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ERS
A MANUAL FOR CONSERVATION
ver 2,000 North Carolina Maintenance and Engineering people have attended and profited from these workshops in the last 60 months and have benefited from over $10,000,000/year in recommended savings.
PRESENTEDBY
E M A
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WITH
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NC Department of Commerce
Energy
NC Department of Commerca
DNiSbll
Residential The North Carolina Solar Center at North Carolina State University which distributes information on solar energy; and A pilot project providing rebates to residential customers who purchase energy efficient central heating and cooling equipment. Aericul tura 1 The distribution of information on energy efficient techniques farmers can use to cool products after harvest; and Energy audits and evaluation of irrigation systems. Transuortat ion Two-day car care clinics to help motorists improve their cars engine performance; and Traffic signal timing analysis designed to reduce traffic delay and congestion, vehicle emissions, and unnecessary fuel consumption. Education Assisting local school boards identify and select energy efficient building designs; and Developing a system to computerize the scheduling and routing of school buses. Local Government Seminars to help local governments identify and implement solid waste management options as an alternative to landfills; Technical assistance in establishing energy accounting systems and building audits aimed at identifying no- and low-cost measures to reduce energy consumption in public buildings; and Development of a manual of North Carolina governmental units that have successfully utilized available alternative rates to trim their electrical costs.
(more)
- NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNWERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Energy
NC Department of Commerce
Division
Commercial
Rebates for relamping and replacement of inefficient lighting sources in commercial facilities; and Bulletins outlining recent technological innovations by high energy using commercial enterprises, primarily hotels/motels, laundries and dry cleaners, restaurants, and retail stores.
Jndustrial
Rebates for relamping and replacement of inefficient lighting sources in commercial facilities; Technical assistance in preventive maintenance techniques; and Workshops on measuring and improving boiler efficiency.
- NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
CHILLERS MAINTENANCE CHILLER OPTIMIZATION AND FREE COOLING CHILLED WATER SYSTEMS
. Chapter 7
N c DeparDnent of commerce
INTRODUCTION
As technology and industry change at an ever increasing rate, we are doing more, faster and with less new materials. Of all the resources necessary to continue this
I
industrial transition, energy is the most critical. Without an adequate supply of energy, all the raw materials in the world are of little value. To insure that we can continue to have the energy resources available to us, it is imperative that we understand how each energy consuming system in our facilities operates. It is only through a thorough understanding of how we use energy that we can develop plans and strategies that will minimize our energy usage. It is the intent of this workshop to provide you with an understanding of one of the majorusers of energy in a facility today chiller and cooling tower systems. Specifically, water-cooled chillers and their supporting equipment are the focus of the workshop material. With this information, you will be able to determine if your chiller plant, cooling tower and other equipment are operating effectively and efficiently. In addition, energy conserving strategies will be discussed that will help you in developing plans to minimize energy use and operating costs.
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSlTY - WllW THE NORlH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Introduction- 1
Energy
NC D e m t of Commerce
w i
Introduction- 2
Chapter I
CHILLERS
NC Departmentof Commerce
Eiferav sri
Division
CHILLERS
NOTES
A water-cooled chiller is a mechanical device that uses a
centrifugal impeller to compress refrigerant gas, and thus the use of the refrigerant to produce cold water. The motor-driven impeller imparts its energy to the refrigerant gas, and compressing the gas produces heat. The hot compressed gas is then cooled by water flowing through the condenser, generally from a cooling tower. In this press it gives u p its heat and condenses to a liquid. This warm liquid then passes through a metering device into the evaporator. The evaporator is at a lower pressure. The liquid absorbs heat from the water passing through the evaporator, thus cooling the water and evaporating the refrigerant. The low pressure gas passes into the compressor through the compressor inlet vanes and starts the cycle again.
A centrifugal chiller has a centrifugal compressor, a condenser,
evaporator, compressor inlet control device, and an evaporator liquid refrigerant control device. The performance of a chiller is impacted by:
e e e
efficiency and horsepower of the motor, design of the evaporator and the condenser, number of passes in the condenser and the evaporator, quantity, thickness and type of tubes, refrigerant levels, tube enhancement, operating capacity of the chiller, condition of the water flowing through the chiller, condition of the heat exchanger ,surfaces, temperature of the condenser and the chilled water, and type of refrigerant used.
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UMVERSlTY WlTH IHE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
e e
e
0
e
e e
Chapter 1-1
Division
NOTES
The condenser and the evaporator are shell and tube heat exchangers. The cooled water is then pumped through the chiller water piping system and is used for cooling air and for process cooling. The capacity of the chiller is controlled by the inlet vanes to the compressor. They restrict the flow of refrigerant gas to the compressor, thereby controlling the compressor capacity. The compressor motor under a restricted flow of refrigerant gas does not have as much work to do and uses less energy at lower load conditions (Figures 1-1 through 1-41.
NORTH CAROLlNA STATE UMVERsITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 1-2
NC Department oi Commerce
@ Liquidrefrigerantis distributedalong the lengthof the evaporatorand uniformlysprayedthrough orificesto coat each evaporatortube with refrigerant. The refrigerantabsorbsheatfrom systemwater
being circulated through the evaporator tubes and changes to a gas. @ Refrierant gas flows through the droplet eliminators to the compressor. 0 Refrigerant vapor is drawn through the first-stage inlet vanes and intothe centrifugal compressor impeller. The inletvanes modulatethe flow of gas to match system capacity requirementsand also prerotatesthe gas to enter the impeller wheel at the proper angle, minimizing losses at all load conditions. 0 Discharge gas from the first compressor stage flowsthroughthe second-stageinlet vanes and into the second-stage impeller. @ Compressed refrigerant gas from the second stage is introducedinto the condenser and distributed across the condenser tubes. Condenser water circulatingthrough the condenser tubes removesheat from the refrigerant causing it to condense.@ Liquid refrigerant passesthrough the patented Trane orifice system to the economizer. Some of the refrigerant flashes to gas as a result of the pressure drop across the orifice system, coding the remainderof the liquid refrigerant.The flash gas is drawn directly to the second stage of the compressor. This reduces the refrigerationcycle energy requirements by avoiding the necessity of compressing all of the refrigerantgas through two stages of compression. The remaining liquidflows through additional orificesto the evaporator section of the machine
fl
p d $ e -$ .,..;;,
4U.L p o d
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G d Y A
Figure 1-1
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 1-3
Fnarm3.f t= :w:
NC Department of Commerce
Division
391
Inaddition tothrottling, inlstguide vanes at each stage prerotate refrigerant gas for more efficient entry into the impeller. This results in improved part-load performanca and in increased compressor range.
Figure 1-2. first stage inlet vanes control the flow of refrigerant gas to the centrifugal compressor. These Vanes can control the flow from 10 to lOO?! of the gas flow.
I N L R GUIDE VANE
Figure 1-3.
NORTH CAROLlNA STATE UrJrVERSlTY WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 1-4
Energy
NC Department of Commerce
Division
1
Figure 1-4.
Division
NOTES WATER FLOW The amount of water circulated through a chiller is generally constant. The design temperature rise in the condenser water and the chilled water are normally loo F. Occasionally the design of a system may require a greater or smaller temperature rise, or delta T (AT). The design inlet and outlet temperatures of a chiller are important. The chiller is designed around these parameters. Any change from these parameters effects the operation of the chiller mechanically and impact the efficiency of the chiller. Condenser water design inlet temperature to the chiller i s normally 8 5 O F and a discharge temperature of 9 5 O F. The chilled water leaving temperature can be from 420 F to SO0 F with a 100 F AT. In most cases, less than 420 F design is imprudent because it is possible to get a cold spot in the chiller evaporator where ice might form. Ice in a chiller is usually disastrous. A chiller can be designed to operate with a glycol solution to prevent freezing in the evaporator. One ton of air conditioning is 12,000 BTU. The specific heat of water is 1: The weight of water is 8.33 pounds per gallon. One gallon per minute circulated with one degree rise equals 500 BTU per hour (10 AT x 8.33 lbs x 60 min = 500). Therefore, BTU 12,000 BTU
= =
12,000 BTU @ 100 F temp rise is 2.4 gpm circulated per ton of air conditioning
So it is necessary to circulate 2.4 gpm through the evaporator constantly for each ton of cooling at a loo F temperature drop. A 500ton chiller requires 1200 gpm water circulating rate.
NORTH CAROIJNA STATE UNlVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 1-6
Energy
NC Department of Commerce
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NOTES The design of the chiller will determine the pressure drop of water through the heat exchangers - normally between 3 and 20 psi (or 6.9 ft and 48 ft of heat). In the design of a chiller, manufacturers use minimum and maximum velocities with the heat exchangers. If the velocity is too
high, the water will erode the tubes. If it is too slow, there will be poor heat transfer.
The selection of the condenser and the evaporator are a compromise of cost and design efficiency. The most efficient condenser and evaporator may have a high cost and require a relatively high waterside pressure drop. A less efficient selection may cost less but still have a relatively high pressure drop. A third design may be more expensive but have a lower pressure drop (Figure 1-8). The cost of operating the system will be affected by the selection of the various components. If the pressure drop through the condenser, for example, can be reduced, the reduced pressure through the heat exchangers affects the pump motor horsepower. A reduction in static pressure is the relationship of AP* = BHP3.
If the pressure drop through a chiller could be reduced 50 percent, the BHP to drive the water through the chiller would be reduced to 25 percent.
As 1 is to 2 is to 4,
1 (T)* = .25,
(1 T) =~ .125
Energy
NC Department of Commerce
Division
NOTES
So the selection of heat exchangers must be a compromise of efficiency versus cost of opera tion.
Figures 1.5 and 1.6 show the relationship of some different condensers and evaporators which are available for similar sized units but with different pressure drops and operating characteristics.
COMPRESSOR MOTORS PRODUCE HEAT In most centrifugal chillers the motor is cooled by refrigerant passing through the windings. The compressor motor as well as the bearings add heat to the refrigeration cycle which must be allowed for. The result is that in designing water-cooled equipment, the condenser water flow is calculated at 15,000 BTU per ton and requires 3 gpm circulated to provide a 100 F temperature rise across the condenser (Figures 1-7 and 1-8). For this reason cooling towers are rated at 15,000 BTU per ton. One of the first ways that manufacturers used to reduce the KW per ton in 1975-1980 was to remove the compressor motor from the refrigerant circuit and go to an open drive. This arrangement required a seal for the drive to enter the sealed refrigerant system.
TUBE ENHANCEMENT
The efficiency of the thermal transfer through a chiller tube is a function of the turbulence or velocity of the water through the tube and the amount of surface available for contact with the medium being heated and the medium providing the heat. For some time prior to 1975, chiller tubes were enhanced on the refrigerant side.
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 1-8
Energy
NC Departmentof Commerce
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NOTES The tubes had very fine fins machined into their exterior surfaces, greatly increasing the square inches of surface available for contact to the refrigerant in rela'tionship to the inside surface of the tube. This is referred to as "tube enhancement". In an effort to further improve heat transfer and efficiency and to allow for fewer tubes in heat exchangers, manufacturers now will provide in temally enhanced tubes. The tube is rifled internally in a spiral fashion to increase surface area, turbulence and actual water velocity on the tube surface. There was a considerable amount of resistance to this procedure. It was felt that internal enhancement would cause premature tube fouling. However, experience has not borne this out, nor is this type of tube any more difficult to clean.
CHILLER PERFORMANCE
As we have indicated, most chillers are designed for about a 100 F
differential between the inlet and outlet of the condenser and the evaporator. When a system is designed, the engineer will select a chilled water discharge temperature based on the use of the system. For the purpose of this discussion, we will use 450 F leaving chilled water temperature. Once a chiller is designed and manufactured, the temperature differences, inlet and outlet temperatures u t full caaucity are constant.
If the chiller performance or use is to be modified, it is wise to consult the manufacturer before making any changes.
NORTH CAROLINASTATEUNIVERSITY
Chapter 1-9
Energy
NC Departmentof Commerce
Division
CHART 45-2
90
80 70 Bo 50
Evaporators K1 through S1
40
30
p
w
3
; ;
5 B
Y
25 20
16
! i n .
w
8 d.8
6.0
4.0
s o o ~w o ~ 1 o o o1 w o t Q # )
FLQW ( Q W
1ooo ~
mN)
100
80
70
60
50
40
30
p
Y
25
20
1s
'z
e -
lj
8
Y
3
E
>P-
10 80 80 70 60 50
40
30
25
20
15
10
400
m8001ooo
1MD2ooc
Moo
moo#x)o1ooo0
FLOW I G W I
ginb$&
Gb
Figures 1-5
Chapter 1-10
Energy
NC Department of Commerce
DNlSbtl
UNISHELL CONDENSER
FLOW RATE ( L I S )
UNISHELL COOLER
FLOW RATE (LIS1
001
40
60
80
ISQ
m
50
0
I2
NOTES: 1. Solid lines show pressure drop with standard Water box. Dashed lines show pressure dro with marine water box option. 2. Cooler pressure drop is based on ULTC tubing. Condenser pressure drop is based on TZTS tubing. 3. To determine pressure drops more aCCUrately and to COmpenSatefor actual water temperature, use the computerizedselection sewice I n offii. availabk through your loul U r r W N
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSrrY WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 1-11
Energy
NC Department of Commerce
Division
Hermetic Chiller Motor. The Trane Centravac Hermetic Motor is cooled with liquid refrigerant which flows through passages around the motor windings. The motor bearings are lubricated and cooled with oil. The oil is pumped to the bearings and is cooled by a watercooled heat exchanger.
Figure 1-7.
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WlTH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 1-12
Energy
NC Department of Commerce
Division
Figure 1-8.
Fig. 1-8 Open Drive Chiller Motor Separated from the Refrigerant Cyde
Energy
NC Departmentof Commerce
Division
NOTES CHILLER DESIGN KW PER TON Up until 1975, most chillers were designed for .85 KW per ton. Then came the oil crisis and the cost of energy rose dramatically. From 1980-1985 we saw KW of .70 to .75 per ton, and now the designs are in the .60-.65 KW per ton range. Chiller design is now approaching the maximum theoretical efficiency for centrifugal chillers of .579 KW per ton.
HOW HAS CHILLER PERFORMANCE BEEN IMPROVED SO DRAMATICALLY? There are several things that were done. The performances of heat exchangers were improved through tube enhancement and water flow velocity. The exteriors of the tubes have been finned for years; now the interiors, the water side of the tubes have also been enhanced with grooves to increase the surface area and to improve the flow of heat through the tubes. It is usual to have internally enhanced tubes in new chillers now. The design of compressors has been improved to provide more capacity at lower motor horsepower (Figure 1-12). The design of condensers and evaporators has been improved to add to the overall operating efficiency. The flow of refrigerant through the chillers has been improved to reduce restrictions in chillers, improve fluid flow, reduce pressure drops, and decrease energy losses. The design of motors has been improved to increase their efficiency (see pages 16 and 17 for a discussion of design versus performance efficiency).
Energy
NC Department of Commerce
Division
Figure 1-12. The Trane Three-Stage Direct Drive Chiller has been designed to improve the chiller Kw per ton. The chiller performance is in the .6Q to .65Kw per ton range. The chiller provides much quieter and smoother operation than has been available from the Tram Company in prior models. The chillers have solid state controls and are available with unit mounted starters.
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 1-15
Division
Dosign Simplktty
Impellers are keyed directly to the motor shaft for high reliability and performaw and low l i e cycle costa
n l v o s t a g .E c o " k 8 r
FlX.doli(k.FkWCWttd For proper d r i g " t flow control at all load conditiorw, the CenTraVac
design incorpontes the Tram patented fixed orifice system. It eliminates float valves, thermat expbcrsion valves and other moving pa- A series o f exprnsion and f f m i v * contncth C h u n h e controls tho flow of refrigerant in the compreuor, condenser and evaporator t o procirely meet all cooling lord conditions. As system cooling load d o c " , liquid refrigerant flow t o the condenser is reduced. This h e m the hydrostatic head, causing more refrigerant to vaporize in the downstream chamber and reducing the amount of refrigerant entering the evaporator. This smaller amount of liquid refrigerant in the evaporator matches the cooling load requirements for efficient operation. Since there are no moving parts, reliability is increased.
T h w st8g.r o f compmuion The thW-8-e c ~ m p r -rates ~ w mom efficiently over a wide range of
caprcitias, virhrrlly eliminating the need for w r g y wasting hot gas byas typically found on single stage chillem. Adrigemnt gas leaves the impeller at an angle having tangential and radial The tangential component (V,) is determined by impeller tip speed, apd the radial component (VJ is determined by volume of gas flow and c t o u sectional area of the impeller discharge. The three-stage design takes advantage of lower tip s p e d to discharge the gas with u large a radial component as possible. The radial componont of velocity determines the ability of the chiller to resist intemption of smooth refrigerant flow when oponting at light loads and with h q h condensing temperatures. This interruption in flow and unstable operation, called "surge" is avoided with the threo-stage dosign.
Noowrl.oaaa
Comprosoor8 wing gears suffer mesh loss08 and extra bearing losses in the n n g .o f t h m to five percent at full load. Since these losses are
fairh/ constant over the load range, increasingly larger percentage losses result as load decreases. For a typical building load profile, power consumed by gear losses can be considerably greater than the thrqe to five pdrcent at full load tona
Chapter 1-16
*i.tOp.ntion With only one moving component the rotor and impeller assembly the Trane low speed, direct dnve design operates exceptionally quietly. Gear driven compressors, by contrast may generate objectionable noiw in their high S& drive train. The smoothly rotating CenTraVac compressor IS inherently quieter than other compressor types. Typical CenTraVac chiller sound ratings arg krr than 80 dBA, measured according t o ARI Standard 575.
ConlhVat P-H Diagram The preuureanthalphy fP-HI diagram describer refrigerant flow through the major CVHE chiller components. This diagram confirms the superior operating cycle efficiency of the three-stage compressor and two-stage economizer. Evaporator A liquidgar refrigerant mixture enters the evaporator at state point 1. Liquid refrigerant is vaporized to state point 2 as it absorbs heat from the system cooling load. The vaporized refrigerant then flowr into the compmssor first stage. Compressor First Stage Refrigerant gas is drawn from the evaporator into the first stage compressor. The first stage impeller accelerates the gas increasing its temperature and pressure t o m t e point 3. c o m p r secorrd ~ Stage Refrigerant gas leaving the fim stage compressor is mixed with coder drigerant gar from the low pressure side of the two-stage economizer. This mixing lowen the enthalpy of the mixtum entering the second stage. The second stage impeller accelerates the gas, further increasing its temperature and promure t o stare point 4. Camp" Third Stage Refrigerant gas leaving the comprerun second stage is mixed with cooler refrigorant gas from the high p n r u r r e ride of the two-stage economizer. This mixing lowers the enthalpy of the gas mixture entering the third stage compomor. The third stage impeller accelerates the gas, further increasing its temperature
and pressure to state point 5, then discharges it to the condenser. Condenser Refrigerant gas entem the condenser where the system cooling load and heat of compression are rejected to the condenser water circuit. This heat rejection cools and condenses the refrigerant gas to a liquid at state point 6. Patented T w o - S t e Economizer and Refrigerant Orifice System-Liquid refrigerant leaving the condensor at state point 6 flows through the first d c e and enten the high pressure side of the e c " u e r . The purpose o f this orifice and economizer is to prefiash a small amount of refrigerant at an intermediate pressure cslled P l . P1 is between the evaporator and condenser pressures. Proflashing some liquid refrigerant cools the remaining liquid to state point 7. Refrigerant W i the first stage economizer flows through the ldcond orifice and enters the second stage economizer. Some refrigerant is proflashed at i n t e r m d i e pressure P2. Froflashing the liquid refrigerant cools the remaining liquid to state point 8.
for
All CVHE and CVHB CenTraVac c h i i k n use safe, efficient R-1 1 nfrigerant allowing a number of kmficil faarwec A-11 is well suited to the Tram kw-spoed, direct drive design. It's mora efficient than hgh density, high p"~re mfrigerants Tha A-1 1 mutti-stage CenTraVac cunpnrror dmign has inherently highor cycb efficiency compared to other chiller &signs. .Thr large r ~ n t i o effect n pddd R-11 in Btu's per pound
ofnfrig.nntr"bmrant is mquind t o produce a given capacity. Again, R-11 is a better d u b for grwter m n c y . Sinco krr mfrigmnt is mquind, nfrigerant replacement costs are less expensive than for hgh preuure chilhn. And sinca R-11 is liquid at atmospheric pc8uum, ku o f R-1 1 is less likely to occur.
NOWW CAROLINA STATE UMVERSITY - WKH THE NOKTH CAROLINA ENERCY DMSION
Chapter 1-17
Division
In 1972, the average cataloged Kwper ton value of the most popular hermetic centrifugal water chillers was 0.817. A recent catalog shows an average value of 0.699. This change represents an efficiency increase of over 14 percent. This significant change brings three questions to mind: Why did this change occur now? How are higher efficiencies being achieved? 0 What are the efficiency limits? Answers to the first question are
x3
x2
x 1.5
Base surface
both technical and economic. richnology has always had the capability to improve chiller efficiency. However, only economics can unleash technology so that it can perform. In this c a s e , economic changes are driven by rapid increases in energy costs. These costs are increasing faster than hardware costs. Consequently, it is cost effective to fund technology in hopes of improving performance. Any analysis of chiller efficiency quickly focuses on the four key ingredients that influence machine performance: 1) Water-to-refrigerant heat transfer efficiency. 2) Refrigerant cycle efficiency. 3) Drive train efficiency. 4) Compressor efficiency. No other factor has any effect on overall chiller efficiency. Obviously, then, any improvement in KW per ton values at any load must occur in one or more of these four categories. Advances in technology improve efficiency in two basic ways. Firstly, they provide better heat transfer techniques and surfaces. This area has the greatest potential. Secondly, the mechanics of compressible fluid flow are receiving close scrutiny. In this case, the potential for improvement, while real, is relatively small.
=: LL
x +
xo
80 60
I
Q
=
6
~~
7 6 9 10 11
06
Chiller
07
KW
08
09
per ton*
*Based on constant mechanical efficiency of Motor 93 percent Transmission 97 percent Compressor 75 percent 45195 F terminal water'temperatures foi evaporator and condenser
Heat transfer The technology of heat transfer has been especially active over the past 10 years. Still, the fundamentals have not changed. The classic heat transfer equation remains: Q = L'A(1T) where
1 Surface area vs chiller K W per ton.
the rate-quantity of heat transferred U = the overall heat transfer coefficient A = the heat transfer surface area A 7 ' = the "log mean temperature difference"btween the two materials The goal is to improve the efficiency of this process. This is accomplished by decreasing AT for a given Q.This can only be achieved by increasing either A, U, or both. Area is increased by simply 'throwing moneyn a t the problem. As more surface is added, diminishing effectiveness occurs. The plot in Fig. 1 shows this relationship. Curve A is based on a Ybase surface" performance of a 10 F approach between the leaving water and the saturated refrigerant temperature. Curve B uses an 8 F approach temperature base surface. As surface is increased to 300 percent of the original value, the chiller K W per ton value decreases. Clearly, the additional surface results in very little efficiency improvement at this point. Bchnology, then, can do some-
Chapter 1-18
e E! 2'2 !qJy
Nc Department of commerce
thing about U. The overall heat transfer coefficient is comprised of four individual factors. See the accompanying sidebar for an explanation. Technology can improve two of the factors shown in the sidebar. Work has recently focused on h,and h,, the fluid film heat transfer coefficients. T h e term h, is helped by "external tube enhancements." Essentially, all manufacturers employ 'high flux tubes." f describing This is another way o something better than conventional extruded integrally finned tubing. The term h,, being primarily a f water, is at the physical property o mercy of velocity. High velocity helps h, but eats up water pumping power. Recent 'internal tube enhancements" are simply configurations to the normally smooth tube bore. They boostvelocity at the expense d increased pressure loss just as turbulators d o in water coils. While this'works,"an equally effective strategy might be to use a greater number of waterside passes to increase velocity. Combining these improvements, . Fig. 2 shows typical values of U based on optimistic heat transfer efficiencies. All that is needed to find the refrigerant temperature is the equivalent external tube surface
based on the most optimistic technical information available. Refrigerant cycle The second category is the refrigerant cycle efficiency. It is a physical property of the refrigerant itself. Table 2 shows relative theoretical KW per ton values for various refrigerants commonly used in centrifugal chillers. These values are based on data from Table 8, Chapter 16, ASHRAE Handbook, 1931 findamentals. Once the saturated refrigerant temperatures are established, the refrigerant efficiency is fixed. The only variables that can change the cycle efficiency are cycle configurations such as condenser subcoolers and economizers (interstage flash coolers). Subcoolen are seldom used with water cooled centrifugals because their effectiveness is limited. Their additional expense would be more effectively applied to increase condenser surface. Economizers are confined to chillers using
multistage compressors because they are used to separate saturated gas and liquid at the interstage pressures. Fig. 4 shows a typical refrigerant pressure-enthalpy chart for a centrifugal chiller. The theoretical KW per ton value is calculated on the basis that compression occurs isentropically (without a change in The heat content o f gas entropy, S). compressor discharge (/a2) can be calculated from t h e t h e r m o dynamic properties of any refrigerant. The theoretical KW per ton value is found from: Kwlton [ ( h , - hJ1 (hi - h,)] X 3.517 The term 3.517converts the units of enthalpy (Btu per Ib) to KW per ton by: (12,000 Btu per ton-hr) X ( ~ ~ / 3 4Btu) 1 3 = 3.517 Fig. 5 i s a plot ofthe results of this calculation for various Refrigerant 11 suction and condensing temperatures. Since R-11is the most effi-
To produce the chart Shawn in 'Ihble 1, the equation shown in the sidebar is used to solve for LMTD. Refrigerant temperatures relate to LMTD as follows:
LMTD
where
ana.
(GTD
- LTDV
GTD LTD
ture difference This is pictured in Fig. 3. The lesser t e m p e r a t u r e difference (LTD) is sometimes referred to as the 'approach" temperature. With infinite heat transfer surface, this value would approach zero. The water-to-refrigerant heat transfer efficiency is now defined. We can calculate real numbers
Heatmg/Piping/Air Conditioning July 1983
3
NORTI 1 CAROI.INA STATE UNIVERSITY
Chapter 1-19
EF9 iE9 - q a 1 i L I 9 - 4 r
-1
NC Departmentof Commerce
Division
cient refrigerant in common use, Fig, 5 shows the lowest theoretical cycle KW per ton values we can expect to see. Drive train The third category, drive train efficiency, involves all of the energy conversions between the incoming power wiring and the rotating compressor shaft. Fig. 6 shows a representation o f the various elements and their power losses. Motor starters generally lose very little power. Resistance heating of the wiring and contactors is minimal. Total losses are well under 1 percent of the input electrical power. Solid state devices are sometimes part of the drive train. Solid state reduced voltage starters pass essentially the complete wave form in the run mode. Therefore, very little loss occurs. Total losses are about the same as mechanical starters. Solid state frequency inverters
2
W
1.6 24 4.8
44 44 44
95
95
40.25
3 8 . 4
36.61 100.20 102.04
3.0 6.0
Condensingtemperature
Theoretiul.
No
113 11 114 12 22 0.405 0.463 0.671 0.492 0.507
OW
Two
0.451 0.431 0.624 0.458 0.472
7F 0.472 0.453
Refrigerant economuer economizer economucrs Subcooling --0.466 0.444 0.644 0.472 0.487
0.644
0.477 0.491
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UMVERSlTY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 1-20
NC Deoaitment of Commerce
T h e search for chiller efficiency
Coolq
rys!rm
losses
and sezls
Eearlngs
mission efficiency usually ranges between 95 and 97 percent. O&n, the compressor shaft bearing m d seal losses are covered in the b ~ mission efficiency. Present day technology can pro. duce a drive train efficiency as high as 95 percent. The other end o f this range could be as low as 85 percent, depending on the configuration and the selection &components. Future technological improvementa are unlikely to improve significantly the highest efficiency that is achievable today. Instead, primary effort is focused on using the configurations and components t h a t reach the highest overall efficiency. Compressor The final energy converter is the compressor itself. The conversion process involves the basic dynamics d turbomachinery. The ability d a compressor to make this conversion eficiently embraces complex a binations d technology and experience. NASA, for example, haa cond u c t e d extensive s t u d i e s on compressor performance. Ita work indicates a maximum state-d-theart efficiency dabout 86 percent for centrifugal compressors that operate a t compression ration d3.5 to 1. Multistate compressors, for thia tot a l pressure ratio, can achieve 88 percent efficiency. Neither d these values, haarwer, includes any rystem loeeee. The chiller system lames absorb power from the compressor by transporting gas and liquid through the cycle. llansporation losses include the energy needed to m& refrigerant f r o m one place to another. Further, system lasses due to imperfect flow patterns and spurious heat transfer and mixing must be acknawledged. W e n together, the miscellaneous loseee amount to between 1 and 2 percent d compressor input 1 . It is a relatively constant loss a t all loads. Compressors rarely operate a t their maximum efficiency point at design air conditioning conditions. Thus, the actual observed compressor efficiency will fall several points short ofthe calculated sweet
Chapter 1-21
Energy
NC Department of Commerce
Dwision
spot"va1uee. According to the ASHRAE Handbook, 1979 Equipment, Chapter 12, the adiabatic efficiency of centrifugal compressors generally varies from 62 to 83 percent. NASA studies forecast an eventual theoretical maximum compressor efficiency between 90 and 92 percent for our pressure range. It doesn't tell us how to achieve this or when it will occur, if ever. Summary The following simple equation accounta for the total chiller system KW per ton value: K W per ton = (theoretical ise n t r o p i c K W p e r t o n Value) X ( l / d r i v e t r a i n efficiency) X I/compreseor efficiency) ARI Standard 550-77specifies 44 and 95 F a s the leaving chilled and condenser water temperatures for rating purposes. A minimum KW per ton value can be calculated by using this developed data as follows: Step 1-Assuming a surface-tocapacity ratio d 10 sq ft per ton d refrigeration, the saturated suction and condensing temperaturee are 38.48 F and 100.2 F . Step 2-At these saturated refrigerant conditions, the isentropic K W p e r ton value is 0.4925. A double economizer (three-stage compressor) would reduce this by 7 percent to 0.458 KW per ton. Step 3-A direct drive hermetic chiller could demonstrate the highest drive train efficiency of 95 percent. Step 4-A multistage compressor could show a 'sweet spot" efficiency d about 88 percent, lesa 2 percent for transporation and labyrinth seal
IOSSeS.
S t e p 5-KW
= 0.561.
per ton
Obviously, we do not see KW per ton values this low quoted in catalogs. Only an extraordinary combination of machine components could be put together to achieve this efficiency. However, this gives some indication of the theoretical potential for efficient performance. Further, we now have a way to measure Q the future's latent capability.
Heating/Piping/Air Conditioning July 1983
Chapter 1-22
Chapter 2
MAINTENANCE
E parr-re\ I L S SGPgy
NC Departmentof Cornmerca
Division
"'3
MAINTENANCE
//
NOTES
*'
IMPROVINGCHILLER PERFORMANCE!{), Some of you may be the proud owners of .60 KW/torl,chille$s, but the majority of you have the .85 to.90 KW/ton machL9. Si ce 7 % most chillers operate in excess of 30 years, there will be a lot 0
I\
Chapter 2-1
Division
NOTES Generally, each manufacturer has a sample log sheet in the startup instructions. You can obtain a sample from their nearest office.
A handy item to include on your log sheet is a list of normal
readings for comparison purposes. These readings can be taken off the startup log on the chiller. This will give the technician who is recording the log a reference point to know when something may be going wrong or if he should recalibrate the measurement devices. It is very important to use calibrated thermometers and pressure gauges. One of the most reliable ways to take water pressure drops is to use a single pressure gauge on a manifold as shown in Figure 2-2. Since the same gauge is used for both readings, the calibration of the gauge is not as important, so long as it is functional and repeatable.
Energy
NC Department of Co"erce
TRANE DATE LOG
Division
UNIT #
PLANT
3
NORTH CAROLMA S A T E UMVERSlTY WITH THE NOmH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 2-3
L I 5-5
NC Department of Commerce
Fig. 2-2
PRESSURE
DISCHARGE
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WlTH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 2-4
Energy
NC Department of Commerce
Division
NOTES CONDENSER MAINTENANCE The cost of cleaning a chiller condenser depends a great deal on how well the water treatment is maintained. In many areas, dirt can be a major contributor to fouling condensers and in some cases silicate sand is a major contributor to the problem. When dirt is a contributor to the annual cost of cleaning condensers, it is also causing wasted energy. A bypass filter may be the answer. A bypass filter will remove solids from your condenser water system. A bypass filter can be automated to back flush dirt out of the system. Most tower manufacturers will provide these as an option. It will be worth checking into if dirt is part of your chiller maintenance problem. The chiller is such an integral and important part of your operation that it requires good periodic maintenance, both preventive and predictive. Sometimes it is difficult to get technicians to think of themselves as preventive maintenance people rather than a s service technicians who repair things after they break. Reliable efficient chiller opera tion requires preventive and predictive maintenance. Any discussion of increasing the efficiency of or decreasing the energy usage of a chiller must start with a properly performing machine. You cannot optimize a system that is sick (see References 2-1,2-2, and 2-31,
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UMVERSlTY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
'
Chapter 2-5
Energy
N c Departmentof commerce
A i r Condrfrorrry,Hairry & Re/rycrmloi
Division
14
r-
11,1989
riding d "impingement" and " u r i t . r i o p " we r i l lnot diwusl it bere.) &de and f o a l 4 SCALE u s &Me. white. ultlike coating 011 the h u t cruder
rurtaca.It c o ouinly dim. p n i c InAtwiaL La., uleium urbOM.1.. and Pb0lph.t.. d
magnesium ult~. FOULING u tb ununul.tion ofwli& otbrr thanomlo. It QP ba d i r t udt or u n d r"th.. i t . Q c O " i 0 n ~ A n d " a gmirmr. i.s.. dpo,,fu~@. rad butaria. b f i c " Fmtb u nu u y mrc.lQlRQiop It J.0 can attack tb mod in cooling
towam.
me*
upper p . r t d tbc pH d . me W i o i t y numbadtbe w . b rc lates .Iluliw (b.u) m i n e d to a point whore " I sin the water precipitate out and farm d on dm much m 40%. the equipment. What C . U I I d e ? Wa know that at a d i n level of l " a(CaCO,). at a given M e u u d by opmpouod. tempomtun d alkalinity. d e ~minamla u l d ulwm the cooling will form due to water evmpomwater that brcoma boluble tion. thy prripit.t.oucdth rdution For exynplr, u the d k d b t y at a h i n " n t m t e levels, number m a m a , tba C&O,'a tempatrtum. .IrdPH lolubility drauwr.and the =aTbtmoltcomUKm&f~ tar lorer itl ability to hold the m i ~ m lb ulcillm a r b o ~ w prorant amount. W h e n t h e ccaco3. TbL mianl. in e** amount of CaCO, e x c w d ~i t s 0 0 1 ' s -tar mppiy. is mhtod to u t w t i o n point. d e will rrdt Lbr hudnmd r.tcr (the .mount with or without rater beatat ulcium d o r myncrium ment. It is dm imparrnt b under. mine& prarnt). We mad this hardness as a n d that, if alkalinity b m a CaCO, por milligram por liter roo low. it incnvcrthc c h u m for (m(/L).or purr p r million (ppm). wrmion. Wa mud maintain a depotding on rho u doing the happy medium.
ing wataT in or t b bnt trudu rurf.or, t hilldgatiag mor, Dede aod/ahhll#. Aa little Y a 0.1-in" gd d c i u m &MU On* h . t fer surface a n rrLsa tho b u t
OX-
chmgrr.
Ueing. Mat m c a n t t Q
kiu mad ppm; laboratmy testing i s uaually mgL. A proper water rule-pmvention program can work only when the budncv lave1 nrmi~ within a prwcribed mop.Tbe range will depend on tempemtw. p R the amount of wale-fornag minerals. Tempcratura and pH can cunderobly deet ruL for. mation on heat e x b . w equip
ment. We n l b t e rater pH t o it. 'ahlinity" r h n talking .bout b..tmeat. The alkalinity d W L d 1 . r and mar CMlbd-thr
F e r
FOULING u Mrrumulation d
mlid material, other than d e . that deemmer the efficiency and/or life span of hest rejection quipment. Tbe mort common foulant. M rilf u n d , corrosion byproductr, and biological micmorgmirmr. BidoqLil fouling of tower water iscommon in 111 putr ofthe wuntry. It d t l trom growth of lower fOrmr ofplant life algae. fun@. and bcLcria. A tower water rys. tem is an i d 4 u e a for powth of th.w o r p l h 6 .
Ref, 2-1
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY
Energy
NC Department oCCommerce
All rater h u diU0lv.d solids. Cooling torerr and evaporative eondenrcrr use water M the omling media by evaporation. Olrly pure water Y O is evaporated off, leaving behind the TDS. All water solutions hold a spccfic amount of diruolved solids before they precipitate out of solution. and rtvL to foul and .cnle the sys tem.
Division
NOTES
Stick t o basics
areas
T h e cor.
m i o n proeers, for example. m u s t be interfered with or slowed down with an inhibitor that deals dimctly with either the anode or uthode. Then treat for rule. Check t i & to -ine the water'r hudnes~. then maintain an alkalinity level that will not scale the system. or eat it away from too low of M alkalinity. Then troat for fouling. Tbir i s done by using a chemical diaperunt and maintaining the TDS Ievel in the c o o h g rater sump. Remember, TDS ia dl the imsurities or soli& diaaolved in the wa-
ter.
We aood to maintain a e m i n pH and temperature range, depending on the d i ~ ~ l .nd v da w pendad soli& in the water. To do this, we nod to take into aumunt the quality of water makeup and the pH. Know what you have to work with, and get a water treat. ment company that believes in educating itr Eultomers. I " m e n d that you obtain the following booka and make them put of your pemnal library. The Noln, Water H o d b o o k . M&w Hill, 1979 Drew Princip k 8 of ~ndwbrolWokr Treatment. H."oada McEntyn & MumuL lac., 1981; urd solrrtionr b Boiler h Cooling Water R o b lema. The F.irmont b, IM., 1986.
atatrhNlpmion.pmcW &om brom nttlMon motd surLac Tadirpaunt rlro ia .wetting ylrrt; it IMkOa tho r a m "rottr"by ducing d a c e tomion. 7&h hop tho puticloa in the kiL rator flow, to bo mmovod Ihm the w m through blow. dmrn (blood) or filtration. The blood ia r c t i v a t d by totrl dic
d v o d solids.
cOacenb.tion cy&
JUIw topwrkcrr*:nr.
Candwtivity u a quantitative ex. n d m aqcuour rolution'r dw Wtbs ~ I W O M ddholvod dids. COC i s the ratio of the makeup to the point at which we umt to maintain TDS in the moliagtm.r sump. We maintainthu b e l by activating the bleed. bt'r find the COC by using a TDS motor. Cbiago. for eumple. uy W e Michigan water, otuch h u a TDS reading of between 100 and 150 ppm. If *re maintain a TDS reading of 450 ppm in the 4 - r -tar mmp. mad a 150 ppm rndingi n tho nul.uprater. m d d b v o a COC of 3.
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 2-7
Cn I--icd-# auap
- - w g
NC Department of Commerce
NOTES
WINTER INSPECTION
Pressure test for leaks. Repair leaks Detailed inspection of purge system and thorough cleaning of purge compressor, purge oil separator, purge drum, and purge condensing coil. Change purge oil as required. Check condition of contacts for wear, pitting, etc. Check and calibratesafety controls. Meg compressor motor and oil pump motor. Record readings. Check dash-pot oil in main starter, tighten all starter terminals and check contacts for wear. Check overloads. Calibrate safety controls.
Ref. 2-2
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSlTY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 2-8
Division
What Is Eddy C u m n t Tuba A ~ . l y . l ~ ? A n0ndestruct)Vs method of tssting heat exchangetuber InCentrifugal and & sorption chNkm.Over a periodof time veriousoperating condltlonscan cause damage and wtmequentfailure o f these tubesthroughwear,vibratkn,erosion and amosion. If undetected, the damage CM lead to wrkrw breakdowm Involving not only the t u b , but boarings, motor windings, etc. Bemwe of these inherent rbk there k addlnlte needto know as muchabout tube QondltloM BI possiblein order to propdy pkn your preventive maintenance.
What Type o f Tube Defects Can Eddy Current Tube Anatpi8 Oetoct?
lnrlck Munetor Pfttlng CIUud by Emion and/or Cor" of tho M e r SI& Surtoco Du.to Acldlc Water. StrouConooion Cnck Causod by8 ComMmUonof TukStrou and a Cormah Envlronmont. Fatlour Cncklng Cauwd by T u b Aexlng o r V l h t b n Duo to 1mpmp.r 0P.nting Condltlons. Fnur Cracks cluwd by Wator Froulna In tho TLk..
HOW Wlll Eddy Cumnt Tuba AMS w o You MoImJ? Since the EddyCumnt tube analysis is P d O m 3 d byquaHfbd technicians, the analysiiscan detect hazardous conditions beforethey becomo critical and cause failure. This procedurecan reduce repair costs and virtually eliminate downtime due lo tube failures.
Tho analysis permitstubes to be removed from service or replacedbefore a costly fWjOf failurecan m u r . A failure which could indve complete replacement of refrigerant or tho Pbsorbent sabtions. not to mention the d k.rings and motor windlgr.
Brady Tmne Services Eddy Current tube analysisis a sophistic nondestructive testingtechnique which should only be performed by a qualified technician. The Trane comp.nY has the latest stateoftheart equipment and mom importantly, a full time staff of qualified technicians who can properly interpretthe test results.Tram's Eddy Current technicians can detect tube problems, measuretheir severity and determine their cause. Equippedwith thii accurate information Srady Tram Sewices wili work with you I o det"inowh.1 course of action is best forywrbuilding.
For proper preventive maintenanceof Centrifugal and Absorption units, we recommendthat the tubes be tested a minimumof every three to five @am.
Where severe problems exist in a unit.
be required for proper preventive
Occasionally. maintenancechecks may reveal indications of tube problems, in which case an immedliafefesi shoulb be
8ChOdUl.d.
Ref. 2-3
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 2-9
Chapter 3
Division
NOTES Lets assume, for this discussion, that on May 15th the load is 100 tons, or 50 percent of the system design. Since, as mentioned earlier, the normal design system Delta T (AT) is 100 F, then the unit operating at 450 F discharge water temperature would have a return water temperature of 50 F. In this situation the chiller could operate at 500 F discharge and . 5 percent. 55O F return. The energy savings would be approximately 7 This method of operation may not be available to many users for a variety of reasons. One of the most prevalent reasons given by physical plant personnel is that the facility requires 450 F water all of the time because one or more areas in the facility cannot maintain temperature of humidity control with a higher discharge water temperature. This, unfortunately, is a common problem. The most undersized piece of equipment drives the discharge temperature of the chiller plant. This most likely is an area with a high internal load or a room that is being used for a purpose other than it was originally intended. In some severe cases, the load can be as small as 5 percent of the total building load, and the chiller plant operates for extended periods of time with little or no load in cool months.
A possible solution to this problem is the introduction of an
auxiliary chiller for this load, or retrofitting the area with a large air handler to better match the load.
If the load is year-round, i! small reciprocating chiller for light load conditions might be part of the solution.
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY WlTH THE NOFTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 3-2
L: L:
Division
E v-q%I
NC Department of Commerce
NOTES
AUTOMATION
Most chillers are designed with discharge temperature control which does not lend itself to temperature reset. The use of DDC controls is required for discharge temperature control. Many chilled water systems are now operated by DDC control systems. The use of discharge temperature reset should be investigated for these systems.
OPERATING K W
Assuming now that you have maintained your machine, that it is clean, and that it is operating reliably and properly, we can analyze reducing the energy usage of your chiller plant. The chart, CHILLER OPERATION ANALYSIS, (Reference 3-11 will be used in developing a typical chiller optimization analysis. This information can be used to provide payback information for
Chapter 3-3
Division
NC Department of Commerce
NOTES
Next, determine what the annual hours of operation per year, are from minimum capacity to maximum capacity. A sample of typical annual usage curves follows. Analyzing the load characteristics of your plant will allow you to determine which of the curves best represents the operating condition of your chiller facility. The curve in Figure 3-1 demonstrates a chiller plant which seldom operates a full load. The chiller is oversized for the connected load or the chiller plant has redundant chiller capacity. This is the curve which offers the potential for the greatest savings with chiller optimization or, in other terms, discharge water temperature reset. Select the curve that most closely simulates your operation: FIGURE 3-1. This curve represents the percentage of time a chiller operates at a given capacity per year when the chiller is lightly loaded or oversized for the load. The curve is used to estimate ton-hours of operation. It si used in developing energy saving analysis information. FIGURE 3-2. This curve illustrates the percentage of time per year a chiller operates at a given capacity when the load is moderate and the chiller is adequately sized. FIGURE 3-3. This curve illustrates the percentage of time per year a chiller operates at a given load when the chiller is heavily loaded and is close to the minimum size necessary to handle the load. The use of these curves will provide valuable insight into how much savings may be available through chiller optimization. Use the CHILLER OPERATION ANALYSIS chart to calculate the annual KWH for each of your chillers.
Energy
NC Department of Commw
Division
I8
16
8 I 8 W
a
z W
I2 8 I- lo
0
Q
1 4
z W
8
6
2
0
Figure 3-1
Figure 3-2
8 Iz W
0
6 a
20
4S
60
80
1 . 9
Figure 3-3
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 3-5
C
Mini" Capacity
%
C
Maximum Capacity
%
Total
Months
January February March
Operating Hrs/Month
T O n Hou S AxCxD
KW/Ton
KW/Mon
Hrs
Hrs
ExF
April
May June July August September October November December TOTAL AVERAGE
- - - - 35
chiller Load Distribution Curve A, B, C - Select the load distribution curve that most closely matches your load profile.
A
(y) + ( y ) + 5 c3) . 1 D
.1D
? l J
rill
! i @iT
:Jz
B. PL . 1 0 ( ? ) + 3 5
c. PL=: 25
e+)
( F ) + 5 t + ) + . l r 3
+ 35
( y ) + (y) +
.5
1 3
8
3 7
Energy
Nc Department of commerce
Division
Reference 3-2.
PL KW/Ton x
Solve for your KW/Ton for the curve you select. Use chart Number 4 for
a typical curve. The actual curve for your chiller can be obtained from the
Chapter 3-7
Enerav "-8
NC Department of CMmorca
DNlsion
HZ
INRUSH UVA
% & : Y E
on Pump
0.37
0.37
DE*'GN
230 410
SUPPLY V-PH-HZ
SEALED KVA
KVA
- Kilo volt-amps
220/240-350
380/440-3-50
200/240-3-80
o'*l
0.81
522
5.22
220 480
575
*u)/400-380
550/800-560
NOTES: 1. Average power consumed by auxllieries is included in the values ahown in the Selsction Example tables. 2. Control circuit ratings provide for 32OOMP controls ESPll optiom com&reasornne o p e n t o n g r g e unit, two 1CR relays (15-VA each). a i d one 2. PR-1. P R I and 3 relays. The purge opyatm only when non-
ITEM
carcm*
oYn4d.r
ERWT
U R I P A M LOAD)
all applications follow this exact curve. P a r t - W pedomanca for specific applkatipn & i s may bedeterminedfrom a canputenzed W o n .
o
% OESION CAPACITY
r5
To determine specific full-load and part-load machine performance you must obtain a computerized selection from your local Carrier sales office.
Where: A = chiller power consumption/evaporator load at 100% load point. B = chiller power consumption/evaporator load at 75% load point. C = chiller power consumption/evaporator load' at 50% load mint. D = chille; power consumption/evaporator load at 25% load point. (AIwater conditions as defined by ARI Standard 550).
Figure 3-5
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UhWERSlTY -WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 3-8
C I
G
KW/Mon
Hrs 40
I
Hrs
0
AxCxD
January
40
25
25
3
8 0 5 4 0
561
100
100
561
I
AVERAGE
200
5,000
I
(F)+SC+)+.1D
A = Chiller power consumption/evaporator load at 100%.
chiller b d Distribution Curve A, B, C -Select the load distribution curve that most closely matches your load profile.
A
PartILoadPdomance(PLP)=.05 ( ? ) + 3 5
B. PL = . 1 0 ( ? ) + 3 5 ( ? ) + 5 ( ? ) + . 1 D
C.
PL = 25
(?) + 35 (y) +. 5
e+)
+ .1D
(Min % x Min Hrs + Max % x Max Hrs) / tIrsper month = Avg Cap
Energy
NC Depertmentof Commerce
Dwisum
NOTES
In many cases with older chillers, it is difficult to determine the KW per ton at various operating capacities. This is particularly true when there has been a motor failure and the replacement motor is not a direct replacement. In fact, it would be quite unlikely that the KW would be the same. In these cases it may be possible to determine the KW/ton from information available in the operating log.
The formula for calculating the KW/ton is:
KW/ton = operating amps/1000 x voltage x 1.732/ton x % operating ( lacity KW/ton = 100 x 460/1000 x 1.732/200 x .5 KW/ton = .7958
Chapter 3-10
Division
CHILL=
NC Department of Commerce
NOTES
THE MAXIMUM CHILLER OPERATING TEMPERATURE
A chiller efficiency can be increased by reducing the differences
between the inlet condenser water and the outlet chiller water temperature. There are minimum limits to this differential. Each chiller is different and you should consult the manufacturer on your particular piece of equipment. The following graph shows minimum condenser water temperatures for a Carrier chiller with one-,two-, three-, and four-pass condensers.
Chapter 3-11
Eneigy
NC Department of Commerce
Division
NOTES
MINIMUM CHILLED WATER TEMPERATURE
In most cases the discharge temperature from your chiller is mandated by the most undersized piece of equipment in your facility. A typical example of this is a hospital. Many operating rooms were designed for 720 F with four to eight air changes. Now the requirements are 680 F with ten to fifteen air changes. This is a dramatic increase in outdoor air as well as indoor load. Seldom has this condition been addressed by replacing the air handling unit. Usually the discharge temperature of the chiller is lowered to attempt to increase the air handler capacity. Since the operating KW is affected directly by the chiller discharge water temperature, it may be to your benefit to change out the piece of equipment that requires a lower operating temperature with a properly sized unit design for a higher inlet water temperature. Generally, the first objection to increased chiller discharge water temperature is a loss in dehumidifying capability. The average water temperature in the cooling coil does not change drama tically if the chilled water supply temperature changes based on load conditions. That is, if the load goes down, the entering water temperature goes up. Note the following example.
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UMVEFSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 3-12
3
EXAMPLE
NOTES
COIL A
~
COIL B
4000 75.0 / 66.8 56.0 / 55.3 144,590 82,570 43.0 / 55.0 24.0 6.5 39.9
500.0
COIL c
4000 75.0 / 66.8 59.1 / 58.4 109,870 69,083 49.0 / 58.2 24.0 6.5 39.2 500.0 0.52
CFM
EDB / EWB LDB / LWB TH SH EWT / LWT
4000 80.00 / 70.2 59.5 / 58.7 155,561 88,872 43.0 / 56.0 24.0 3.3 6.7 500.0 0.58
GPM
wv
WPD FV APD
0.58
Coils A, B, and C are the same coils. These three examples are for the same coil a t varying inlet air temperatures and entering water tempera tu res.
In COIL A, the entering dry bulb (EDB) is 800 F and the entering water temperature (EWT) is 430 F. The work it will perform is
155,561 /BTUH total cooling.
In COIL B, the EDB is 750 F and the EWT is 430 F. The work it
will perform is 144,590.
In COIL C, the EBD is 750 F and the EWT is 490 F. The work it
will perform is 109,870. Reference 1-7 is a psychometric chart which shows the work required at the same conditions. The chart shows that the coil at 490 F EWT will provide adequate cooling to satisfy the load at Point B.
NORTI+ CAROLINA STATE UNlVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 3-13
Division
NOTES
Since the machine is operating under low load conditions, a major percentage of the time, the chiller has the capacity at 5 percent to 80 percent of its rated capacity to carry the load 98 percent of the time. It will also dehumidify as well as the coil under the conditions A. Note the leaving wet bulb temperature - in COIL A, 58.70 F, in COIL C, 58.40 F.
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WlTH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 3-14
'3
3
L
Figure 3-8
N O M CAROLINA S A T E UNIVERSITY WITH THE NORTH CAROLJNA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 3-15
Energy
NC Department of Commerce
Division
NOTES
Since the chilled water circulating rate of the chiller is constant, the amount of water circulated exceeds the load requirements 98 percent of the time. The load BTU = gpm circulated times the temperature rise across the air conditioning coils or the press load times the constant 500.
Is it possible to increase the discharge chilled water temperature or reduce the entering condenser water temperature? We will discuss the condenser water reset during the discussion of water towers (see Figure 3-7 and 3-9).
NORTH CAROLrNA STATE UNlVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 3-16
e rnQrgy
Dvision
NC Department of Commerce
3
OPERATING CONDITIONS
The next thing to consider is chiller cycling. In multiple chiller systems it is logical to operate the most efficient chiller as the lead chiller. In chiller plants with multiple chillers of various capacities, a careful analysis of the daily load conditions and what impacts that load is necessary. In order to adequately use multiple chiller strategies, it is necessary to be able to service all parts of your plant load with any and all chillers. We will discuss this subject under variable chilled water flow system. The most efficient unit is usually the newest chiller; however. a thorough analysis of all of your chillers is necessary to properly address varying load conditions. Most chiller manufacturers will assist you with this information. (Refer to Figure 1-10 for part load KW informa tion.) This graph shows the relationship between percent of capacity and KW. You will see that this chiller has a lower KWlton at 50 percent than a t 30 percent or 100 percent and that it is most efficient between 40 and 80. For this reason it is not unusual to find two chillers in a system running with the capacity limiter set at 80 percent in both chillers. A thorough understanding of the performance characteristics of all of the chillers in your plant is necessary to properly plan an energy reduction strategy. Reference 1-3 is a reference from a 1977 Trane manual. It shows the range of KW/ton for a compressor, a condenser and an evaporator. The KW/ton runs from a low of .65 KW/ton to a high of .78KW/ton a t full capacity.
NOTES
Chapter 3-17
Division
NC Department of Commerce
This graph shows the relationship between the entering condenser water temperature and the KW per ton required to operate the chiller at a particular capacity. The efficiency of the chiller is increased by reducing the entering condenser water temperature.
Performance data
TYPICAL MINIMUM ENTERING CONDENSER WATER TEMPERATURE
63
-. 1 7
lb
62
Y 3
I-
.u
W
a
a
a a W a .
J c
W W
61
-. 1 6
60
t a
W
t 3
a W
v)
2
W
: : u
z a
W
W
59
Q H B
0
s
z
W
t
2
a
W
58
-, ' 1 4
57
20
30
4 0
50
60
70
80
90
100
NOTE:Curveisbased~waterasthecoolerfluid. Lowtemperaturebrine applications result in a slightly lower minimum entering condenser water 1.mpenture c u m
Figure 3-9
NORTH CAROIJNA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 3-18
Energy
NC Department of Commerce
Division
NOTES Table 3-10 shows evaporator correction factors. Note that at 44O F leaving water temperature and 950 F adjusted leaving condenser temperature it requires 1015 KW to develop 1331 tons or .7625 KW/ton. At 500 F E.L.W.T., 950 F C.L.W.T. it requires 1015 KW to develop 1497 tons or .678 KW/ton or 11 percent less power per ton for a 50 F change in evaporator leaving water temperature. The 1977 catalogue was used for this comparison since the CVHE chillers are all selected by computer now and on graphs have been published for these new chillers. Most new chillers have solid-state control systems. Some of these allow the user to optimize the operation.
.,
jemperature based on the return water deviation from a set point such as 550 F. It may also allow multiple machines to operate on a parallel basis at an equal percent of capacity (see Figure 3-11). If such a strategy is desirable and available, it is necessary to operate the machines in such a manner that they d o not set a demand peak when starting an additional chiller. The operating chiller or chillers should cut back in capacity while the new chiller is brought on line. Many digital control systems have this capability. It is necessary to be sure that any control strategy is compatible with your chiller capability and controls. Some early digital control systems and control strategies did things that were damaging to a chiller such as duty cycling chillers. Duty cycle is several stop-starts per hour or per day. Most chillers cannot by cycled more than once per hour, and it is best not to cycle them more than once per day. Many chillers have cycle countersthat are helpful to catch short cycling when attended.
NORTH CAROIJNA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 3-19
Cnrrru
Division
NC Department of Commerce
:=iyy
95
IO0
1:
b
0
I273
40
1015
I240
1015 11 1302 1015
I201
1015
13
TONS
II
1327
u z
12
42
1015
1015 1287
1015
Refrigerant (Ib5 R-11) Oil Charge (Gallona) Auxlllary Water Required (GPM) Evaporator Insulation Area (Square Feet) Shipping Weight (Ibs) Optratlng Welght (Iba) Maximum Rlgging Weight (Ibr) Shell i 3 Water Box Volume (Gallons) Evaporator Condenaor
2200
10
360
43,650
49,100
23.Ooo
n e
259
TONS
KW IMPELLER
NOTE All dlmsnslonl and physical mformalion applies only I o tlm cunpo. nenl combinallon ldenMud on this page
IMCELLER 1433
ioia
lM?ELLER
I509
972
I497
101 I 08
I429
1011
01
TONS KW IMPELLER
.m
Chapter 3-20
CF""
ergy
NC Department of C o m m a
+*--
S "
Chilled Watei
Temperature
Sensor
Table 3-11
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY
Chapter 3-21
Division
S??6fSra_r 5 2 IYI
NC Department of Commerce
Vi
NOTES
Some older machines have failed because of a fluttering water flow switch. It is unwise to save a thousand dollars in energy use and spend five thousand on chiller repairs. Every motor has a minimum no-load KW requirement. Every chiller has a minimum amp draw. Occasionally because of motor selection, the minimum amp draw of the chiller may be at 30 percent to 50 percent of its full load amps. Chiller manufacturers have several motor selections for each size compressor and occasionally this matchup is not good. Sometimes the problem occurs when a motor is replaced after a failure, on an emergency basis. This generally happens because you dont have any choice. The chiller goes down on a Friday or a weekend and the replacement is on an emergency basis. Production is screaming.
It is changed out on an emergency basis and you cannot get a rewind done in time or the motor is beyond repair. Whatever the reason, the eventual outcome can be a 400 HP motor in a 250-ton machine. The minimum KW may exceed 50 percent of the maximum design KW of the unit. This obviously will impact any energy reduction strategy.
Low-end surge will also impact the general operation of a chiller. The unit becomes unbalanced because there is not enough gas being compressed by the impeller and the gas starts to rush back through the impeller. The result is call low-end surge. This results in a practical minimum capacity for a chiller.
NORTI 1 CAROI.INA STAW UNlVWSlTY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 3-22
NOTES
There is a minimum condenser water temperature and a maximum chilled water temperature at which your chiller will operate. It is necessary that the condenser water temperature in order to start your chiller, and the chiller must be in this condition long enough for the refrigerant in the machine to migrate to the proper location before starting.
Also, the lower the machine operating capacity is, the more
critical these operating conditions become. One way to overcome this low operating condition is with free cooling.
FREE COOLING One of the other alternatives being used is free cooling. Free cooling in this context means using the cold water from the water tower to cool refrigerant directly and to use the thermal properties and the design of the chiller to cool the chilled water without the use of the centrifugal compressor. There are several other ways to produce free cooling with the use of cold water from a cooling tower when there is a need for cooling and the outdoor temperature is low enough, generally below 50 F (see Figures 1-21 through 1-26).
NORTH CAROLlNA STATE UMVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 3-23
Division
CHILLERS AND COOLING TOWERS WORKSHOP A Manual for Conservation NC Departmentof Commerce
climate with cold winters. It is possible to cool the building exclusively with Free Cooling three to four months out of the year! Free Cooling payback can easily be less than a year. Free Cooling is completely factory installed and requires no more floor space or piping than the standard CenTraVac chiller (unlike the plate frame heat exchanger). Free Cooling operation is based on the principle that refrigerant migrates to the area of lowest temperature. When condenser water is available at temperatures lower than the required leaving chilled water temperature (typically 50 to 55 F), the System Control Panel starts the Free Cooling cycle automatically. Up to 45 percent of nominal chiller capacity is available without operating the compressor. When the Free Cooling cycle can no longer provide sufficient capacity to meet cooling requirements, mechanical cooling is restarted automatically by the System Control Panel. For example, a building with a high internal cooling load is located in a
I
I I
JI
I
Rdrigorant Flow
Figure 1-21. This illustration shows the flow of refrigerant in a Trane chiller during the free cooling cycle. The use of low condenser water temperature allows the unit to condense refrigerant gases at a low pressure. At the same time the higher chilled water temperature boils the refrigerant at this low pressure. In this operation the condenser water must be colder than the chilled water.
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UMVERSITY - WlTH TI-IE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 3-24
er Energy
Diision
NC D e p a m " of Commerce
Figure 1-22. Free cooling performance to determine the required condenser water temperature for a given chilled water temperature and capacity enter the graph at the desired leaving evaporator liquid temperature. Follow the line vertically to the desired percent base capacity line. To determine the required condenser water temperature follow a line parallel to the applicable solid or broken line to the desired temperature information.
Example: The required condenser water temperature for 48F leaving chilled water temperature at 25% capacity is 41F for a standard condenser.
5OOF
Fig.
'os
----
- NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 3-25
Division
Fig. 1-24
1-25
These figures demonstrate the differences in refrigerant fbws between the two methods of chiller operation.
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 3-26
Division
coding only
only
CVHE0144CE4DE
140 7iw 1515 MBh .72 K w K i
CVHEO144CE4DE-lDE 133 Tonr 140 Tom 2000 MBh .84 KwKon .80 KwKon CVHM16-XE-3DE-1 DE 147 Tom 160 Tons 2200 MBh Kw&m .77 KwKon CVHEOl8-2CE-2DE-1DE 161 Tom 180 Tonr 2400 MBh BO KwK' .75 KwKon CVHEO2O-1CE-1DE-1DE
140 Tons
53410
.a
53895
.76 K w K i
CVHMIBZCE-PDE
180 k n s 1627 M B h .69 KwKon
180 T w
34380
- ~m cooing ~ e r f o r n b u~ m p b
Frw coding T w Ent Cond. FAvg. Evrp. F w 4 8 43/52 45/56
49 54
57
63
72
81
90
63
71
60
w20
65
77
uslro
Fig. 1-26
NORTH CAROIJNA STATE UMVERSITY - MrITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 3-27
Chapter 4
Energy
NC Departmentof Commerce
Division
Chapter 4-1
I=narm.(cr Li 7
NC Department of Commerce
Division
NOTES
There are several major attributes of this system. The system allows for the use of two-way control valves, since the flow of water through the chiller can be constant and the flow through the building system can be variable. The operation of chillers can be automated since the system does not require the use of isolating valves to allow one or more chillers to be on- or off-line at a time. This reduces the requirement for automatic valves or for attended chiller startup. The system layout in Figure 4-1 shows the basic components of a primary-secondary loop system.
HkAI EXCHANGER
b
Figure 4-1
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 4-2
Division
NC Department of Commerce
3
An example of a typical application should provide a clearer understanding of the benefits of thissystem. For this example, let us consider the following: CHILLER Design capacity Minimum capacity GPM EWT LWT 250 tons 62.5 tons
NOTES
600
550 F 450 F
10 feet
AP
SYSTEM Design capacity Minimum capacity GPM EWT LWT
600
450 F 550 F
Ar
BHP
50 feet 9.95
The system is inwlled in a multi-level office buildin with tw air handlers on each floor. During normal operation, the chiller capacity will follow the load by controlling the discharge water temperature at 450 F. the chiller dedicated pump will provide 1200 GPM to the chiller at sufficient pressure to overcome the resistance of the evaporator and the piping to and from the main system. The system pump is sized for the design pressure of the distribution piping, heat exchangers, and control valves at the required GPM.
.
Chapter 4-3
Division
NOTES The use of a variable speed system pump can greatly reduce the operating KW. In our example, the design conditions are only met a few hours per year. The rest of the time less water flow is required to provide adequate cooling. The reduction in flow results in a reduced system pressure drop. The relationship is: Change in Flow = (Change in Resistance12
A reduction to 50 percent in flow will result in a reduction in
600 GPM x .5 = SR x (.5 x .5) 600 GPM x .5 = 50 ft x .25 300 GPM = 12.5 ft (See Table 4-1 on the following page for examples.)
The same reduction results in a dramatic lowering in motor brake horsepower.
A change in GPM results in a cubed effect on horsepower.
Change in GPM = (BHP)3 GPM x.50 = BHP x (.50 x .50 x .50) 600 x .50 = 9.95 x (.50 x .50 x .50) 300 = 9.95 x .125
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UMVERsITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSlON
Chapter 4-4
NC Depattment of Commerce
NOTES Since the flow of water will vary with the system head, the fluid flow laws still apply. The flow will more closely follow the pump curve since the static pressure is being maintained. The static pressure at the pump will still drop as the flow is reduced since the pressure required to move the water to the sensing point will also be reduced (see Figures 4-2 and 4-3). CHANGE OF SPEED (RPM)
EXAMPLES
~~
GPM
Directly
RPM = (2) (RPM) = (2) (GPM) RPM = (3) (RPM) = (3) (GPM) RPM = (2) (RPM) = (2)2 = (2) (2) = (4) Head RPM = (3) (RPM) = (3)2 = (3) (3) = (9) Head
1-
Directly
Dia. = (2) (Dia.) = (2) (GPM) Dia. = (3) (Dia.) = (3) (GPM) Dia.= (2) (Dia.) = (212 = (2) (2) = (4) Head Dia.= (3) (Dia.) = (3)2 = (3) (3) = (9)Head D i a s (2) (Dia.) = (a3 = (2) (2) (2) = (8)BHP Dia.= (3) (Dia.) = (313 = (3) (3) (3) = (27) BHP
HEAD
quare
BHP
cube
Double Triple
Table 4 1
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY
Division
NOTES
Since we are operating the system on a constant system pressure, the pressure at the outlet of the pump will decrease slightly and the GPM will drop because of the reduced load. Since the brake horsepower is a function of GPM, the brake horsepower required to pump the water is reduced whenever the rate drops off from 600 GPM. The control of the rate of flow in this arrangement is the control valve and the amount of water it allows to flow to the coil and back to the pump. Remember that the variable in this arrangement is the pump RPM. The brake horsepower for 600 GPM @ 50 ft Head is 9.95.The brake horsepower for 300 GPM at 38 is 4.5 BHP.
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 4-6
Energy
NC Department of Commerce
Division
VARIABLE V O L U M E SYSTEM with pump speed control and constant system pressure at remote system point
-B C -D D-E
A
E-F
A-B
B-C
Distribution pipe to last system load System load (air handler chilled water coil) Two-way control valve Return piping to pump at full load = 600 GPM
C-D
D-E
E.F
TOTAL
15APat60GPM 5.0 8 600 GPM 10 8 600 GPM 15 8 600 GPM 58 600 GPM 50 8 600 GPM
Chapter 4-7
Energy
NC Department of Commerca
Division
NOTES
Calculation for Reduced Flow: AP 8 300 GPM
A
- B 8 600 GPM = 15 ft
A-B
4 = y
15
15 X = 7
x = 3.75
(Iqo)
Pressures at Points:
600 GPM
A B
C D E F
50 ft 35 ft 30 ft 20 ft 5ft
Oft
Oft
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 4-8
Energy
Nc Depertment of Commercr,
Division
-l
MAX. DIA.: 8.W IMPELLER NO.: 105
Figure 4-2
A =
300 GPM
c =
Curve A-B represents a change in flow as a result of reduced GPM. The same curve will result if the RPM were reduced to pump an equal GPM.
- NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 4-9
Division
=: : w :
NC Department of Commerce
NOTES
There are a number of ways to control a variable volume system.
As we have just discussed, the use of a variable RPM and a constant
system pressure is one way. This method is workable. However, if it is necessary to keep a fixed head of pressure in a system to provide water to the top story of a multi-level building, this can become a problem if not understood and properly maintained. Another method is to use Multiple System Pumps. The same system could use two 300 GPM pumps rated at 70 ft head piped in parallel and controlled by a differential pressure switch in the system at point F-A. If the pressure at point B decreases to X then pump #2 is energized, and if the pressure rises to Y then #2 is de-energized.
X = The pressure required to operate the system in excess of 50 %. Y = The pressure the system will see at 100% flow and less than 50% load.
IO0
80
STATIC
PRESSURE
60
40
I N FEET
20
0
100
200
300
.
400
500
Figure 4-3
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNlVERSlTY
Chapter 4-10
NOTES
Differential pressure: Pump #1 should be on with system. Pump #2 should be on if system pressure is less than zero and less than 25 psi - off when system pressure is greater than 60 psi. A bypass at the end of the loop is required for the primarysecondary loop system for at least two reasons:
1. A centrifugal pump can be damaged when there is no flow.
The bypass will guarantee flow at all times. 2. Loads a t all points on the supply header will have cold water when they are turned on, as long as flow is continuous in the mains.
One bypass can be a fixed orifice such as a section of 1-inch pipe
or can be a back press regulating valve (relief valve). In a primary-secondary system, we can look at the systems as separate entities. Control of the primary system or load system and the secondary or production system is independent. The operation of the primary system controls the use and flow of water for the building loads. The secondary system controls the operation of the chillers and cooling towers. In many central systems there is more than one chiller and there can be several chiIIers of varying capacities. In the primary-secondary loop system, the starting and stopping of chillers as well as the control of the water temperature is open to a variety of scenarios. Chillers are usually operated by controlling the discharge water temperature. As discussed earlier, they can also be operated by resetting to "off" the return water temperature variation when using DDC control system. That allows the discharge temperature to vary with the load.
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNlVERslTY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 4-11
Division
JI
NC Department of Commerce
C H I L L E R #1
D
C
BYPASS
Pl
0PRIMARY LOOP
SECONDARY LOOP
I I
SYSTEM BY PASS
Figure 4-6 Chiller #1 - 250 tons Chiller #2 - 250 tons P1= 600 GPM
M = 600 GPM
CPl = 600 GPM C M = 600 GPM P1 and M are constant speed pumps controlled by DPC-I.
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNlvERsrrY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 4-12
P I;
NC Department of Commerce
CCL,bi i4:Li;\c Y -J r
Division
3
In Figure 4-6, the return water temperature(RWT1 sensor will react to increases or decreases in return water temperature. If the return water temperature goes down, the amount of chiller capacity has exceeded the load and the chiller capacity can be decreased. If the return water temperature goes up, the load has exceeded the chiller capacity and the chiller capacity should be increased. Suppose that the system is operating with chiller #1 and pump P1 on. It is mid-morning. The chiller is operating at 50 percent capacity, the return water temperature is 550 F and the supply water temperature is 500 F. A-B 600GPM B-C 600GPM A-D zeroGPM RWT = 550 F
NOTES
SWT = 500 F
The chiller is operating a t 50 percent capacity and the system pump is providing 100 percent of its capacity to the building. The load increases in the building. This causes several things to happen. Flow A-B remains constant. The return water temperature increases above 550 F. The chiller capacity increases due to the change in return water temperature. The chiller capacity will continue to increase until the return water temperature comes back to 550 F. The load continues to increase and the chiller percent of capacity also increases until the machine reaches 100 percent of capacity. RWT = 550 F SWT = 450 F
NORTH CAROLlNA STATE UMVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 4-13
Division
NOTES
When this occurs, it may be necessary to start a second chiller. If the DDC control determines that it is allowable, then CP2 starts. Starting CM causes several things to happen. CP2 will pump 600 GPM. The flows are now:
Chapter 4-14
Energy
NC Departmentof Commerce
Division
SYSTEMS
The basic arrangement of pumps and chillers is also shown in the 1980 ASHRAE Systems Handbook. Notice how Figure 3 from Chapter 18, shown here as Figure 2, parallels Figure 1. In fact, they are identical, except for the chiller pump location. Unfortunately, the handbook does not go on to explain how the system works. The only explanation provided is that this scheme allows variable flow at the terminals and constant flow through the chillers, simultaneously.
VARIABLE FLOW CIRCUIT
------
FIGURE 2
HOW IT WORKS
,
II
DISTRIBUTION LOOP
FIGURE 1
Technically, this arrangement provides far more capabilities. (Before exploring some of these applications; we need to discover why the decoupler scheme perfprms as it does. Figure 1 can be divided into its two halves, as shown by Figures 3 and 7.Figure 3 displays production functions. The purpose of each pump
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UMVERsITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 4-15
is to move water from point A to point E, by way of the chiller. The amount of power consumed in this process is: K W ( p p ) = gpm x DP x 1.8763/EFF(p) x EFF(m) where: gpm is the pump flow rate in gallons per minute
It
ROW SENSORS
BYPASS
FIGURE 4
PR0WCTY)NLOOP
TS1
I'
FIGURE 3
PRODUCTION The production (secondary) can take several forms. Figure 3 displays multiple chillers with dedicated pumps. Each chiller operates in combination with its own pump as a single unit. Temperature control of each chiller is separate from all others. The only function of the temperature control system is to provide a constant temperature of chilled water at the chiller exit. It does not provide any sequencing or other integrating functions. One objection to this arrangement might be the possibility of either a pump or chiller outage causing the loss of one complete segment of system capacity. Gang pumping avoids thisshortcoming, but presents aproblem in providing increments of chiller flow and capacity. The arrangement shown in Figure 4, while more complex, solves the prob!em. Chiller flow and resulting system capacity increments are added or subtracted by the action of both pumps and valves Coordination of the pumps, valves and chillers is needed to match flows properly. This is certainly not terribly difficult to accomplish, but it adds it measure of complexity to the controls.
The production side (secondary) can consist of any number of individual chillers and pumps. They can be of any size or type. However, all chillers must be selected to produce their design capacityat the same entering and leaving chilled water temperatures, since all chillers use common return and supply water mains. Commonly, chillers are located in a single central plant or machine room. Occasionally, chillers are remote or separated from each other. This, too, can be accommodated by the basic decoupler concept. Figure 5 shows one method that has proven popular in retrofitting "incremental" campuses to central plants without forfeiting existing chillers as presently locatedand piped. With thisscheme,valveVl isopen if the local chillers are secured and the central plant furnishes capacity. Thisvalve is closed if the building is to operate on local chillers only. The thermostatically operated valve V2 meters water as it leaves the building secondary pumping system. This prevents the return of this water until it has reached an appropriate chilled water return ( C H W R ) temperature. Consequently, the building will appear to the distribution system as a large two-way valve controlled load. The "bridge" piping between valves V1 and V2 decouples the constant flow building circuit and the variable flow distribution piping. In order to allow surplus local chiller capacity to be absorbed by the central system, the building's existing pumping arrangement requires revision. Figure 6 shows a possible method. A new chiller pump P2 must overcome the differen!ial pressure between the supply and return mains in the central plant through the building supply main connection. This constant flow connection provides surplus water (not used by the building) to the central SuPPlY main. Valve v1 must open when the chillerr are active and be closed when they are not.
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 4-16
Energy
Nc Department of cofnmm
Division
WLDmt LOADS
FIGURE 7
loo
I
FER O F
mu)
20
tm
200
PLMP FLOW
300
GPM
U x ) m
FIGURE 8
EXISTING CHILLERS
IK I IX
NEW
1134N30NE:
FIGURE 6
DISTRIBUTION The distribution (primary) portion of the decoupler system is the hydraulic equivalent of a shut-off VAV system. As shown in Figure 7, water flows only when individual terminal control permits it. If all terminals are closed, no water will flow. Some form of relief is necessary to prevent the main disiribuiion pump from attempting to operate at zero flow. This is the Purpose of the pressure actuated relief valve V1
Pumping power varies as system flow changes. Various methods of pumpvolume control are used to match pumping capacity with system demand. Operation along a constant speed pump curve, Figure 8, is possible. The rising pressure characteristic of most pumps can be counterproductive, however. Not only does the pump pressure increase, but the differential pressure between the suppJy and return mains increases dramatically. In simple terms, this can be demonstrated by applying the pressure loss characteristics of pipes at various flow rates, Figure 9. For example, at 50 percent flow (load) the pressure losses decrease by 10.4 feet from P to A causing the differential at A-A' to increase by 20.8 feet. In aaaiiion, the pump curve snows another 24 ieei pressure rise for a total change of nearly 45 feet. In large distribution systems this variation can produce
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - WITH THE NORTH CAROLINA ENERGY DIVISION
Chapter 4-17
Energy
NC Department d Cwnmerco
PREFERENTIAL LOADING
Division
difficult control problems at the terminals. Consequently, system pressure control is an important aspect of system design.
,? --I
A
BYPASS
PUMP
T
FIGURE 9
Pump staging is an effective and inexpensive way to reduce overpressurization at partial load conditions. In the previous example, at 50 percent system demand one pump could have been turned off. The remaining pump, at 100 percent of its design flow produces 58 feet of dynamic head rather than 82 feet. The total pressure rise at A-A', then, will be 10.4 feet, thus limiting the differential increase at A-A' to 20.8 feet. A more effective (and expensive) method is pump speed control. On large systems this technique is cost effective because it greatly lowers the distribution pumping costs. A critical distribution point, A-A' for example, is chosen as the sensor location. Pump speed is varied in response to changes in this pressure differential. This technique allows the pump dynamic pressure, which is proportional to the square of its speed, to meet the reduction in system losses, which also vary approximately with the square of the water flow rate. Again, we see the similarity to variable speed fans applied to VAV systems. As in that application, this method of pump pressure control approaches the classic flow vs power relationship . . . power is proportional to the cube of flow. More precisely:
Any number of good reasons for preferential chiller loading can be cited. For example, a system of multiple chillers could involve machines of different type. make, age or eff iciency. Newer or more efficient units might be base loaded to take advantage 6f their life-cycle cost effectiveness. Or, it might be desirable to preferentially load absorption chillers during times of peak electrical demand. This system easily accommodates complex energy management strategies by allowing any chiller to be started and operated in any desired sequence. But, once a chiller is in operation, its load is based on the system delta-T and its individual flow rate. In effect, all operating units are in parallel, operating at identical "percent design capacity" values. At first look, this appears inalterable. However, there is a rather simple way to rearrange the system so that a specific chiller can be preferentially loaded, even as it operates in parallel with others. Figure 10 shows such an arrangement. This scheme might be used to preferentially load a heat recovery machine. In fact, the heat recovery unit could be a small reciprocating chiller that only heats. Cooling becomes a useful byproduct instead of the main event.
'
C -
BYPUS
AIR FLOW
CHWR
4
CHWS
( m )= ( m )
Clearly, the potential for pumping power reduction is substantial if, at 50 percent flow, the theoretical power is only one eighth of the full flow power. It is important to recognize that the distribution ( pr imary) c i:c u it operates complete Iy i nde pendent Iy from the production (secondary) circuits. They are hydraulically decoupled by the bypass line common to both circuits. Flow in this line is unrestricted and is free to move in either direction. Thus, direction of flow is purely an indicator of t,he relationship between flow supply and demand.
KWpl
FLOWpl
FIGURE 10
?he key ?o understanding this arrangement requires an analysis of available chilled water return temperatures under various load conditions. Notice that, hydraulically, chiller (H) obtains returning water before any mixing occurs at "tee" (B). Thus, the highest return chilled water temperature in the system is available to this chiller.
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Chapter 4-18
One of the characteristics of the variable flow primary (distribution) system is the inverse return temperature relationship to load. Normally, we .expect a decrease in CHWR temperature as system loads decrease. This is due to mixing at three-way terminal control valves or the action of face and bypass air damper control. However, with variable flow, the CHYR temperature rises as loads decrease. This can be seen by imagining a very low load and flow rate condition at a cooling coil. Eventually. the CHWR temperature approaches the temperature of the air entering and leaving the coil. Clearly, this temperature is higher than the design CHWR temperature for that coil. Conceivably, CHWR temperature control precision can be effected by this arrangement. If the heat recovery chiller is loaded on the basis of heating demand rather than chilled water supply (CHWS) temperature, the leaving chilled water temperature floats. If the chiller is large compared to other operating machines, total CHWS temperature control is not maintained. The arrangement shown as Figure 11 overcomes this problem by feeding chiller (H) supply water back into the CHWR main. Thus, chiller (H) does not help providesystem flow. Instead, it becomesadevice that lowers system CHWR temperature.
W K L L R PLANT A
BVPASSA
tnws
I
UNlVERSm
1
evpIss
CHILLER PUNT
flGURE 12
With this scheme, an entire plant can standby for another, provided the mains are large enough. A great amount of system redundance is available. Further, plants can be operated to minimize many aspects of operating costs, such as pumping power, chiller power, operating personnel, etc. Campuses that are expanding with limited in place distribution systems can use this doubleended arrangement. In this way, older facilities can be served by newer and more efficient plants without tearing out perfectly adequate underground piping. BEST DESIGN CONCEPT I s the decoupled primarylsecondary system really bulletproof? Probablynot. But. it represents the most useful and versatile multiple chiller scheme that our industry has applied to date. A number of perplexing design and operating problems seem to have found solutions. Operating experience with these systems has been extremely successful. An infinite variety of design errors can be made. This concept does not prevent errors. But, it overcomes a large number of the more common ones without burdening such a facility with additional owning and operating costs.
FIGURE 11
DOUBLE-ENDED PLANTS Large campus-type projects often involve more than one central chiller facility The decoupler system is uniquely versatile in its ability to be applied in this configuration Figure 12 shows a campus involving two distantly separated central chiller plants Each plant employs its own decoupler bypass line Water flows into the CHWS main from either or both ends
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Chapter 4-19
This topic has been the subject of six previous Engineers Newsletters: 1974 Vol. 3. No. 1 Control Systems That Save Energy 1976 Vol. 5. No. 2 Chilled Water Storage 1977 Vol. 6. No. 1 Large Chillers: Series or Parallel Flow 1977 Vol. 6, No. 9 A Need for Variable Flow Chilled Water Systems 1979 Vol. 8, No. 2 Control of a Reciprocating Compressor Water Chiller 1980 Vol. 9, No. 1 Why Must Chillers Be Constant Flow Devices? With all of this attention, you might think that we have analyzed every aspect and exhausted the subject. But, we haven't. In fact, considerable controversy still exists in the system design community about the "right way" to design chilled water systems. Apparently, there are many "right ways." They depend on several variables, or system parameters: 1. The system's mission. 2. The type of equipment; i.e. chillers, terminals, pumps, control valves, etc. 3. System load profiles and time durations. New Controls Technology Chiller control hardware continues to improve. Many of the limitations of proportional electric and pneumatic controllers are being set aside by advances in microelectronics. New generations of microprocessor-based chiller controls are quite capable of handling some previously unaddressed aspects of variable flow. Industry jargon refers to the new controllers as providing "PID" response. "PID" stands for "proportional + integral + derivative." In simple terms, this means that the controller operates on the basis of sensing the deviation between chiller water temperature and the set point in terms of:
to give an output signal that is proportional to the deviation. 2. The duration of the deviation - to modify the output signa! to account for adeviat!on that does not respond lo a proportional correction (time integral).
1 . The amount of deviation
the output signal in response to the rate of deviation change (first derivati,ve). Controllers with PID capability are properly applied as supply chilled water temperature controllers when the following conditions exist: 1. Capacity control is fully modulated. 2. Chilled water flow variations fall within the minimum and maximum flow rates permitted by the chiller manufacturer. 3. Flow variations are small and gradual.
Modulation vs Stepped Output PID-type controllers cannot, however, cope with the physical consequences of "stepped capacity" output. For example, a reciprocating chiller produces a stepped reaction. As each step of capacity is engaged, the AT produced by the chiller changes substantially and rapidly. This, of course, changes the amount (and, likely, thedirection) of the deviation fromsetp0int.A PIDcontrollersees thisasa need for drastic action; i.e. removal of the last step of capacity that was just added. Consequently, the controller is never satisfied and is always in search of a new equilibrium position: one which it can never find. The control strategy for "stepped capacity" controllers is totally different from PID controllers. Basically, the controller is "educated" with regard to ihe expected AT for each step of additional capacity. Under this scenario, the controller takes action only when the calculated result puts the temperature within the setpoint target. The latest generation of sophisticated reciprocating chiller controllers employ similar strategies to this. Earlier, proportional controllers were simply located in the return chilled water stream.
Variable Flow and Heat Transfer Excessively low chilled water flow rates cause poor heat transfer between the water and the evaporator tube surfaces Poor heat transfer causes the refrigerant temperature to be lower than normal, at a constant supply chilled water temperature More compressor power is then needed to produce a given refrigeration effect Further the refrigerant temperature can fall so far as to endanger the evaporator to freezing and consequent structural damage Therefore, low flows must surely be avoided On the other hand, high tube velocities above 11 feet per second are traditionally considered to be poor practice Any impurities (including air) in high velocity water can erode the tube metal ana reduce i t s life Consequently manufacturers place empirical high velocity limits on evaporator tubes generally I C the neighborhood of 11 feet per second
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As long as water tube velocities are within these two extremes, chiller performance is not greatly compromised. Many designers then conclude that variationswithin the high and low limits are okay. But, they are not. A variety of conditions can produce operating conditions that are quite unacceptable.
Abrupt Flow Variations An example of rapid flow changes within the high and low limits will underscore the problem. Suppose a chiller, Figure 1, is producing its full rated capacity at the following conditions: 400 tons 960 gpm, 52.0 to 42.0 F 9.6 feeffsecond evaporator tube velocity.
CONTROLLER
unacceptable method of operation. No control system can be expected to manage a physical circumstance such as this. Therefore, large or abrupt flow rate changes must be avoided, even if the temperature control system i,s capable.of handling variable flow.
CONTROLLER
FIGURE 2
FIGURE 1
The system allows variable flow through the application of two-way control valves on the numerous air handlers. An energy management system executes a scheduling strategy by operating specific air handlers according to a time clock. At 5:OO p.m., two large air handlers. . . representing 40 percent of the system flow . . are shut down. The two-way valves close instantly, reducing the system flow to 576 gpm. The flow is still well within the allowable chiller range, Figure 2. An immediate consequence of this event is an instantaneous decrease in the supply chilled water temperature. Until the capacity control mechanisms adjust. the chiller will continue to produce full capacity. But the reduced flows increase the temperature drop from 10 F (52-42) to 16 F (52-36). At the new supply temperature of 36 F, it is quite likely that the chiller safety controls will shut the machine down. If they don't, a freeze up is possible. In any event, we see the potential for a nuisance trip-out and possibly a disaster. This represents an
Modest Flow Variations Even small or slow flow changes can be upsetting to the system, especially if controllers with only proportional action are used. Such a controller operates on the principle that each specific deviation from setpoint produces a certain signal (air pressure, voltage, etc.). Table 1 shows such an arrangement. Clearly, a deviation of 2 F is necessary to position the capacity control mechanism half way in its physical travel. A change of 1 F will move the mechanism through 25 percent of its total travel.
The actual "sensitivity" setting (outputhnput) isset as high as possible without inducing "hunting." When this adjustment is made, the chiller flow rate is constant at a high value. Decreases in the flow rate have the effect of increasing sensitivity. This occurs because the lower flow rate causes a larger system "AT" at a given chiller capacity. In other words, a given change in capacity control will create a larger reaction in system temperature deviation. This characteristic of proportional controllers makes them generally unsuitable for variable flow applications, even if the variations occur gradually.
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PRODUCTION LOOP
I1
Controllers that emulate PID characteristics often can overcome much of this disadvantage. Given adequate time, the integrating function compensates for a long-term deviation. Therefore, the "sensitivity" can be set very low and the time integrating feature is allowed to make the necessary corrections. Whilewe have the capabilityforapplying chillers to restricted types of variable flow systems, the general rule is to avoid them. This is particularly appropriate for multiple chiller applications where the flow changes can be both abrupt and large. No controller can handle this assignment. A Solution That Works Consequently, the only known and proven solution is a hydraulically "decoupled" primarylsecondary pumping system. Figure 3 shows this basic arrangement. In concept, the production of chilled water is hydraulically decoupled from its distribution by an open bypass line between supply (production) water flow and demand (distribution). The direction and amount of bypass line flow becomes an indicator of system behavior. Flow in the reverse direction signals a call for more production (pumps and chillers) whileanexcessflow in the forward direction can call for less production (fewer pumplchiller combinations).
-----FLOW SENSORS
DISTRIBUTION
II
Ij
,I
DlSTRlBUllON LOOP 11
FIGURE 3
Chillers are thereby isolated from any system flow variations, regardless of their size or abruptness.
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The capacity of an air handler can be increased in some cases with the addition of cooling coil surface. Sometimes air handlers have room for an additional coil and others do not allow for the addition of coil surface. It may be necessary to replace or modify an air handler or a cooling system to allow chiller optimization.
If it is determined that an additional coil can be installed, care should be taken to be sure the fan and motor have the additional capacity necessary to overcome the additional pressure drop of the cooling coil. The fans on most air handlers have additional capacity. Motors are generally selected more closely and will probably require replacement.
There are a number of consulting engineers specializing in industrial air conditioning design who can assist you with design, if needed.
FILTRATION
One of the major causes for reduced air conditioning capacity is dirty cooling coils. The dirt passes through or around filters and attaches to the heating and cooling coils, thus reducing the thermal capacity of the coils. Typically throw-away or blanket-type filters have very little effect on keeping the coils clean. The result is a gradual reduction of coil efficiency. Thicker coils and tighter fin spacing increase the problem. it is virtuaiiy impossibie to adequateiy clean a cooling coil eight rows thick and ten or more fins per inch.
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NOTES
Ellter housings with tight gaskets and pleated filters will dramatically improve the ability of the AHU to maintain its capacity (see Figure 3-1).
It has been estimated that at least 90 percent of the air handlers in North Carolina bypass more than 25 percent of the air around the filters when they are dirty. Most existing filter systems should be reworked.
Pleated filters of 2-inch size will dramatically improve the performance of air handlers.
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CHILL= AND
w\
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II
RUGGED CONSTRUCTION
The Air Seal Housing is factory assembled in a complete "one piece" unit. constructed Of 16 gauge galvanized steel
Urelhane loam gasketing (twopound density) is installed on "inside of doors" When doors close, gasket seals against the edge 01 filters. eliminating by-pass
Perimeter 01 doors is gasketed with resiliant rubber gasketing, assuring a complete seal when doors are closed.
CENTER ON 24"
These members add overall rigidity to the housing and sews
Corner gussets are standard on front 01 Air Seal Housings. adding extra stability.
n
UUILK
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Chapter 6
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NOTES
2 '
There are three general types of cooling towers - forced draft, induced draft, and hyperbolic.
A forced draft tower uses a fan, usually a squirrel cage centrifugal type, to force air through the tower and the wet decking to evaporate
8 '
the water. The induced draft tower uses a fan, usually a propeller type to draw air through the tower. The hyperbolic tower is used on very large cooling loads. Generally these towers are used for cooling water for power plants. For the purpose of this discussion, we will not consider this type of tower. The forced draft-type towers use a centrifugal-type wheel and are used for low tonnage u p to about 500 tons. These towers are usually less expensive initially than induced draft towers. The required motor horsepower is generally greater than the induced draft type. Some designs for forced draft towers generate a very large amount of turbulence in the water sumps which may cause difficulty in controlling the tower water level. This has caused excessive use of chemicals and water loss for some applications, especially those with multiple towers. This is not a problem for all forced draft towers. It is more prevalent on towers with small sumps and surface areas.
.
Induced draft towers use less motor horsepower per ton and can
be used for much larger tonnages. The induced draft tower uses propeller-type fans which are more efficient at low static pressures.
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NOTES Towers are manufactured from several types of materials. The first towers were built of wood. Many of these towers are still being installed. They provide some advantages not available in other materials. They can be built in place and this is important when accessibility is difficult. They can also perform in very large tonnage in the thousands of tons per cell. These towers do have some liabilities, however. They are difficult to keep tight. They have numerous joints in the water basin and require caulking or other sealing methods which add to the maintenance cost. They are generally physically much larger than towers of other materials. Galvanized metal towers were the next type of towers entering the marketplace. Galvanized metal towers are the most common type in use today. These towers use various fills - materials used to allow the thorough mingling of water and air. Two of these fill materials are wood, as mentioned before, and PVC. The PVC is formed into honeycomb patterns which provide good air passages and large surface areas. The major maintenance in these towers is at the water line in the sump which is constantly wetted and dried causing oxidation. With the development of plastics came the third type
polyethylene. These towers are available in forced and induced draft design and range in capacity u p to 250 tons per cell. The advantage of a polyethylene tower is durability. The tower material is impervious to corrosion and does not degenerate. These towers will provide good service for a long period of time - perhaps as much as 40 years. The fill is PVC which seems to last as long or longer than wood. These towers are more expensive than galvanized towers in initial cost. There seems to be a change in thinking on galvanized towers, and the use of the polyethylene towers is becoming more common. They have been used successfully for some years in harsh environments such as paper manufacturing and chemical plants.
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NOTES The newest material to be used in cooling towers is preformed fiberglass. Towers made of fiberglass panels with PVC fill are manufactured up to 1000 tons. These towers were introduced in this country about ten years ago but they have been used outside of this country since the mid-1950s. They have had a major impact on the tower market. They have gained rapid acceptance. Since these towers are usually built in place, some problems have occurred from assembly practices by inexperienced personnel. These problems have been declining as the numbers of towers have increased. There are several other tower designs which have had some limited acceptance but these are the major types available. Each of these offers special advantages which may impact your selection process. It is important to consider the cost of ownership of any tower. Since the initial cost is low in comparison to the annual operating and maintenance cost, these costs should be carefully analyzed before selecting a new cooling tower.
Energy use in a cooling tower is a function of the type of tower forced draft versus induced draft - and the internal design of the air flow through the tower. The brake horsepower required by a cooling tower should be one of the items considered in the selection of a cooling tower. Cooling towers are designed to work with and take advantage of the existing wet bulb temperature. The wet bulb temperature is the temperature above which water wili evaporate in an air stream. If we wet our skin, the temperature we feel is the wet bulb temperature. Figure 6-1 is a representation of a psychometric chart.
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NOTES
At 95O F dry bulb, the temperature a thermometer will read, and 50 percent relative humidity, the wet bulb temperature is 78O F. The wet bulb temperature in North Carolina vanes dramatically
f r o m east to west. The wet bulb design for Charlotte is 780 F, for Raleigh it is 790 F, for Plymouth it is 800 F, and for Wilmington it is
820 F.
Cooling towers are usually rated at 95O F DB and 780 F WB by the manufacturer. The graph (Figure 6-2) shows the effect of the change in wet bulb on cooling tower capacity. There is nearly a 30 percent difference between a tower's capacity at 950 F/780 F and at 950 F/820 F. This is a dramatic decrease in a tower's capacity and may explain the high head pressure experienced in hot humid summer weather.
A cooling tower rated a 100 tons at 950 DB, 780 WB, 950 EWT, 85O DB would have a 70-ton capacity at 820 WB or would only drop the temperature of the leaving water to 88O F. It is therefore very important to be careful in selecting a replacement cooling tower. The operating condenser pressure of your chiller greatly affects its operating cost. Keep in mind that any increase in wet bulb temperature above the design condition of the tower will result in an equal increase in the discharge water temperature from the tower. It will also mean an increase in operating KW and electrical cost.
Chapter 6-4
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BULLETIN 01-303-10
cool500 GPM of water from 95'F to 85.F with 78.F wet bulb. 1 . Establish Range Range=water in at 95.F minus water off at 85'F=lO*F 2 . Establish tower ton load 500 GPM X 500 (constant) X 10' Range Load= = 167 tons 15,000 BTUl Hr./Ton 3. Select Appropriate Range Chart (1O'F) 4. Enter chart using Wet Bulb temperature (78'F) and proceed horizontally to cold water temperature line (85'F). From this point proceed vertically to correction factor (1.0). 5. Multiply correction factor x tons previously calculated then refer to model selection tables in Bulletin At-303.
,go
L
- ...
. . . . . .
. . -
......
_-
Fig. 6-2
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY - IhrITH" E NOKTH CAROLINA ENERGY DMSION
Chapter 6-6
Energy
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NOTES This is the point at which your chiller will set a demand peak if you do not have some means of limiting the peak. A demand limiting system is a must in every air-conditioned facility that uses electricity for production. The application of demand-limiting equipment will not be covered in this seminar.
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Fig. 6-3
CONDENSER
.
1
CHILLED WATER
1
Chapter 6-9
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EQUALIZING LINE
V %
J-
CONDENSERS
Fig. 6-4
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Fig. 6-5
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Chapter 6-11
NOTES
The water treatment being used on your condenser water system will affect your chiller plant operating cost. Your chemical program should keep your chiller clean and corrosion-free, control algae growth and provide an acceptable level of cycles of concentration. A common idiom in the industry is that your water treatment is only as good as the person supervising the treatment. Here again, proper care and understanding are required. There have been towers with two inches of moss flourishing on the top of the fill in a tower with little to no air passing through the tower and masses of algae growing in the dark confines of towers. There is no question that competent maintenance is fundamental in conserving energy.
2 P.
@"
GYJ
TOWERBLEED
It is necessary to remove water from the condenser water system. This is called a bleed. The bleed rate is usually 10 percent of the makeup water rate. The purpose of a bleed is to control the cycles of concentration of solids in the tower water. A typical rate for the number of cycles is three to five. The number of cycles depends on the amount of desolved solids in the makeup water and the ability of your water treatment program to maintain these solids in suspension.
Solids will usually come out of suspension in heat exchangers, in condensers of chillers.
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Good water treatment is mandatory for efficient chiller operation and an automated chemical program is almost a necessity. An automated system will include a chemical pump, some type of conductivity sensor, or the use of a timer to cycle the pump on automatic or a continuous bleed. The type of system and the components of your system will depend on your experience and the recommendations of your water treatment chemical company. Whatever, the case, reliability is important.
NOTES
Chapter 6-13
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Chapter 7
COST OF OWNERSHIP
Energy
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COST OF OWNERSHIP
NOTES The major consideration for most new construction is first cost. There are only a few firms that make ease of maintenance, energy efficiency and cost of ownership a major part of the design function. In many cases, if not most, the facility maintenance department is not consulted or given a role in the design of new facilities. It is important that the maintenance department be aggressive early on in a new project. Your views must be made clear to the design f i r m responsible for the mechanical design. In many cases you will get what the engineer designed the last time unless you are aggressive. Since time is money, an engineering firm will use as much as is practical of their standard specification. they will also specify the same manufacturers they have been using. There is strong resistance to researching and analyzing new products that they are not familiar with. This is uncharted ground for a conservative-minded group. It
is to your benefit to make it clear to an engineering firm what your thoughts are regarding any mechanical standards you have
developed, the make or type of mechanical equipment you want in your facility and the level of efficiency you expect on equipment such as fans, boilers, chillers, cooling towers, air conditioning equipment, and many others. The maintenance department in a facility can make or break a company. In many companies the maintenance department is considered a major player in the generation of profits. However, in others it is a necessary evil. Frequently the maintenance of production equipment is the primary responsibility of the maintenance department. The care and maintenance of the facility is performed by contractors and service companies.
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NOTES In either case, the maintenance department is still responsible for the operation and cost of the facility maintenance.
A capable, well-administered maintenance department can be
the most valuable asset a company has. The down time of production equipment, the cost of operating a facility, the efficiency of maintenance, the cost of energy, the life cycle cost of mechanical equipment are all costs of doing business and are major factors in the cost of the product or service provided by a company.
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Chapter 7-2
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Fig. 7 1
Bibliography
Cen Tra Vac Controls. The Trane Company, December 1985, Form PL-RF-CTV-000TS-12-1285. Cen Tra Vac Liquid Chillers. The Trane Company, January 1988, PL-RF-CTV-000DS-1-983. Landman, William J. The Search for Chiller Efficiency. Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning, July 1983. Operating and Maintaining a Marella, James. Corrosion, Scale and Fouling Refrigerated Facility. Air Conditioning, Heating and Refrigeration News, Sept. 11, 1989. Packaged Hermetic Centrifugal Liquid Chiller D-1000 Series 50/60 Hz. Carrier Heating and Cooling, Sept. 1988, Form #19DK, DM-lPD, Form #17DK, DM-1PD. Trane Air Conditioning Centravac Chillers Two-Stage Centrifugal Liquid Chillers, 80 to 1630 Tons, August 1977. Trane Air Conditioning Psychometric Chart, 1960. Variable Flow Chilled Water Systems. Trane Air Conditioning Engineering Newsletter, June 1983, Volume 12, Number 5, and October 1983, Volume 12, Number 8. Winter Maintenance. Brady Trane Service Update, Fall 1984.
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