Irish Jane Ico DMD 1-A

Dr. Barcarse

Mass Spectrophotometry Over the past decade, mass spectrometry has undergone tremendous technological improvements allowing for its application to proteins, peptides, carbohydrates, DNA, drugs, and many other biologically relevant molecules. A mass spectrometer determines the mass of a molecule by measuring the mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) of its ion. Ions are generated by inducing either the loss or gain of a charge from a neutral species. Once formed, ions are electrostatically directed into a mass analyzer where they are separated according to m/z and finally detected. The result of molecular ionization, ion separation, and ion detection is a spectrum that can provide molecular mass and even structural information.

Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, most commonly known as NMR spectroscopy, is a research technique that exploits the magnetic properties of certainatomic nuclei to determine physical and chemical properties of atoms or the moleculesin which they are contained. It relies on the phenomenon of nuclear magnetic resonance and can provide detailed information about the structure, dynamics, reaction state, and chemical environment of molecules. Most frequently, NMR spectroscopy is used by chemists and biochemists to investigate the properties of organic molecules, though it is applicable to any kind of sample that contains nuclei possessing spin. Suitable samples range from small compounds analyzed with 1-dimensional proton or carbon-13 NMR spectroscopy to large proteins or nucleic acids using 3 or 4-dimensional techniques. The impact of NMR spectroscopy on the sciences has been substantial because of the range of information and the diversity of samples, including solutions and solids.

High-performance liquid chromatography (sometimes referred to as high-pressure liquid chromatography), HPLC, is a chromatographic technique used to separate a mixture of compounds in analytical chemistry and biochemistry with the purpose of identifying, quantifying and purifying the individual components of the mixture. Some common examples are the separation and quantitation of performance enhancement drugs (e.g. steroids) in urine samples, or of vitamin D levels in serum. HPLC typically utilizes different types of stationary phases (i.e. sorbents) contained in columns, a pump that moves the mobile phase and sample components through the column, and a detector capable of providing characteristic retention times for the sample components and area counts reflecting the amount of each analyte passing through the detector. The detector may also provide additional information related to the analyte, (i.e.UV/Vis spectroscopic data, if so equipped). Analyte retention time varies depending on the strength of its interactions with the stationary phase, the composition and flow rate of mobile phase used, and on the column dimensions. HPLC is a form of liquid chromatography that utilizes small size columns (typically 250 mm or shorter and 4.6 mm i.d. or smaller; packed with smaller particles), and higher mobile phase pressures compared to ordinary liquid chromatography. With HPLC, a pump (rather than gravity) provides the higher pressure required to move the mobile phase and sample components through the densely packed column. The increased density arises from the use of smaller sorbent particles. Such particles are capable of providing better separation on columns of shorter length when compared to ordinary column chromatography.

Four Levels of Architectural Organization

Primary structure The primary structure refers to amino acid linear sequence of the polypeptide chain. The primary structure is held together by covalent or peptide bonds, which are made during the process of protein biosynthesis or translation. The two ends of thepolypeptide chain are referred to as the carboxyl terminus (C-terminus) and the amino terminus (N-terminus) based on the nature of the free group on each extremity. Counting of residues always starts at the N-terminal end (NH2-group), which is the end where the amino group is not involved in a peptide bond. The primary structure of a protein is determined by the gene corresponding to the protein. A specific sequence ofnucleotides in DNA is transcribed into mRNA, which is read by the ribosome in a process called translation. The sequence of a protein is unique to that protein, and defines the structure and function of the protein. The sequence of a protein can be determined by methods such as Edman degradation or tandem mass spectrometry. Often however, it is read directly from the sequence of the gene using the genetic code. We know that there are over 10,000 proteins in our body which are composed of different arrangements of 20 types of amino acid residues(it is strictly recommended to use the word "amino acid residues" as when peptide bond is formed a water molecule is lost so, protein is made up of amino acid residues) Post-translational modifications such as disulfide formation, phosphorylations and glycosylations are usually also considered a part of the primary structure, and cannot be read from the gene. Amino acid residues Each -amino acid consists of a backbone part that is present in all the amino acid types, and a side chain that is unique to each type of residue. An exception from this rule is proline. Because the carbon atom is bound to four different groups it is chiral, however only one of the isomers occur in biological proteins. Glycine however, is not chiral since its side chain is a hydrogen atom. A simplemnemonic for correct L-form is "CORN": when the C atom is viewed with the H in front, the residues read "CO-R-N" in a clockwise direction.

Secondary structure Secondary structure refers to highly regular local sub-structures. Two main types of secondary structure, thealpha helix and the beta strand or beta sheets, were suggested in 1951 by Linus Pauling and coworkers. These secondary structures are defined by patterns of hydrogen bonds between the main-chain peptide groups. They have a regular geometry, being constrained to specific values of the dihedral angles and on the Ramachandran plot. Both the alpha helix and the beta-sheet represent a way of saturating all the hydrogen bond donors and acceptors in the peptide backbone. Some parts of the protein are ordered but do not form any regular structures. They should not be confused with random coil, an unfolded polypeptide chain lacking any fixed three-dimensional structure. Several sequential secondary structures may form a "supersecondary unit". Tertiary structure Tertiary structure refers to three-dimensional structure of a single protein molecule. The alpha-helices and betasheets are folded into a compact globule. The folding is driven by the non-specific hydrophobic interactions (the burial of hydrophobic residues from water), but the structure is stable only when the parts of a protein domain are locked into place by specific tertiary interactions, such as salt bridges, hydrogen bonds, and the tight packing of side chains and disulfide bonds. The disulfide bonds are extremely rare in cytosolic proteins, since the cytosol is generally a reducing environment.

Quaternary structure Quaternary structure is the three-dimensional structure of a multi-subunit protein and how the subunits fit together. In this context, the quaternary structure is stabilized by the same non-covalent interactions and disulfide bonds as the tertiary structure. Complexes of two or more polypeptides (i.e. multiple subunits) are called multimers. Specifically it would be called a dimer if it contains two subunits, a trimer if it contains three subunits, and a tetramer if it contains four subunits. The subunits are frequently related to one another bysymmetry operations, such as a 2-fold axis in a dimer. Multimers made up of identical subunits are referred to with a prefix of "homo-" (e.g. a homotetramer) and those made up of different subunits are referred to with a prefix of "hetero-" (e.g. a heterotetramer, such as the two alpha and two beta chains of hemoglobin).

Tests for Amino Acids and Protein

Quantitative test 1. Spectrophotometric assay Protein shows maximum absorbance at 280nm due to presence of tyrosine and tryptophane. 2. Biuret test shows 540nm 3. Lowry test shows 750nm Qualitative test Ninhydrin Test Amino acid containing a free amino group and a free carboxylic acid group that react together with ninhydrin to produce colure product. Protein also contain free amino group on the alpha-carbon and can react with ninhydrin to produce blue purple product. When the amino group is secondary the condensation product is yellow. Biuret Test It positively identifies the presence of protein in solution with a deep violet colour.Biuret H2NCONHCONH2 reacts with copper(11)ions in a basic solution to form a deep voilet complex. Xanthoproteic Test The amino acids that contain benzene ring like tyrosine and tryptophan undergo nitration in this test and gives yellow colour. Millons Test It is specific for tyrosine, the only amino acid that contain a phenol group on which a hydroxyl group is attached. It gives red precipitate. Hopkins_cole Test It is specific for tryptophan, the only amino acid containing an indole group.The indole ring reacts with glyoxylic acid in the presence of a strong acid to form a violet cyclic product. Nitroprusside Test It is specific for Cysteine, the only amino acid containing sulfahydrylgroup. Forms red complex.Classification and Nomenclature of