.4 TYPES OF CABLES USED FOR NETWORKING. There are different types of cables used for networking and some of them include;

y y y y

Optical fiber Coaxial cable Twisted pair cable Untwisted pair cable

2.4.1 Optical fiber An optical fiber is a glass or plastic fiber that carries light along its length by the process of total internal reflection. They form the backbone all modern terrestrial communications networks due to the very high bandwidths that can be achieved. They are widely used in fiber optic communications, which permits transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths than other forms of communications. 2.4.2 Coaxial cable. Coaxial lines confine the electrical wave to an area inside the cable, between the center conductor and the shield. The transmission of energy in the line occurs totally through the dielectric inside the cable between the conductors. Coaxial lines can therefore be bent and twisted without negative effects, and they can be strapped to conductive supports without

inducing unwanted currents in them. They are used in television and other signals with a bandwidth of multiple megahertz.
2.4.3 Twisted pair cable In its simplest form, twisted pair cable consists of two insulated strands of copper wire twisted around each other. A number of twisted wire cables are often grouped together and enclosed in a protective sheath. The twisting cancels out the electrical shorting alone from adjacent pairs and from other sources such as motors, relays and transformers. 2.4.4 Untwisted pair cable UTP, using the 10base T specification is the most popular type of twisted pair cable and fast becoming the most LAN cabling. The maximum length cable segment is 100m, about 328feet.traditional UTP cable consists or 2 insulated copper wires.UTP specifications govern how many twists are permitted per foot of the cable; the number of twists allowed depends on the purpose for which the cable will be put UTP cable is used for telephone systems.

The 568A commercial building wiring standards of the electronic industries association and the Telecommunications Industries Association ETA/TIA specifies the type of UTP cable that is to be used in a variety of building and wiring situations. The objective of this is to ensure consistency of products of products for customers. The standards include;
y

Category 1. This refers to traditional UTP telephone cable that can carry voice but not data transmissions. Most telephone cable prior to 1983 was category 1 cable. Category 2 This category satisfies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 4Mbits per second. It consists of 4 twisted wires. Category 3 It satisfies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 16Mbps.It consists of 4 twisted pairs of copper with 3 twists per foot. Category 4 It satisfies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 20Mbps.it consists of 4 twisted pairs of copper wires. Category 5 It satisfies UTP cable for data transmission up to 100Mbps.it consists of 4 twisted pairs of copper wire.

2.5 Cable terminations There are two types of network cables commonly used in PC networks - Straight-through and cross over
2.5.1 Straight-through: A straight-through network cable is just what the name implies, a cable that passes data straight through from one end to another. Straight-through cables are used for a variety of

connections. (e.g. connecting a computer to a hub or switch, to a cable/ISDN/DSL modem, and linking switches and hubs together.) Table showing colours of a straight through cable ends
SIDE A White-orange Orange White-green Blue White-blue Green White-brown Brown SIDE B White-orange Orange White-green Blue White-blue Green White-brown Brown

2.5.2 Crossover cable Connects two devices of the same type, for example DTE-DTE or DCE-DCE, usually connected asymmetrically (DTE-DCE), by a modified cable called a crosslink. Such distinction of devices was introduced by IBM.

The crossing wires in a cable or in a connector adaptor allows:

y y
y

connecting two devices directly, output of one to input of the other, letting two terminal (DTE) devices communicate without an interconnecting hub knot, i.e. PCs, Linking two or more hubs, switches or routers (DCE) together, possibly to work as one wider device.
Cable - Be sure the cable(s) you are using is properly rated for CAT 5. It should state clearly on the jacket thing from

Table showing colours of a cross over cable ends

SIDE A White-orange Orange White-green Blue White-blue Green White-brown Brown SIDE B White-green Green White-orange Blue White-blue Orange White-brown Brown

ble.

Keep everything within hands reach of you...

2.6 What is needed for networking is shown in the diagram above 2.6.1 Cables

Be sure the cable(s) you are using is properly rated for CAT 5. It should state clearly on the jacket of the cable, what it is rated at. One option that you have when selecting your cable is to use a pre-made normal 'straight through' cable, and simply whack off one of the ends, and replace with a new "Crossed Over" end. For the purpose of this article, though, we aren't going to go that route. We are going to make the whole thing from scratch - using bulk CAT 5 cable. 2.6.2 Connectors Crossover cables are terminated with CAT 5 RJ-45 (RJ stands for "Registered Jack") modular plugs. RJ-45 plugs are similar to those you'll see on the end of your telephone cable except they have eight versus four contacts on the end of the plug. Also, make sure the ends you select are rated for CAT 5 wiring. There are also different types of jacks which are used for different types of cabling (such as Solid Core wire). Make sure you buy the correct jacks for your cabling.

2.6.3 Crimper You will need a modular crimping tool M advice on what brand to get? Well I reall don't have a preference at thi point but make sure you buy a good one. If you spend abou t 40 to 50 bucks, you should have one that will last a lifetime. Spend 10 to 20 bucks, and you might be able to make a few cables with it if you're lucky. You definitely get what you pay for when it comes to crimpers! 2.6.4 Stripper No I'm not talking about what Spot had at his bachelor party, I am talking about a tool to strip the ends off the wires you pervert! There are several speciali ed tools, which can be used to strip the jackets off of cabling. If you do not have access to one of these tools, cautious use of a razor blade or knife should work just fine - but keep in mind if you go the razor blade / knife route, extra special care must be used as to not damage the wires inside the jacket.

2.6.5 Cutters You need a pair of cutters that will allow you to cu t a group of cables in a strai ght line. It is very important that all the wires are the same lengths, and without proper cutters, this can be a difficult task. 2.6.6 Cable tester This is a device that tests whether you have terminated your cable proper ly .

2.7 Procedures for termination

1. Cut a piece of Cat 5 as long as you need. When you cut, remember the old saying: Measure twice, cut once. Make sure the cut on each end is clean and straight.

2. Strip about an inch of the insulation off the cable. Cut it back nice and square. Some crimping tools such as the one come with a built-in wire stripper. You put the cable in to a stop on one side of the cutter. It will cut the jacket the right length to make a perfect crimp. It is extremely important that you only cut the plastic insulation/jacket and not the wire. Damaging one of the 8 wires, even if you just nick it or partially cut it, will ruin your cable.

3. Untwist the wires. You'll notice that there are 4 pairs of multi-coloured wires inside. Sort the pairs by colour. You should end up with wires colour coded as follows: blue/blue-white, orange/orange-white, green/green-white, and brown/brown-white. 4. Arrange the wires inside the cable according to the type of cable needed following the colours shown in the tables above. 5. Insert the wires in the RJ11 connector properly. 6. Then use the cable tester to confirm whether your connections are correct.
2.8 Private branch exchange 2.8.1Introduction

The term PBX was first applied when switchboard operators ran company switchboards by hand. As automated electromechanical and then electronic switching systems gradually began to replace the manual systems, the terms PABX (private automatic branch exchange) and PMBX (private manual branch exchange) were used to differentiate them. Solid state digital systems were sometimes referred to as EPABXs (electronic private automatic branch

exchange). Now, the term PBX is by far the most widely recognized. The acronym is now applied to all types of complex, in-house telephony switching systems, even if they are not private, branches, or exchanging anything

2.8.2 System components

A PBX will often include:

y y y y y y y y y

The PBXs internal switching network. Microcontroller or microcomputer for arbitrary data processing, control and logic. Logic cards, switching and control cards, power cards and related devices that facilitate PBX operation. Stations or telephone sets, sometimes called lines. Outside Telco trunks that deliver signals to (and carry them from) the PBX. Console or switchboard allows the operator to control incoming calls. Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) consisting of sensors, power switches and batteries. Interconnecting wiring. Cabinets, closets, vaults and other housings.

2.8.3 PBX functions

Functionally, the PBX performs four main call processing duties:

y y y y

Establishing connections (circuits) between the telephone sets of two users (e.g. mapping a dialled number to a physical phone, ensuring the phone isn't already busy) Maintaining such connections as long as the users require them (i.e. channelling voice signals between the users) Disconnecting those connections as per the user's requirement Providing information for accounting purposes (e.g. metering calls)

In addition to these basic functions, PBXs offer many other calling features and capabilities, with different manufacturers providing different features in an effort to differentiate their products. Common capabilities include (manufacturers may have a different name for each capability):
y

Auto attendant

y y y y y y y y y y y y y y y y y y y y

y y y y y y y y

Auto dialling Automatic call distributor Automated directory services (where callers can be routed to a given employee by keying or speaking the letters of the employee's name) Automatic ring back Call accounting Call Blocking Call forwarding on busy or absence Call park Call pick-up Call transfer Call waiting Camp-on Conference call Custom greetings Customised Abbreviated dialling (Speed Dialling) Busy Override Direct Inward Dialling Direct Inward System Access (DISA) (the ability to access internal features from an outside telephone line) Do not disturb (DND) Follow-me, also known as find-me: Determines the routing of incoming calls. The exchange is configured with a list of numbers for a person. When a call is received for that person, the exchange routes it to each number on the list in turn until either the call is answered or the list is exhausted (at which point the call may be routed to a voice mail system). Interactive voice response Music on hold Night service Public address voice paging Shared message boxes (where a department can have a shared voicemail box) Voice mail Voice message broadcasting Welcome Message

CHAPTER THREE
BROADCASTING
3.0 INTRODUCTION Broadcasting by definition means to transmit by radio or television from a central point to cover a wide area like a public address system enables information to be broadcasted to all parts of the factory or similar large organisation. With developments in technology that have taken place broadcasting now includes many types of transmission. 3.1 Basic requirements of broadcasting First of all the original information must be converted into electrical form to produce an electrical information SIGNAL. This is achieved by a suitable transducer.

Suppose the electrical signal is now passed to the destination by a link, with the energy travelling at the speed approaching that of light, and at the destination a second transducer converts it back to the original energy form. AMPLIFIERS may be needed too at a appropriate points in the system to increase the signal strength. For a radio system a TRANSMITTER is required at the source to send the signal over the radio link and a RECEIVER is required at the destination to recover the signal before applying it to the transducer. At this point it is important to realise interference will be generated by electronic NOISE and DISTORTION of the electrical signal due a number of reasons and must be minimised because they are not desired
3.2 Types of radio broadcast 3.2.1Analog radio This includes amplitude and frequency modulation. These are particular methods of radio transmission. One radio station feeds only one transmitter and this referred to as AM station or an FM station. It is possible for a station to feed both AM and FM transmitters. Prime radio uses FM transmitters. 3.2.2Digital radio There are four main over the air digital radio systems in the world and all different from each other in several aspects; IBOC, DAB, ISDB, TSB and DRM.Since prime radio doesnt not use this type of broadcast we didnt do much about this type of broadcast. 3.2.3 Satellite radio There are two similar XM and Sirius but competing satellite radio services in the united states.XM satellite and Sirius satellite both licensed as Satellite Digital Audio Radio Services XM and Sirius are subscription services and each broadcasts more than 100 digital audio channels intended for reception by car, portable and fixed receivers. This type is also not evident in prime radio but just studied it.

3.3 Types of television broadcast 3.3.1Analog television This includes NTSC, SECAM, PAL systems that are used for analog television broadcast.NTSC defines the format of the video that carries the picture information and also how the audio and video signals are transmitted.NTSC is broadcast over the air on channels in the VHF and UHF bands.PAL refers to the way colour information is carried on alternating lines.SECAM refers to the way colour information is sent sequentially and stored from one line to the next. 3.3.2 Digital television Over the air digital television, DTV is referred to as Digital Terrestrial Television Broadcasting. There three main DTV systems in the world and ATSC,DVB-T and ISDBT.like ATSC,DVB -T is transmitted over the air in the VHF and UHF TV bands.ATSC use a modulation system called 8-VSB, whereas DVB-T uses COFDM with QAM or QPSK modulation. 3.3.3 Satellite television These use Big Ugly Dishes and like in the SHF frequency band. Prime has TV station and this type but its transmitters are located in merry land in California. This television station is always on air between 6am-6pm. 3.4 Frequency allocation used for broadcasting The propagation characteristics of radio waves through the atmosphere vary greatly with the frequency and the choice of frequencies for a particular radio service must take into account. Radio waves are divided into different frequency bands according to their propagation characteristics as shown the table.

Frequency band VLF

Frequencies A below 30KHz

Corresponding wavelength Above 10,000m

Application Long distance telegraphy broadcasting Long distance point to point service, navigational aids, sound broadcasting, line carrier systems Sound broadcasting, ship- shore distance, line carrier systems. Medium and longdistance point to point services, sound broadcasting and line carrier systems. Short-distance communication, TV broadcasting,radar,airair and air ground services Point to point microwave communication systems and radar Satellite communications

LF

30KHz to 300KHz

10,000 to 1000m

MF

300KHz to 3MHz

1000 tm 100m

HF

3MHz to 30MHz

100 to 10m

UHF

300MHz to 3GHz

1m to 10cm

SHF

3GHz to 30GHz

10cm to 1cm

EHF

Above 30GHz

Below 1cm

Viewed overall, transmitter site for all types of broadcast facilities (AM, FM and TV, analog and digital) have some similarities. As a rule, most transmitter sites will have at least the following categories of equipment all as shown in the figure. Antenna Input from studio
STL Processing Equipment Exciter Audio Amplifier

Tower

TX line
y y y y y y

Studio-transmitter link Processing equipment to prepare the signal for transmission. Transmitter exciter to create the low-power version of the RF signal to be transmitted. Transmitter power amplifier to produce the high-powered signal for broadcast. Transmitter line to carry the signal from the transmitter to the antenna. Transmitting antenna to transmit the signals to the customers.

Tower to support the antenna.

3.5 Process of broadcasting at prime radio. Signals from the microphone go to the mixer or the console and this where the audio signal is mixed, monitored and tones are generated then fed to the transmitter via the studio transmitter-link. This is a small cable that runs underground from the studio to the transmitter house located at same place but a few meters away from the studio. The transmitter consists of a processor that prepares the signal for transmission that is prevention of overlapping of the excessive signal. The signal moves to the exciter which converts the audio signal to an RF signal by modulation and also oscillation takes place. The modulated input from the exciter is amplified to a high-power radio frequency signal needed to drive the antenna. The transmission line that is the RF cable now connects the transmitter to the antenna. The antennas used at prime radio are dipoles that direct the signal to different places.

Prime transmitter site block diagram STL

Mixer Processor Exciter RF Amplifier

Antenna Tower

Microphone 3.5.1 Mixer

TX line

It is a device that allows several programmes to be mixed, monitored and fed to the transmitter. It has multiple signals fed in to it from different program sources such as microphones, CD players or a hard disk recorder telephone lines. It has controls that allow the operator to select each source and feed one or more simultaneously to a mixed program output called a bus. This is located in the studio when we consider prime radio 3.5.2 Studio transmitter-link (STL) The STL is the means by which program material produced in the studio is transported to the transmitter site for broadcast. If the stations transmitter is located adjacent to its studios, then the STL might be a cable or asset of cables connecting the output from the master control to the transmitter area like for the case of prime radio. 3.5.3Audio processor This equipment that is used to prepare the signal for transmission by prevention of overlapping of the excessive signals. The audio processor needed to optimize the sound of the station may be located at the studio or at the transmitter site. If the station is also transmitting IBOC, a common STL is used for the audio, it has to be at the transmitter site.th5s equipment is within the transmitter rack at the premises of prime radio.

3.5.4 Exciter The exciter is a device that takes the baseband audio, video, or digital bit stream baseband signal and converts it to a radio frequency signal with the appropriate method of modulation. The output of the exciter is at a low level and has to be amplified further to produce the high power needed to feed the antenna. Sometimes the transmitter is installed inside the transmitter housing like for the case of prime radio but otherwise it is a separate unit installed in an equipment rack next to the transmitter. 3.5.5 Power amplifier The second main part of a broadcast transmitter is the power amplifier. This takes the modulated input from the exciter and amplifies it to the high-power radio frequency signal needed to drive the antenna power amplifiers for analog and digital transmission generally use similar components although the way they are set up and used may be very different. 3.5.6 Transmission line The transmitter line that connects the transmitter or diplexer to the antenna is usually a length of flexible or semi flexible coaxial cable, rigid coaxial feeder or waveguide. An RF cable is mostly used as a transmission line. 3.5.7 Antenna The antenna is mounted as high as possible usually on a tall tower. The antenna is fed with the signal from the transmitter by the transmission line that extends the transmitter up the tower to the antenna. There are different types of antennas i.e. dipole, horn, parabolic antenna, yagi and many others. Every antenna must have a director and a reflector. 3.5.8 Tower Towers are of two types self-supporting and guyed towers (also known as masts), which are held up with guy wires attached to anchors in the ground. Self- supporting towers are usually in the range up to 1000feet high, and guyed towers go up as high as about 2000feet.
3.6 CABLE CONNECTORS There are 2 types of audio cable connectors commonly used for broadcasting and these include the XLR and the jack pin connectors. 3.6.1 XLR connector

The origin of the XLR connector was the Cannon "X Series" connector. It fit the demands of the audio community except that it wouldn't latch into place, and could be easily unplugged. Cannon rearranged the pins and added a latch. The new connector was called Cannon "XL Series". Later, the female version was changed to put the contacts in a resilient rubber compound. The connector was then called Cannon "XLR Series". This connector soon became the industry's standard and nearly every connector manufacturer copied the Cannon connector.3-pin XLR connectors are mainly used for balanced audio signals. Using a balanced signal reduces the risk of inference.

y y y

Pin 1 is the earth (or shield) Pin 2 is the +ve (or 'hot') Pin 3 is the -ve (or 'cold). There are a number of different XLR's - 3-pin, 4-pin, 5-pin etc 3-pin XLR Male 3-pin XLR Female

3.6.2 Jack pin connectors In the original application in manual telephone exchanges, many different configurations of 1/4 jack plug were used, some accommodating five or more conductors, with several tip profiles. Of these many varieties, only the two-conductor version with a rounded tip profile was compatible between different manufacturers. Most 1/4 plugs, mono or stereo, now have the profile of the original stereo plug, although a few rounded mono plugs are also still produced .

There are two types of 6.5mm Jacks: Mono and stereo. The mono jack has a tip and a sleeve, the stereo jack has ring, a tip and a sleeve.
y y y

On the mono jack the tip is the +ve, and the sleeve is the -ve or shield. On a stereo jack being used for a balanced signal, the tip is the +ve, the ring is the ve, and the sleeve is the shield. On a stereo jack being used for a stereo signal (left and right), the tip is the left, the ring is the right, and the sleeve is the shield.

Jacks also come in various sizes - 6.5mm ("), 3.5mm, 2.5mm. The wiring for all of them is the same. 1/4" Mono Jack 1/4" Stereo Jack

Some common uses of jack plugs are :

y

Headphone and earphone jacks on a wide range of equipment. 1/4 plugs are common on home and professional component equipment, while 3.5 mm plugs are nearly

y y y

universal for portable audio equipment. 2.5 mm plugs are not as common, but are used on communication equipment such as cordless phones, mobile phones, and twoway radios. Consumer electronics devices such as digital cameras, camcorders, and portable DVD players use 3.5 mm connectors for composit e video and audio output. Typically, a TRS connection is used for mono audio plus video, and a TRRS connection forstereo audio plus video. Microphone inputs on tape and cassette recorders, sometimes with remot e control switching on the r ing. Patching points (insert points) on a wide range of equipment. Personal computers, sometimes using a sound card plugged into the computer. Stereo 3.5 mm jacks are used for : o Line in (stereo) o Line out (stereo) o Headphones/loudspeaker out (stereo) o Microphone input (mono, usua lly with 5 vo lt power available on the r ing. Note that traditional, incompatible, use of a stereo plug for a mono microphone is for balanced output) o LCD monitors with built-in speakers will require a 3.5 mm ma le-ma le cable from the sound card. Electronic keyboards use jacks for a similar range of uses to guitars and amplifiers, and in addition o Sustain peda ls. o Expression peda ls. Electronic drums use jacks to connect sensor pads to the synthesizer module or MIDI encoder. In this usage, a change in voltage on the wire indicat es a drum stroke. Some compact and/or economy model audio mixing desks use stereo jacks for balanced microphone inputs. The majority of professional audio equipment uses mono jacks as the standard unbalanced input or output connector, often providing a 1/4 unbalanced line connector alongside (or in a few cases in the middle of!) and as an a lternative to an XLR balanced line connector. Modular synthesizers commonly use monophonic cables for creating patches.

y y y

3. Tip/ri/l r ily

1. Slee e: usually ground 2. Ring: Right-hand channel for stereo signals, negative phase for balanced mono signals, power supply for power-requiring mono signal sources 3. Tip: Left-hand channel for stereo signals, positive phase for balanced mono signals, signal line for unbalanced mono signals 4. Insulating rings
3. TYP S OF CO

   C T O S

3 .. ce c ec!" 

This is a three wire syst em. Two separate wires carry the signal, one inverted in polarity with respect to the other and the third is the shield which again is connected to the ground. Balanced connections are almost always used for low impedance microphones. The balanced system is more immune to noise and is preferred method in professional audio. The most common balanced connection is the three pin XLR-type. Below is how a balanced cable is connected.

3 2 1
3 .#. %&b'('&ce) c0&&ec120&

3 2 1

This is a two wire system. One wire carries the audio signal and the other called the shield is connect ed to the ground or the electrical reference point. Another term for unbalanced circuits is single- ended .They are used for high impedance microphone and pickups, sometimes for low impedance microphone in consumer equipment. The unbalanced syst em is susceptible to noise pickups. Below is how unbalanced connection is made.

2 3 1

2 1

CHAPTER FOUR
GSM
4.0 INTRODUCTION First generation (1G) systems were analog with reasonably reliable networks but limited service offerings and did not permit roaming between networks. Second generation (2G) mobile systems are digital and bring significant advantages in terms of service sophistication, capacity and quality. GSM is a 2G technology. The increasing demand for wireless access to the Internet has led to further developments within 2G systems. Thus we speak of 2.5G systems. General Packet Radio Services (GPRS) and EGDE (Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution) are examples of 2.5G technology and are standardized packet switched Technologies enabling mobile use of the Internet. GSM stands for Global System for Mobile communication 4.1 GSM NETWORK COMPONENTS The GSM network is divided into two systems. Each system comprises a number of functional units or individual component of the mobile network. The two systems are: y Switching System (SS) y Base Station System (BSS) In addition, as with all telecommunications networks, GSM networks are operated, maintained and managed from computerized centers. 4.1.1 Switching System. (SS) components The MSC performs the telephony switching functions for the mobile network. It controls calls to and from other telephony and data systems, such as the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), public data networks, private networks and other mobile networks. The SS is responsible for performing call processing and subscriber related functions. It includes the following functional units:

y Mobile services Switching Center (MSC) The MSC performs the telephony switching functions for the mobile network. It controls calls to and from other telephony and data systems, such as the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), public data networks, private networks and other mobile networks. y Home Location Register (HLR) The HLR is a centralized network database that stores and manages all mobile subscriptions belonging to a specific operator. It acts as a permanent store for a person's subscription information until that subscription is cancelled. The information stored includes: o Subscriber identity o Subscriber supplementary services o Subscriber location information o Subscriber authentication information The HLR can be implemented in the same network node as the MSC or as a stand-alone database. If the capacity of the HLR is exceeded, additional HLRs may be added.

y Visitor Location Register (VLR) The VLR database contains information about all the mobile subscribers currently located in an MSC service area. Thus, there is one VLR for each MSC in a network. The VLR temporarily stores subscription information so that the MSC can service all the subscribers currently visiting that MSC service area. The VLR can be regarded as a distributed HLR as it holds a copy of the HLR information stored about the subscriber. When a subscriber roams into a new MSC service area, the VLR connected to that MSC requests information about the subscriber from the subscriber's HLR. The HLR sends a copy of the information to the VLR and updates its own location information. When the subscriber makes a call, the VLR will already have the information required for call set-up. y Authentication Center (AUC) The main function of the AUC is to authenticate the subscribers attempting to use a network. In this way, it is used to protect network operators against fraud. TheAUC is a database connected to the HLR which provides it with the authentication parameters and ciphering keys used to ensure network security y Equipment Identity Register (EIR) The EIR is a database containing mobile equipment identity information which helps to block calls from stolen, unauthorized, or defective MSs. It should be noted that due to subscriber equipment separation in GSM, the barring of MS equipment does not result in automatic barring of a subscriber.
4.1.2 BASE STATION SYSTEM (BSS) COMPONENTS The BSS performs all the radio-related functions. The BSS is comprised of the following functional units: y Base Station Controller (BSC) The BSC manages all the radio-related functions of a GSM network. It is a high capacity switch that provides functions such as MS handover, radio channel assignment and the collection of cell configuration data. A number of BSCs may be controlled by each MSC.

y Base Transceiver Station (BTS) The BTS controls the radio interface to the MS. The BTS comprises the radio equipment such as transceivers and antennas which are needed to serve each cell in the network. A group of BTSs are controlled by a BSC.
4.1.3 NETWORK MONITORING CENTERS y Operation and Maintenance Center (OMC) An OMC is a computerized monitoring center which is connected to other network components such as MSCs and BSCs via X.25 or TCP/IP data network links. In the OMC, staffs are presented with information about the status of the network and can monitor and control a variety of system parameters. There may be one or several OMCs within a network depending on the network size. y Network Management Center (NMC) Centralized control of a network is done at a Network Management Center (NMC). Only one NMC is required for a network and this controls the subordinate OMCs. The advantage of this hierarchical approach is that staff at the NMC can concentrate on long-term

System-wide issues, whereas local personnel at each OMC can concentrate on short term, regional issues.

y MOBILE STATION (MS) An MS is used by a mobile subscriber to communicate with the mobile network. Several types of MSs exist, each allowing the subscriber to make and receive calls. Manufacturers of MSs offer a variety of designs and features to meet the needs of different markets. The range or coverage area of an MS depends on the output power and frequency band of the MS. Different types of MSs have different output power capabilities and consequently different ranges .GSM MSs consist of: o A mobile terminal o A Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)
4.2 GSM FREQUENCY BANDS As GSM has grown worldwide, it has expanded to operate at four main frequency bands: 900, 1800, 1900 and 800.

4.2.1 GSM 800 The multi band support in Ericssons GSM system is now enhanced to include support for the GSM 800 MHz band, thus increasing capacity for operators with a license for this frequency. This frequency band was traditionally used by TDMA. 4.2.2 GSM 900 The original frequency band specified for GSM was 900 MHz Most GSM networks worldwide use this band. In some countries and extended version of GSM 900 can be used, which provides extra network capacity. This extended version of GSM is called EGSM, while the primary version is called P-GSM. 4.2.3 GSM 1800 In 1990, in order to increase competition between operators, the United Kingdom requested the start of a new version of GSM adapted to the 1800 MHz frequency band. Licenses have been issued in several countries and networks are in full operation. By granting licenses for GSM 1800 in addition to GSM 900, a country can increase the number of operators. In this way, due to increased competition, the service to subscribers is improved. The frequencies used in Uganda are 900 and 1800. 4.2.4 GSM 1900 In 1995, the Personal Communications Services (PCS) concept was specified in the United States. The basic idea is to enable "person to- person" communication rather than "station-tostation". PCS does not require that such services be implemented using cellular technology, but this has proven to be the most effective method. The frequencies available for PCS are around 1900 MHz As GSM 900 could not be used in North America due to prior allocation of the 900 MHz frequencies, GSM 1900 MHz is seen as an opportunity to bridge this gap. The main difference between the American GSM 1900 standard and GSM 900 is that it SUPPORTS

CHAPTER FIVE
CHALLENGES, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
5.1 INTRODUCTION This section discusses the achievements realized throughout my training, the challenges

encountered and are concluded by giving recommendations regarding this training.

5.2 CHALLENGES

During this training, some of the challenges I faced include the following;  Inadequate components.

 Inadequate facilitation by the university in terms of finance.  The distance has been long from home to kireka.
5.3 RECOMMEN DATIONS

 I recommend prime radio to train the students from 8am to5pm and ensure that the students train from Monday to Friday.  I recommend the trainers at prime radio to ask for weekly reports from the interns. This helps us when we are writing down our report.
5.4. CONCLUSION The training was a success and I was able to acquire some hands on skills and special thanks go to the staff of prime radio for their cooperation and support during my report.