2

Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.

This document may have been altered from the original.
Introduction
No one yet has been able to look inside atoms to see what they are really like.
The typical picture of an atom we have in our minds is neither the truth nor
the right answer it is a good working model which helps to explain many
phenomena.
Much evidence has been gathered to support the current model of an atom.
The model may change as more evidence comes to light, and it is very likely to
become more detailed.
We can sometimes explain things using only a simplied model of the atom.
Thinking of atoms as tiny spheres is sufcient to explain the states of matter (the
properties of solids, liquids and gases) but this model is not detailed enough
to explain why metals tend to react with non-metals. Models can be simple or
elaborate, depending on the job they need to do. Keep this in mind as your
ideas and understanding of chemistry develop.
What you do
How has the current model of the atom developed? Many scientists contributed
to the sequence of gathering knowledge about the atom, but some made
particularly important discoveries they were:
Jose|l J. Tlonson (key discovery l89-l899)
Hans Geiger, Ernest Varsden and Ernest Rutlerlord (key discovery l909)
Henry Voseley (key discovery l9l3)
Janes Cladwick (key discovery l932).
You will need to work in a group of three for this activity.
1 Eacl grou| is going to take tle |art ol one ol tlese scientists - cloose wlo
is going to cover wlo. (Note tlat Geiger, Varsden and Rutlerlord re|resent
one choice.)
2 Prepare a series of PowerPoint

slides on the scientist you have chosen. Your

presentation should cover the following points:
wlo you are
wlen you did tle work you will descri|e
wlat you already knew a|out tle aton
wlat you did
wlat you lound out
wlat conclusions you drew lron your results.
Use suitable textbooks, magazine articles or the Internet to help you to nd
the information you need. You could start by searching the Salters Advanced
Clenistry we|site. You will need to discuss wlat inlornation and inages to
include and what to leave out as a group.
3 The members of your group should now deliver their presentations to the
rest of the class make sure the reports are presented in chronological
order.
4 At the end of the activity everyone in the class will need notes on your
presentations prepare handouts of your groups set of presentations.
In this activity you will learn how some of our
ideas about atomic structure have developed.
HOW DO WE KNOW
ABOUT ATOMS?
EL1.1
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Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
Introduction
You are going to carry out a quantitative investigation trying to answer, as
accurately as possible, a question which begins How much ? A titration is a
method of quantitative analysis that can be used when two solutions react
together. One solution of a known concentration is placed in a burette the
second solution is placed in a conical ask. The solution in the burette is run
into the ask until just enough has been added for the reaction to be complete.
An indicator is often added to show when the reaction has nished, but this is
not necessary if the reaction is accompanied by a very obvious colour change. An
analysis involving a titration is sometimes called a volumetric analysis.
How it works
In this investigation, you are going to nd out how much iron there is in a
solution of an iron(II) salt by titrating the solution with potassium
manganate(VII) solution.
The salt is called hydrated iron(II) ammonium sulfate, which contains Fe
2
ions, as its name suggests. These react with the MnO
4

ions in the potassium

manganate(VII), as shown in the equation below:
5Fe
2
(aq) MnO
4

(aq) 8H

(aq) l 5Fe
3
(aq) Mn
2
(aq) 4H
2
O(l)
pale deep light colourless
green purple brown
This looks rather complicated, but it tells you that the colour of the potassium
manganate(VII) disappears as it reacts with the Fe
2
(aq) ions. This provides a
way of deciding when the titration is complete because when all the Fe
2
(aq)
ions are gone just one drop more of potassium manganate(VII) solution will
make the titration mixture turn pale purple.
access to a |alance
weigling |ottle
s|atula
glass rod
250 cn
3
conical ask
250 cn
3
volumetric ask
|urette
l00 cn
3
|eakers (2)
25 cn
3
pipette
|i|ette ller
snall lter lunnel
|lastic dro||er |i|ette
wasl |ottle and distilled/deionised water
a san|le ol lydrated iron(II) annoniun sullate (5 g)
sulluric acid, l nol dn
3
(250 cn
3
)
|otassiun nanganate(\II) solution, 0.0l0 nol dn
3
(l00 cn
3
)
CARE Take care when pouring potassium manganate(VII) solution as it stains the hands.
Wear protective gloves if necessary.
Requirements
IRRITANT
dilute sulfuric acid
HARMFUL
iron(II) ammonium sulfate solid
WEAR EYE
PROTECTION
CARE Eye protection
must be worn.
This activity introduces you to the technique of
titration one method of quantitative analysis.
You will learn how to perform a titration and
make use of accurately calibrated apparatus.
Titration will be used in later modules.
HOW MUCH IRON IS
IN A SAMPLE OF AN
IRON COMPOUND?
EL1.2
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4
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
What you do
1 Weigh a clean, dry weighing bottle accurately. Add about 5g of iron(II)
ammonium sulfate to the bottle and record the mass of the bottle plus
crystals accurately. Ti| tle crystals into a clean l00 cn
3
|eaker. Carelully
rinse out tle |ottle two or tlree tines witl l nol dn
3
sulfuric acid,
transferring the washings to the beaker each time. It is important that all the
solid goes into the beaker.
2 Pour a|out a lurtler 25 cn
3
of sulfuric acid into the beaker but do not ll
the beaker more than half full. Stir the acid and the solid together with a
glass rod until you are sure that all the solid has dissolved.
3 Transler tle contents ol tle |eaker tlrougl a snall lunnel into a 250 cn
3
volunetric ask. Rinse tle |eaker and glass rod twice witl snall quantities ol
the dilute sulfuric acid and transfer the washings to the volumetric ask.
Then rinse the funnel with a small amount of the acid. This technique
ensures that all the iron compound from the beaker is transferred to the
volumetric ask.
4 Finally, add dilute sulluric acid to tle volunetric ask until it is a|out l cn
below the graduation mark. Now add more acid slowly from a clean
dropping pipette until the bottom of the meniscus is just touching the
graduation mark. Stopper the ask and invert it several times to mix the
solution.
5 Ise a |i|ette and |i|ette ller to witldraw 25.0 cn
3
of the solution from the
volumetric ask and transfer it to a conical ask.
6 Ise a clean, dry l00 cn
3
beaker to ll a burette with the potassium
nanganate(\II) solution. Run a little ol tle solution out ol tle |urette into
the beaker to make sure the jet is full of solution ask your teacher for help
if an air bubble stays in the jet. Be careful how you turn the burette tap
some burettes have tapered keys which leak if they are used wrongly. If you
are not sure, ask your teacher for advice on how to use a burette correctly.
7 Record tle volune reading on tle |urette |elore starting tle titration - read
tle |urette to tle nearest 0.05 cn
3
.
8 Add small volumes of potassium manganate(VII) solution from the burette to
the solution in the conical ask, swirling the ask after each addition. The
purple colour of the MnO
4

(aq) ions will disappear as they react with the

Fe
2
(aq) ions. The end point of the titration is when you rst get a
permanent faint purple colour from excess manganate(VII) ions.
9 Record tle nal |urette reading and calculate tle volune ol solution you
have run out into the ask. This rst attempt will be a rough titration but it
will give you a general idea of where the end point comes.
10 Do several further accurate titrations, in which you approach the end point
adding the manganate(VII) solution drop by drop, until you have three
volunes wlicl agree to witlin 0.l cn
3
.
Recording your results
Record your results as lollows:
mass of weighing bottle and solid = _______g
mass of weighing bottle = _______g
mass of solid = _______g
Titration Rough 1 2 3 4 5
nal burette reading/cm
3
initial burette reading/cm
3
titre/cm
3
Average titre = _______cm
3
EL1.2 How much iron is in a sample of an iron compound?
984_01_SAC SP_EL.indd 4 16/4/08 15:52:36
5
Using your results
11 Work out the average of your three closest gures for the volume of
|otassiun nanganate(\II) used in a titration. Correct tlis to an a||ro|riate
number of decimal places.
12 You will learn how to do calculations following titrations in the Elements
from the Sea module. For the moment, simply multiply the volume of
|otassiun nanganate(\II) you used in tle titration |y 2.8. Tlis will give you
the mass (mg) of iron(II) ions pipetted into the conical ask each time.
13 Calculate low nucl iron was in tle 250 cn
3
of solution in the volumetric
ask.
14 Calculate low nucl iron nust lave |een in tle nass ol lydrated iron(II)
ammonium sulfate that you used.
15 Calculate tle |ercentage ol iron in tle lydrated iron(II) annoniun sullate
crystals.
16 The percentage of iron in a pure sample of hydrated iron(II) ammonium
sulfate crystals, Fe(NH
4
)
2
(SO
4
)
2
6H
2
O, is l4.3`. Con|are tlis value witl your
result for the percentage of iron in the compound.
Evaluating your results and procedures
In any analysis involving a titration, there are errors or uncertainties related to
the precision of the equipment used. The glassware has been designed so that, if
it is used appropriately, the precision errors are:
Volumetric or standard ask (class B) - wlen a 250 cn
3
volumetric ask is
lled correctly (i.e. the bottom of the meniscus rests on the calibration line)
tle error is 0.2 cn
3
or 0.08`
Burette (class B) one drop from a burette has a volume of approximately
0.05 cn
3
. All |urette readings slould include 2 decinal |laces in wlicl tle
second gure is eitler 0 or 5. An error ol one dro| in a volune ol 25.00 cn
3
gives a |ercentage error ol 0.2` lor eacl reading.
Pipette (class B) - wlen a 25 cn
3
pipette is used correctly (i.e. it is allowed to
drain and retain tle last dro|) tle error is 0.06 cn
3
or 0.24`.
Procedural errors can arise if your practical technique is not good a good
technique would include the following:
tle solution in tle volunetric ask needs tlorougl nixing
tle |urette and |i|ette slould |e wasled out witl tle solutions |eing used
tle conical ask slould |e tlorouglly wasled out witl |uried water
between titrations
tle end |oint ol a titration can only |e deternined accurately il tle solution
from the burette is added drop by drop, with swirling, as the end point is
reached
wlen an indicator is used in a titration (not necessary wlen using |otassiun
manganate(VII)) only the minimum number of drops is added each time.
How much iron is in a sample of an iron compound? EL1.2
Questions
1 Fill in the following table for your experiment.
Quantity measured % error
Mass of iron compound weighed on balance
250cm
3
solution made up in volumetric ask
25cm
3
solution delivered by pipette
Your average titre delivered by burette
2 Which of the stages in your procedure do you think could
have led to errors? In each case, say whether it would make
the result higher or lower.
3 Which of all the sources of error that you have identied is
likely to have most impact on your overall result?
percentage error =
error _______
reading
100
It is important to repeat a titration
several times to check that your results
are reliable. After calculating the
average titre, you should correct the
value to an appropriate number of
decimal places.
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
984_01_SAC SP_EL.indd 5 16/4/08 15:52:36
6
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
Introduction
When metal compounds are placed in a Bunsen ame, the electrons in the metal
atoms absorb energy and are promoted to higher (excited) energy levels. The
electrons then emit energy as they fall back to lower energy levels this energy
is emitted in the form of radiation, some of which is in the visible part of the
spectrum. The radiation is emitted at specic frequencies and if the emission
spectrum of a metal is examined closely, it is found to be made up of a series of
lines. Using only our eyes, we see the predominant colour resulting from the
main frequencies at which each type of metal atom emits the radiation.
What you do
You are going to look at the light emitted when metal compounds are put into a
Bunsen burner ame. You will capture an image of the colours with a mobile
phone camera or digital camera. You will use these images to create a
PowerPoint presentation in which you describe and explain the visible emission
spectra of some metals.
1 Light your Bunsen burner and adjust the ame until no yellow colour
appears in it.
2 Select one of the splints that has been soaked in a metal compound solution
overnight.
3 Hold the splint in the Bunsen ame long enough to observe the colour that
it imparts to the ame, but do not allow the splint to burn.
4 Re|eat witl anotler s|lint, il necessary, to ensure tlat you can see tle
colour accurately.
5 Re|eat tle |rocedure witl tle lel| ol anotler student, so tlat one ol you
holds the splint in the ame while the other takes a photograph of the
colour.
6 Re|eat witl s|lints tlat lave |een soaked in otler netal con|ounds.
Preparing your PowerPoint presentation
7 Download the images from your camera onto a computer.
8 Use these images, and the ideas you have met during your study of this
topic, to produce a PowerPoint presentation which will:
illustrate tle dillerent colours enitted |y dillerent netal con|ounds
when they are heated in a Bunsen burner ame
ex|lain tle |ackground tleory wlicl accounts lor tle enitted liglt and
the formation of atomic emission spectra.
In this activity you will have an opportunity to
view the visible light emitted when some metal
compounds are heated. This visible radiation is
part of the emission spectra of the metals.
INVESTIGATING
VISIBLE EMISSION
SPECTRA
EL1.3
Bunsen |urner and leat-resistant nat
no|ile |lone witl canera, or a digital canera
access to an ICT |resentation |ackage (e.g. PowerPoint

)
wooden s|lints tlat lave |een |re-soaked overniglt in tle lollowing
solutions:
- litliun clloride 0.l nol dn
3
- sodiun clloride 0.l nol dn
3
- |otassiun clloride 0.l nol dn
3
- |ariun clloride 0.l nol dn
3
- calciun clloride 0.l nol dn
3
Requirements
HARMFUL
barium chloride
WEAR EYE
PROTECTION
CARE Eye protection
must be worn.
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Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
Introduction
Radioactive decay is a randon |rocess - eacl nucleus in a san|le ol a
radioactive isotope decays in a random manner regardless of what other nuclei
are doing. We cant predict when a particular nucleus will decay but we can
predict that half the radioactive nuclei in the sample will decay in a xed time
the radioactive half-life.
In this simulation of radioactive decay, you will drop a cardboard tray
containing pieces of pasta onto a table. This causes some of the pasta to change
from lying on their sides to standing on one of their at ends this is a random
process, in a similar way that radioactive decay is a random process. We are
going to take the pieces of pasta lying on their sides to represent radioactive
nuclei, and the pieces which stand on a at end to represent a radioactive
nucleus which has decayed.
What you do
1 Veigl out a|out 86 g ol ditalini |asta (or l62 g ol ditali lisci |asta) into a
cardboard tray.
2 Swirl the tray to get the pasta into a single layer make sure that all the
|ieces ol |asta are lying on tleir sides and count tlen. Record tle starting
number of pieces of pasta in a table like the one opposite this is most
conveniently done using con|uter s|readsleet soltware sucl as Excel

.
3 Dro| tle tray onto a ta|le lron a leiglt ol 5 to l0 cn.
4 Count and renove tle |ieces ol |asta wlicl are now standing on at ends,
and enter this number in the table.
5 Re|eat tlis |rocess a lurtler nine tines.
6 Plot a graph, using the computer package if possible, of unchanged pasta
(represents the number of undecayed radioactive nuclei) in the sample
against the drop number (represents time).
7 Share your results with other groups of students so that you can nd a class
average for the number of undecayed nuclei at each stage draw another
graph using the average gures.
In this activity you will use pasta to simulate
radioactive decay this will enable you to
practise working out radioactive half-lives.
SIMULATING
RADIOACTIVE DECAY
EL1.4
ditalini |asta (a||roxinately 86 g) or ditali lisci |asta (l62 g)
tweezers
card|oard tray sucl as tle to| ol a |ox containing |ackets ol |a|er
Requirements
Drop
number
Unchanged
pasta
Pasta
removed
0 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Questions
1 Work out three values of radioactive half-life based on the
graph drawn using your own data.
2 What do you notice when you compare the half-life
values?
3 Use the graph drawn using the class average values to work
out three values of the half-life. How do these values
compare with each other and with the values found from
your own graph?
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Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
What you do
The statements in the table below refer to the formation of ions, using sodium and chlorine as examples.
1 Read tlrougl eacl statenent carelully and |ut a tick in one ol tle |oxes to slow wletler you tlink tle statenent is true or
lalse. You nay nd tle inlornation in Ta|le l uselul.
Statement True False
a A sodium atom spontaneously loses an electron to get a full shell of electrons
b An Na
7
ion is more stable than a sodium atom because it has a full shell of electrons
c A Cl
7+
ion is just as stable as a Cl

ion because they both have a full shell of electrons

d Each proton in the nucleus of an atom attracts one specic electron
e Energy is required to remove an electron from an atom
f When an atom is ionised, it requires even more energy to remove a second electron
g If you remove an electron from a sodium atom you can never put it back
h
Once you have removed one electron from a sodium atom you cant remove another because
that would mean it no longer had a full electron shell
i
Solid sodium chloride contains pairs of sodium and chloride ions which are kept together by
their opposite charges
j When sodium chloride dissolves, the solution contains molecules of sodium chloride
T Table 1
Particle Electron arrangement
Na 2.8.1
Na
+
2.8
Na
7
2.8.8
Cl 2.8.7
Cl

2.8.8
Cl
7+
2.8
2 Join witl two otler students and con|are your answers to tle l0 statenents. Vlere you lave dillerent answers, ex|lain to
each other why you have chosen your particular answer and agree between you what your group thinks is the best answer
for each statement.
3 Your teacher will help you to compare your groups answers with the answers chosen by other groups. Be prepared to
explain why your group has chosen answers, and also be ready to challenge other groups if you think that your answer is
more appropriate than theirs.
4 Write down how you have modied your original ideas about why atoms form ions after talking and listening to other
students.
In this activity you can check and clarify your
ideas about why some atoms form ions.
WHY DO ATOMS
FORM IONS?
EL2.1
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9
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
What you do
1 Blow up the balloons and tie the necks do not blow them up too hard or
you will not be able to twist them.
2 Twist one of the balloons in the middle. It now represents two electron pairs
around a central aton (Figure l). Tle s|ace taken u| |y a lo|e ol tle
balloon resembles the space occupied by a pair of electrons, and the balloon
lobes push each other out of the way just as electron pairs repel one
another. You can see that the balloon molecule takes the linear shape you
would ex|ect (like BeCl
2
).
3 Twist a second balloon in the middle, and then twist the middle of this
balloon several times around the middle of the rst balloon to represent
four electron |airs (Figure 2). It nay lel| to |ut a lew dro|s ol glycerol on
the twist to lubricate the join.
a What shape does the molecule made in step 3 ado|t: Give an exan|le
of a molecule with such a shape.
4 Now, get a third balloon twist it in the middle and twist it around the
middle of the molecule you made in step 3. Again, make sure the balloons
are twisted round each other several times. Now you have a representation
of a molecule with six electron pairs round a central atom.
b What shape does the molecule made in step 4 ado|t: Give an exan|le
of a molecule with such a shape.
5 Now comes the exciting bit get a pin and pop one of the balloon lobes. If
you did your twisting well, the air wont escape from the other half of the
popped balloon, and you will have ve electron pairs.
c What shape does the molecule made in step 5 ado|t: Give an exan|le
of a molecule with such a shape.
6 Pop two more lobes to get three electron pairs.
d What shape does the molecule made in step 6 ado|t: Give an exan|le
of a molecule with such a shape.
7 Summarise your ndings in a table like the one below. When you draw the
diagrams, represent the electron pairs with lines or wedges, as shown in
Chemical Ideas 3.2.
sausage-sla|ed |alloons (3)
a |in
glycerol
Requirements
The shapes adopted by twisted balloons can
closely resemble the shapes of molecules. You
have to be careful if this modelling process is to
work well.
SHAPES OF
MOLECULES:
BALLOON
MOLECULES
EL2.2
(1)
Figure 1 Two electron pairs round a central
atom.
Figure 2 Four electron pairs around a central
atom.
Number of electron
pairs round central
atom
Shape Bond
angles
Diagram Example
984_01_SAC SP_EL.indd 9 16/4/08 15:52:38
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Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
What you do
1 Working in pairs, draw the dotcross diagram for each of the following
nolecules/ions on se|arate |ieces ol |lank card:
BCl
3
BeCl
2
CH
4
H
2
O NH
3
NH
4

PCl
5
SCl
2
SCl
6
SiH
4
2 Write the following headings across the top of a piece of A4 paper (landscape
format):
Fornula ol nolecule/ion Dot-cross diagran Sla|e Bond angle
3 Place your dotcross cards under that heading on the piece of paper. Now
match the other cards with your dotcross diagrams to show the formula,
sla|e and |ond angle(s) lor eacl nolecule/ion.
4 Discuss the placing of the cards with your partner, then compare your card
arrangements with those of other pairs of students. Are there any ideas you
are not sure about?
5 Finally, construct a table to summarise the information shown by your cards.
l0 |lank |ieces ol card, eacl neasuring 5 cn |y 4 cn
set ol cards slowing nolecule or ion nanes, nolecular sla|es and |ond angles
Requirements
In this part of the activity you will draw
dotcross diagrams for simple molecules and
ions and use them to predict molecular shapes
and bond angles.
SHAPES OF
MOLECULES: SHAPES
AND BOND ANGLES
EL2.2
(2)
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Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
Shapes of molecules: shapes and bond angles EL2.2
Linear Triangular planar Tetrahedral
Tetrahedral Tetrahedral Triangular pyramid
V-shaped V-shaped Triangular bipyramid
Octahedral 90 90 and 120
109 109 109
109 109 109
120 180 BCI
3
BeCI
2
CH
4
H
2
O
NH
3
PCl
5
SCI
2
SCI
6
SiH
4
NH
4
+
984_01_SAC SP_EL.indd 11 16/4/08 15:52:39
12
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
What you do
1 For each of the substances named in the table, describe its structure and
properties by choosing one of the responses from each of Sections AD and
putting ticks, , in the appropriate boxes.
2$PNQBSF ZPVSHSJEXJUIPOFQSPEVDFECZBOPUIFSTUVEFOU%JTDVTTBOZ
differences between them and decide on any changes you think you should
make to your original grid.
3$PNQBSF ZPVSBHSFFEHSJEXJUIUIPTFPGPUIFSQBJSTPGTUVEFOUT"HBJONBLF
any changes that are necessary and make a note of any features that you
were less certain about. This will serve as a reminder for you to focus on
these points when you revise this topic in the future.
Methane Iron Diamond Sodium chloride
A: Structure
Giant lattice (metallic)
Giant structure (ionic)
Giant structure (covalent network)
Simple molecular
B: Melting temperature
High
Low
C: Solubility in water
Soluble
Insoluble
D: Conduction of electricity
Conducts as a solid and when molten
Conducts in solution and when molten
Does not conduct electricity
In this activity you will summarise the physical
properties of different types of structures.
WHAT TYPE OF
PROPERTIES
DO DIFFERENT
STRUCTURES HAVE?
EL2.3
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13
Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
Introduction
The checklist below covers the key points in Chemical Storylines EL1 and
EL2.
The statements listed correspond to learning outcomes in the specication
for the AS examinations. They are listed in the order in which they occur in this
NPEVMF3FNFNCFSUIBUZPVXJMMCFDPNJOHCBDLUPNBOZPGUIFJEFBTJOMBUFS
modules.
You will probably have made summary notes of the main ideas that you have
met. Now is a good time to make sure that your notes cover all the points you
need. If you feel that you are not yet able to meet the requirements of all of the
statements in the list, you should look again at the areas concerned, seek help
from your teacher if necessary and develop your notes accordingly.
Most of the points are covered in Chemical Ideas, with supporting
information in Chemical Storylines or the activitites. However, if the main
source of information is in a storyline or an activity this is indicated.
What you do
3FBEBOEUIJOLBCPVUFBDIPGUIFTUBUFNFOUTJOUIFDIFDLMJTU1VUBUJDLJOUIF
column that best represents your current ability to do what is described:
A I am condent that I can do this
B I need help to clarify my ideas on this
C I am not yet able to do this.
You will be sharing this information with your teacher so that you can work
together to improve your understanding.
At the end of Chemical Storylines EL1 and EL2 you should be able to: A B C
- descrbe protons, neutrons und eectrons n terms ol ther muss und reutve churge
- descrbe the structure ol utoms n terms ol eectrons und u centru nuceus contunng protons und neutrons
- expun the occurrence ol ubsorpton und emsson utomc spectru n terms ol chunges n eectronc energy
levels; compare and contrast the features of these spectra:
similarities both line spectra, lines in same position for a given element, lines become closer at higher
frequencies, sets of lines representing transitions to or from a particular level
differences bright/coloured lines on a black background or black lines on coloured/bright background
- understund the reutonshp between the energy emtted or ubsorbed und the lrequency ol the ne produced
in the spectra, $E = hU
- descrbe the eectron structure ol utoms n terms ol mun energy eves (eectron shes) up to Z = 36
- recu thut the nuce ol some utoms ure unstube und thut these utoms ure rudouctve
- recu und expun the dllerent propertes ol A, B and G radiations
- recu thut the term hul-le relers to the tme tuken lor hul the rudouctve nuce n u sumpe to decuy, und
that the half-life is xed for any given isotope
- curry out hul-le cucuutons Activity EL1.4
- use nuceur symbos to wrte equutons lor nuceur processes, ncudng luson und rudouctve decuy
- recu thut n luson reuctons ghter utoms on to gve heuver utoms (under condtons ol hgh temperuture
and pressure) and understand that this is how certain elements are formed
- understund how rudouctve sotopes cun be used us trucers' n the body und (gven nlormuton) lor other
uses
- expun thut the hul-le ol trucers' must be ol un upproprute ength to uow detecton but not cuuse undue
damage
- understund the use ol rudosotopes n the dutng ol urchueoogcu und geoogcu muteru
continued
This activity helps you check your knowledge
and understanding of the topics that you have
covered in Chemical Storylines EL1 and EL2.
CHECK YOUR
KNOWLEDGE AND
UNDERSTANDING
(PART 1)
EL2.4
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Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
EL2.4 Check your knowledge and understanding (part 1)
- understund thut knowedge ol the structure ol the utom deveoped n terms ol u successon ol gruduuy more
sophisticated models
- gven nlormuton, nterpret these und other exumpes ol such deveopng modes Activity EL1.1
- expun und use the terms utomc number, muss number, sotope, Avogudro constunt, reutve sotopc muss,
relative atomic mass, relative formula mass and relative molecular mass
- druw und nterpret smpe eectron dotcross' dugrums to show how utoms bond through onc, covuent und
dative covalent bonds, and be able to describe a simple model of metallic bonding
- descrbe some mtutons ol these modes
- recu the typcu physcu propertes (metng temperuture, soubty n wuter, ubty to conduct eectrcty)
characteristic of giant lattice (metallic, ionic, covalent network) and simple molecular structure types
Activity EL2.3
- use the eectron pur repuson prncpe to predct und expun the shupes ol smpe moecues (such us
CH
4
, NH
3
, H
2
O and SF
6
) and ions (such as NH
4
+
) with up to six outer pairs of electrons (any combination of
bonding pairs and lone pairs) Activity EL2.2
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Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
Introduction
E|son salts occur naturally and are a lydrated lorn ol nagnesiun sullate.
Magnesium sulfate can be made in the laboratory in the reaction between
magnesium carbonate and dilute sulfuric acid:
VgCO
3
(s) H
2
SO
4
(aq) l MgSO
4
(aq) CO
2
(g) H
2
O(l)
What you do
Making hydrated magnesium sulfate crystals (Epsom salts)
1 Ising a neasuring cylinder, |our 40 cn
3
ol l nol dn
3
sulfuric acid into a
250 cn
3
beaker.
2 Weigh approximately 6g of magnesium carbonate this is more than is
needed to react with all of the acid so you dont need to weigh it accurately.
3 Add spatula measures of the solid magnesium carbonate to the acid and stir
until all visible signs of reaction have stopped.
4 Support a lter funnel in a clamp and place an evaporating basin underneath
it.
5 Prepare a lter paper, put it into the lter funnel and lter the mixture from
the beaker.
6 Heat the ltrate in the evaporating basin to reduce it to about one-third of its
original volume do NOT heat to dryness. (CARE There may be
considerable spitting.) Wear goggles and heat gently.
7 Put the evaporating basin in a safe place, covered by a dry lter paper, to
allow the solution to crystallise this may take a day or two.
8 Renove tle crystals lron tle renaining ltrate, |lot tlen dry witl
absorbent tissues and then allow the crystals to air dry.
Analysing magnesium sulfate crystals
The magnesium sulfate crystals you have made have the formula MgSO
4
xH
2
O.
When they are heated, water of crystallisation is driven off leaving anhydrous
magnesium sulfate, MgSO
4
.
MgSO
4
xH
2
O(s) l MgSO
4
(s) xH
2
O(g)
By weighing the hydrated and anhydrous magnesium sulfate before and after
IRRITANT
sulfuric acid
250 cn
3
beaker
l00 cn
3
measuring cylinder
weigling |ottle or weigling |oat
s|atula
eva|orating |asin
lter lunnel
lter |a|er
tri|od, gauze and |i|eclay triangle
Bunsen |urner
cruci|le, lid and cruci|le tongs
access to |alance (2 or 3 d.|.)
nagnesiun car|onate |owder (6 g)
sulluric acid, l nol dn
3
(40 cn
3
)
CARE When heating the hydrated magnesium sulfate, there can be considerable spitting. Goggles should be worn and
the Bunsen burner ame should be turned down as low as possible.
Requirements
WEAR EYE
PROTECTION
CARE Eye protection
must be worn.
Epsom salts are widely sold as a mild laxative
they are hydrated magnesium sulfate. In this
activity you will make magnesium sulfate
crystals and then analyse them to nd out their
exact formula.
MAKING AND
ANALYSING EPSOM
SALTS
EL3
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Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
leating you can calculate tle nun|er ol noles ol water associated witl l nole
of the magnesium sulfate. This will allow you to determine the exact formula for
the crystals. As you carry out steps 912, record your results like this:
mass of crucible = _______g
nass ol cruci|le lydrated nagnesiun sullate ~ _______ g
nass ol cruci|le anlydrous nagnesiun sullate ~ _______ g
mass of magnesium sulfate in the magnesium sulfate crystals = _______g
mass of water in the magnesium sulfate crystals = _______g
9 Weigh a clean, dry crucible and record its mass.
10 Put some of the dry crystals of hydrated magnesium sulfate you have made
into tle cruci|le. Reweigl tle cruci|le and record tle nass.
11 Heat the crucible gently for about a minute, and then more strongly for a
further 5 minutes (although you should try and keep the heat as low as
possible). You may see the crystals appear to melt. The liquid is likely to
spit as the water of crystallisation is driven off (CARE Wear goggles). You
will need to use the crucible lid to prevent loss of solid. Allow the crucible to
cool and then reweigh it, recording your mass.
12 Heat tle cruci|le again lor a|out 2 ninutes and reweigl it again. Il tle last
two nasses diller |y nore tlan 0.05 g, re|eat tle leating and weigling again
heating a substance until its mass remains the same is called heating to
constant mass.
Questions
1 What is meant by the terms:
a hydrated
b anhydrous
c water of crystallisation?
2 Why is it necessary to heat the hydrated magnesium sulfate
to constant mass?
3 Calculate the relative formula masses of:
a magnesium sulfate (MgSO
4
)
b water.
4 a Calculate the number of moles of magnesium sulfate in
the crystals you weighed out.
b Calculate the number of moles of water in the crystals.
5 a Calculate the number of moles of water which are
combined with 1 mole of magnesium sulfate in the
crystals.
b What is the exact formula for the magnesium sulfate
crystals?
EL3 Making and analysing Epsom salts
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Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
What you do
Reaction of the elements with water
1 Hall ll a l00 cn
3
beaker with water. Use a pair of tweezers to select a small
piece of calcium metal (CARE Avoid skin contact) and add it to the water.
2 Observe what happens to the contents of the beaker. When the reaction
seems to be over, test the pH of the mixture using universal indicator
solution. Make a note of your observations.
3 Re|eat tle ex|erinent witl a |iece ol nagnesiun, and tlen witl |ariun.
(CARE Barium and its compounds are harmful. Do not swallow any. Barium
is kept under oil or liquid parafn. You will need to dry your piece of metal
on lter paper before using it.)
a Use a reference book to nd out what the products are in these reactions.
Then summarise your results in a table like the one below.
b Make a note of any common properties of these
metals and the compounds produced from them.
c Make a note of any patterns you can spot in your
results.
Solubilities of the hydroxides and carbonates
In this part of the experiment you will be looking to see whether precipitates
form when you add drops of solutions of sodium carbonate and sodium
lydroxide to dro|s ol Grou| 2 netal ion solutions. Tlis will ena|le you to nake
judgenents a|out tle relative solu|ilities ol Grou| 2 car|onates and lydroxides.
4 You will be given a worksheet with boxes on which to place drops of
solution. Cover tlis worksleet witl a clear |lastic sleet (or |lastic |ocket) il
it is not already laminated.
5 Put 2 dro|s ol tle netal ion solutions in eacl |ox ol tle a||ro|riate row.
6 Now add 2 dro|s ol sodiun car|onate or sodiun lydroxide solution to tle
appropriate column.
d Record your results. Can you identily any |atterns in tle solu|ilities ol
Grou| 2 car|onates and lydroxides:
test tu|es
l00 cn
3
|eakers (3)
tweezers
lter |a|er
snall |ieces ol:
magnesium ribbon
calcium
barium
nagnesiun nitrate solution, 0.l nol dn
3
(l cn
3
)
calciun nitrate solution, 0.l nol dn
3
(l cn
3
)
strontiun nitrate solution, 0.l nol dn
3
(l cn
3
)
|ariun nitrate solution, 0.l nol dn
3
(l cn
3
)
sodiun lydroxide solution, l nol dn
3
(2 cn
3
)
sodiun car|onate solution, l nol dn
3
(2 cn
3
)
universal indicator solution
worksleet results ta|le
Requirements
HIGHLY
FLAMMABLE
calcium
WEAR EYE
PROTECTION
CARE Eye protection
must be worn.
This activity introduces you to some of the
chemistry of these elements and gives you
practice at spotting patterns and looking for
generalisations in your results.
INVESTIGATING
THE CHEMISTRY OF
GROUP 2 ELEMENTS
EL4.1
CORROSIVE
sodium hydroxide solution
universal indicator solution
HIGHLY
FLAMMABLE
barium
HIGHLY
FLAMMABLE
HARMFUL
Metal Observation
when metal
added to water
Chemical
equation
pH of mixture
produced
magnesium
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Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
Table 1 Reactions of Group 2 metal ions in solution
S
o
l
u
t
i
o
n

o
f
h
y
d
r
o
x
i
d
e

i
o
n
s
S
o
l
u
t
i
o
n

o
f
c
a
r
b
o
n
a
t
e

i
o
n
s
S
o
l
u
t
i
o
n

o
f
m
a
g
n
e
s
i
u
m

i
o
n
s
S
o
l
u
t
i
o
n

o
f
c
a
l
c
i
u
m

i
o
n
s
S
o
l
u
t
i
o
n

o
f
s
t
r
o
n
t
i
u
m

i
o
n
s
S
o
l
u
t
i
o
n

o
f
b
a
r
i
u
m

i
o
n
s
EL4.1 Investigating the chemistry of Group 2 elements
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Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
Introduction
The naturally occurring form of most elements is made up of a mixture of
isotopes of the element. For example, natural chlorine is made up of the
isotopes
35
Cl and
3
Cl in tle ratio ol 5` to 25`. Tlis neans tlat in every l00
atoms of chlorine
5 lave nass nun|er 35 and
25 lave nass nun|er 3.
So the relative atomic mass of chlorine =
(5 35) (25 3)
___________________
l00
~ 35.5
The relative atomic mass (A
r
) of a naturally occurring element (the form of
the element that normally takes part in chemical reactions) is the weighted
mean of the mass numbers of the stable isotopes of the element. The mass
numbers and relative abundances of the stable isotopes can be found from the
mass spectrum of the element.
What you do
Tle nass s|ectrun ol natural kry|ton, see Figure l, slows tlat it las ve sta|le
isoto|es at nass nun|ers 80, 82, 83, 84 and 86.
This activity shows how a mass spectrometer
can be used to give information about isotopes.
You will use mass spectra data to determine the
relative abundances of the isotopes of an
element and then calculate its relative atomic
mass.
ISOTOPIC
ABUNDANCE AND
RELATIVE ATOMIC
MASS
EL4.2
The peak heights of a mass spectrum are often adjusted so that the most
a|undant ion is given a relative intensity ol l00` in order to aclieve naxinun
differentiation between the peak intensities.
1 Measure the peak height for each isotope of krypton and calculate its relative
abundance in natural krypton. Use these data and the mass numbers of the
isotopes to calculate the relative atomic mass (A
r
) of krypton.
2 Draw the mass spectrum you would expect to obtain for naturally occurring
chlorine.
Figure 1 The mass spectrum of krypton.
100
80
60
40
20
0
40 80 90 50 60 70
m/z
I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y

/

%
984_01_SAC SP_EL.indd 19 16/4/08 15:52:42
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Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
What you do
You need to download and print, or draw, graphs of the melting temperatures
and boiling temperatures of the elements from hydrogen to argon.
To download a graph, nd an Internet site that provides information about
the Periodic Table. A good example is www.webelements.org a site designed
and developed at the University of Shefeld. Navigate through the site until you
reach a graph showing the information you are looking for. It may contain
information about more elements than those you need but that is ne. Print
copies of the graphs.
Anotler good data and gra|l-drawing resource can |e lound at tle Royal
Society ol Clenistry`s we|site (www.clensoc.org/networks/learnnet/|tdata/
welcome.htm). This interactive Periodic Table allows you to select the data you
need and plot your own graph, which you can then print.
If you cannot download and print off a graph from the Internet, you will need
to nd the required information from a chemistry data book. In this case, use
spreadsheet software to allow you to show the data graphically and to print a
hard copy.
This activity helps you to identify how the
melting and boiling temperatures of elements
change across a row in the Periodic Table.
PATTERNS IN
THE PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES OF
ELEMENTS
EL4.3
Questions
1 On your graphs, indicate which elements are from Period
1, which are from Period 2 and which are from Period 3.
2 For each graph, describe the patterns that you observe
across each period.
3 How do the patterns across Period 2
compare to those across Period 3?
4 Explain how your graphs show periodicity.
5 For each graph, note which group of
elements appear at:
a the peaks
b the troughs.
6 Part of the boiling temperature graph is shown below.
Label the point you think represents the element sodium.
Explain how you arrived at your answer.
Successive elements in the Periodic Table
B
o
i
l
i
n
g

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
984_01_SAC SP_EL.indd 20 16/4/08 15:52:42
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Salters Advanced Chemistry, Pearson Education Ltd 2008. University of York.
This document may have been altered from the original.
Introduction
The checklist below covers the key points in Chemical Storylines EL3 to EL5.
The statements listed correspond to learning outcomes in the specication
for the AS examinations. They are listed in the order in which they occur in this
NPEVMF3FNFNCFSUIBUZPVXJMMCFDPNJOHCBDLUPNBOZPGUIFJEFBTJOMBUFS
modules.
You will probably have made summary notes of the main ideas that you have
met. Now is a good time to make sure that your notes cover all the points you
need. If you feel that you are not yet able to meet the requirements of all of the
statements in the list, you should look again at the areas concerned, seek help
from your teacher if necessary and develop your notes accordingly.
Most of the points are covered in Chemical Ideas, with supporting
information in Chemical Storylines or the activities. However, if the main
source of information is in a storyline or an activity this is indicated.
What you do
3FBEBOEUIJOLBCPVUFBDIPGUIFTUBUFNFOUTJOUIFDIFDLMJTU1VUBUJDLJOUIF
column that best represents your current ability to do what is described:
A I am condent that I can do this
B I need help to clarify my ideas on this
C I am not yet able to do this.
You will be sharing this information with your teacher so that you can work
together to improve your understanding.
At the end of Chemical Storylines EL3 to EL5 you should be able to: A B C
- expun und use the terms utomc number, muss number, sotope, Avogudro constunt, reutve sotopc muss,
relative atomic mass, relative formula mass and relative molecular mass
- use the concept ol umount ol substunce to perlorm cucuutons nvovng musses ol substunces, emprcu und
molecular formulae and percentage composition
- wrte und nterpret buunced chemcu equutons, ncudng stute symbos
- descrbe und expun the mun stuges n the operuton ol u tme-ol-ght muss spectrometer
- use dutu lrom u muss spectrometer to:
calculate relative atomic mass and the relative abundance of isotopes
work out the relative molecular mass of molecules
- understund thut other peuks ure cuused by lrugments ol moecues
- recu thut the Perodc 1ube sts eements n order ol utomc (proton) number und groups eements together
according to their common properties
- use gven nlormuton to descrbe trends n u group ol the Perodc 1ube und to muke predctons concernng
the properties of an element in this group
- descrbe perodc trends n the propertes ol eements, n terms ol metng temperuture und bong
temperature Activity 4.3
- recu thut the poston ol un eement n the Perodc 1ube s reuted to ts eectron structure (mun energy
levels or electron shells) and vice versa
- descrbe und compure the loowng propertes ol the eements und compounds ol Mg, Cu, Sr und u n
Group 2:
reactions of the elements with water
acidbase character of the oxides and hydroxides
thermal stability of the carbonates
solubilities of hydroxides and carbonates Activity 4.1
- understund how Mendeeev deveoped the Perodc 1ube by euvng gups und reurrungng some eements
from their atomic mass order and how subsequent research validated this knowledge
- gven reevunt nlormuton, dscuss other exumpes ol how scentc reseurch cun be used to ussess the
validity of a discovery Chemical Storylines EL4
This activity helps you check your knowledge
and understanding of the topics that you have
covered in Chemical Storylines EL3 to EL5.
CHECK YOUR
KNOWLEDGE AND
UNDERSTANDING
(PART 2)
EL5
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