ICTSANDWOMENSEMPOWERMENT: SOMECASESTUDIESFROMINDIA

SUMANJAIN

AccordingtotheWorldBank[2004]themainkeyservicesfailpoorpeopleinaccess,quantity andquality.ThisnecessitatesasetofdevelopmenttargetsknownasMillenniumDevelopment Goals[MDG].Thesecallforhalvingoftheglobalpovertyandbroadimprovementsinhuman developmentby2015.TheMillenniumDeclarationadoptedbyUNin2000underscoredthe urgencyofensuringthatthebenefitsofnewtechnologies,especiallyInformationand CommunicationTechnologies[ICTs]aremadeavailabletoall.Oneresourcethatliberates peoplefrompovertyandempowersthemisknowledge.Itisalsonowwellunderstoodthatany attempttoimprovethequalityoflifeofpeopleindevelopingcountrieswouldbeincomplete withoutprogresstowardstheempowermentofwomen. InformationandCommunicationTechnologies[ICTs]areadiversesetoftechnologicaltoolsand resourcestocreate,disseminate,store,bringvalueadditionandmanageinformation.TheICT sectorconsistsofsegmentsasdiverseastelecommunications,televisionandradio broadcasting,computerhardware,softwareandservicesandelectronicmedia,forexample,the internetandelectronicmail. ICTsareemergingasapowerfultoolforgenderempowermentinadevelopingcountrylike India.TherehasbeenarapidgrowthintheICTsectorsincethelate1980sandtheuseofICT hasdramaticallyexpandedsincethe1990s.AccordingtotheWorldBank,teledensityinIndia hadreached3.8%ofthepopulationby2001.Thenumberofinternetaccountsisgrowingata rateof50%perannum.TheITESBPOsectoralonegrewat59%,andemploymenthadreached 106,000by2004[NASSCOM2004].TheITandITESsectorisprojectedtogrow18%inthenext fiveyearstobecomeanindustryofRs4.58lakhcroresby2011,accordingtoanIDCrelease. Butthereisastrongdigitaldivideinsociety.Accordingtothe2004reportbytheCiscoLearning Institutewomencompriseonly23%ofIndiasinternetusers.ThisgenderdigitaldivideinIndia ischaracterisedbylowlevelsofaccesstotechnologies.Poverty,lackofcomputerliteracyand languagebarriersareamongthefactorsimpedingaccesstoICTinfrastructure,especiallyin developingcountries. ThispaperlooksattheavenuescreatedbyICTenablednetworkingprocessesforwomens empowerment.Itdiscussesthemainchallengesandobstaclesfacedbywomen,suggests practicalstrategiestoaddressthosechallengesandgoesontosuggestwaystoimprovethe conditionsleadingtowomensempowerment.ThepaperalsoanalysesacasestudyfromIndia andexamineshowwomenspowerwithinhasbeenenhancedthroughtheiraccesstoand controlofInformationandCommunicationbyuseofICTs.

KNOWLEDGENETWORKINGANDEMPOWERMENT
Empowermentofwomeninthecontextofknowledgesocietiesentailsbuildinguptheabilities andskillsofwomentogaininsightintotheissuesaffectingthemandalsobuildinguptheir capacitytovoicetheirconcerns.Itentailsdevelopingthecapacitiesofwomentoovercome socialandinstitutionalbarriersandstrengtheningtheirparticipationintheeconomicand politicalprocessessoastoproduceanoverallimprovementintheirqualityoflife. Knowledgenetworkingcatalysestheprocessofwomensempowermentbyopeningupavenues forwomentofreelyarticulateandsharetheirexperiences,concernsandknowledge,creating thepossibilityoftheirfurtherenrichment.BytheuseofICTwomencanbroadenthescopeof theiractivitiesandaddressissuespreviouslybeyondtheircapacity.Thereisagrowingbodyof evidenceontheuseofICTtoempowerwomenallovertheworld.Forexample,theAfrican WomensNetworkoftheAssociationforProgressiveCommunications[APC]hasconducted trainingworkshopstosupportelectronicnetworkingamongwomensgroups.TheMultimedia CaravanprojectinSenegalprovidedruralwomenwiththeopportunitytodeveloptheirown ideasonhowICTcanbeusedtomeettheirdevelopmentneedsandgoals.InKenya,womenand menweaversweretrainedinusingtheinternettolearnnewweavingtechniquesandaccess morerealisticpricesfortheirproducts.InUganda,theUgandaMediaWomensAssociation establishedaradioprogrammeMamaFMwherewomencanactivelyparticipateandlearn aboutdevelopmentissuessuchas,amongothers,humanrights,children,governance,nutrition, health.TheUNDPtelecenterprojectinUkraineappliesICTstoagricultureandfarm managementtosupportwomenfarmers,whoidentifiedlackofinformationandnetworking toolsasthemajorobstaclestotheirbecomingsuccessfulentrepreneursinanewmarket economy. SinceIndiahasbeenusingICTfordevelopmentformorethantwodecades,therearemany goodpracticesfortheuseofICTsforwomensempowerment.IndiaShop,anecommerce website[2005]inTamilNadu,hasbeendesignedtosellproductsmadebyruralwomensco operativesandNGOs.TheDhanFoundation[2004]andSwayamKrishiSangam[2004]areusing ICTs,suchashandhelddevicesandsmartcards,toimprovemicrofinanceprojectstoempower poorwomen.TheSelfEmployedWomensAssociation[SEWA,2004]hasseveralICTprojects forwomen,includingcommunitylearningcenters,aschoolofScienceandTechnologyforself employedwomen,andtheTheliphoneproject,whichprovidesmobilephonestowomeninthe informalsector. 1 SelfhelpgroupsofruralwomeninAndhraPradesh,havebeensosuccessfulinmarketingtheir productsathomeandabroadthatthemajorMNCs[multinationalcorporations]wanttouse theirsellingskills.

1Theterminformalsectorisusedmainlywithreferencetodevelopingcountries.TheILOdefinesitasan unorganizedsectorinwhicheconomicactivitiestakeplaceoutsidetheframeworkofpublicandprivate sectorestablishments.Suchactivitiesarecharacterizedbysmallscaleofoperations,easeofentry, relianceonfamilylabourandlocalresources,labourintensivetechnology,lowcapitalendowmentsa highdegreeofcompetition,unregulatedmarket,unskilledworkforceandacquisitionofskillsoutsidethe formaleducationsystem.InIndiathissectorcutsacrosswelldefinedcraftsorindustryconglomerates likecottageandhouseholdindustries,khadiandvillageindustries,handlooms,handicrafts,coir,seri culture,etcsetupalloverthecountryinrural,semiurbanandurbanenvironments.

ACCESSTOINFORMATION
Accessisthecentralissuenecessaryforwomensempowerment.Womenhavetraditionally beenexcludedfromtheexternalinformationsphere,bothdeliberatelyandbecauseoffactors workingtotheirdisadvantagesuchaslackoffreedomofmovementorlowlevelsofeducation. ICTopensupadirectwindowforwomentotheoutsideworld.Informationflowstothem withoutanydistortionorcensoring.Thisleadstobroadeningofperspectives,greater understandingoftheircurrentsituationandthecausesofpovertyandtheinitiationof interactiveprocessesforinformationexchange. AccesstoICTsiscrucialiftheyaretobeameansforwomenseconomicempowerment.We needtoworktowardsuniversalaccess.Itisimportantnotonlytoestablishphysicalfacilities, suchascommunicationnetworksorcomputers,buttoensurethatthesefacilitiesareutilizedby theiruserstothegreatestpossibleextent.WomensaccesstoanduseofICTisconstrainednot onlybytechnologicalinfrastructure,butalsobysociallyconstructedgenderrolesandrelations .AccordingtoaUNESCOreportonGenderIssuesintheInformationSociety,thecapabilityof womentoeffectivelyuseinformationobtainedthroughICTisclearlydependentonmanysocial factors,includingliteracyandeducation,geographiclocation,mobilityandsocialclass. ICTcandeliverpotentiallyusefulinformation,suchasmarketpricesforwomeninsmalland microenterprises.Forexample,useofcellulartelephonesillustrateshowtechnologycanbe usedtobenefitwomenslives,bysavingtravellingtimebetweenthemarketandsuppliers,by allowingwomentocallforproductpricesandbyfacilitatingtheconstantjugglingofpaidand unpaidfamilyactivities.However,useofICTwillbelimitedinimpactwhereverwomenhave limitedornoaccesstoroadsortransport,creditandotherdevelopmentinputs.ICTsrequire thatusershavesomeskillsandoneshouldnotassumethatprovidingthefacilitiesmeansthat everyoneinthecommunitywillimmediatelyembracethetechnology.Twoimportantaspects needtobementioned.First,asEvaRathgeberclearlystated,thekeyissueisthatthe technologiesshouldbeadaptedtosuitwomenratherthanthatwomenshouldbeaskedtoadapt totechnology.Andsecondly,ICTtrainingisofutmostimportanceifwomenaretousethe technologyoftheirchoice.GainingtherequiredskillsfurtherempowerswomentouseICTin ordertoincreasetheiremploymentchoicesandcontributetocommunitydevelopment. Therefore,theprovisionofICTfacilitiesshouldbecomplementedwithadditionalservicesand training. IndevelopingcountrieslikeIndia,morethan90%ofwomenworkintheinformalsectorand alsoinruralareas.Thesewomenengageineconomicactivitiessuchashandicraftsandsewing orrollingcigarettes,weavingofbasketsandfabrics,workingincitiesasvendorsworking withoutanycontractsorbenefits.Thesearethewomenwhoneedanddeservepoverty alleviationprogrammesmorethananyother.ITwillexposethesewomentotelecommunication services,mediaandbroadcastservicesthatwillcreatemarketsfortheirproductsandservices. ThechallengewillbetoreachthesewomenandprovidethemwithICTtoolsthattheyfeelcan makeadifferenceintheirincomegenerationpotential.Forexample,thewellknownSelf EmployedWomensAssociation[SEWA]inIndiahasdoneextensiveworktoassistwomenin theinformalsectorandhasestablishedanICTprogrammeaimingtoincreaseefficiencyofrural microenterpriseactivities.

EMPOWERMENTTHROUGHEMPLOYMENT
ICThasplayedanimportantroleinchangingtheconceptofworkandworkplace.Newareasof employmentsuchasteleworking,i.e.workingfromadistance,arebecomingfeasiblewithnew technology.Thequestionneedstobeaskedwhetherwomenaregettingmoreopportunities. Undoubtedly,internationallyoutsourcedjobssuchasmedicaltranscriptionandsoftware serviceshaveopeneduptremendousworkopportunitiesforwomenindevelopingcountries likeIndia,ChinaandthePhilippines.Withanexpected500percentincreaseinIndiasICT servicesandbackofficework,involvingjobsforfourmillionpeopleandaccountingforseven percentofGDPby2008,womensemploymentinthissectorisexpectedtogrow.ICToffers womenflexibilityintimeandspaceandcanbeofparticularvaluetowomenwhofacesocial isolationindevelopingcountries.Asaresultofthetechnologies,ahighproportionofjobs outsourcedbybigfirmsaregoingtowomen.Theycan,therefore,workfromoutsidetheoffice oftenfromtheirownhomesandatanytime,therebyraisingtheirincomestobecomemore financiallyindependentandempowered. Thereisconsiderabledebateaboutwhichwomenbenefitfromthenewformofworkandabout theimplicationsofthetypeofworkwomendointhissector.TheInternationalLabour Organisation[ILO]WorldEmploymentReportfor2001observedthatpatternsofgender segregationarebeingreproducedintheinformationeconomywithwomenconcentratedin enduserlowerskilledICTjobsrelatedtowordprocessinganddataentryandmeninmore seniormanagerial,administrationanddesignofnetworks,operatingsystemsandsoftware. StudiesofcallcentersinDelhiandintheNewOkhlaIndustrialAuthority[NOIDA]demonstrate lackofopportunitiesfordevelopmentandpromotionandahighdegreeofburnoutamong women.Veryfewwomenareemployedattheprofessionallevelofbusinessprocess outsourcing[BPO].Flexitimingisatagreatcosttowomenthemselves,giventhefactthatthe divisionofworkatthehouseholdlevelremainsthesame.Duetothehighpremiumplacedon productivity,peopleinvestalltheirenergies,timeandemotionalneedsintheirjobs,sothat thereislittletofallbackonwhentheworkplacefailsthem.

EMPOWERMENTTHROUGHENTREPRENEURSHIP
Gothoskar[2000],inaninterviewwithwomenteleworkersinMumbai,gotresponsesranging fromwelcomingthefreedomtofulfillfamilycommitmentstodislikeofthelackofaccessto publicandsocialspacesandreinforcementoftheroleathome.Telecenterscansolvethese problemsbycombininghomeworkwithsocialspacesandorganization.Onewaytodothisisto movetoEntrepreneurshipontheinternet.TheInternetcanoffergreatassistanceto Entrepreneurshipbywomen.Itoffersdatabases,puttogetherbywomensgroups,fromwhich womencanfindrelevantlinks,connections,resourcesandinformationanddevelop partnerships,notjustfortheirservices,butalsoforfinancing,mentoringandbusinesscoaching. Itcanevenmitigatetheeffectoflackofaccesstocapital.Supportgroupscanbeformedthrough electronicbulletinboards.Thustheinternetitselfcanhelptoorganizeandbuildsolidaritywith andbetweenpeopleworkingfromhomeoffices.Itcanbreakdownisolation,aidjobrelated concertedaction,orjustincreaseinformation,opportunitiesandinteraction.Ruralwomenin developingcountriesmaybeabletoselltheirproductsdirectlywithoutgoingthrough middlemen. OneofthemostpowerfulapplicationsofICTinthedomainofknowledgenetworkingis electroniccommerce[Ecommerce].Ecommercerefersnotjusttosellingofproductsand servicesonlinebuttothepromotionofanewclassofICTsavvywomenentrepreneursinboth ruralandurbanareas.Ecommerceinitiativescanlinkproducersandtradersdirectlyto 4

marketsatnational,regionalandevengloballevels,allowingthemtorestructuretheir economicactivitiesandbypassmiddlemenandthemaledominatedandexploitativemarket structure. Significantlyanumberofnonprofitorganizationshavediversifiedtheirservicestoprovide supporttothisclassofentrepreneurialwomen.PEOPLinkisonesuchorganizationwhichhas beenhelpingwomencommunitiestraditionallyinvolvedwithhandicraftstoputtheirproducts onlineintheworldmarket.ItisbuildingupaglobalnetworkofTradingPartners[TPs]that,in turn,willprovideservicestoseveralcommunitybasedartisanproducergroups.Itequipsthe TPswithdigitalcamerasandtrainsthemtocaptureimagesandedittheminacompressed formatsuitablefortransmissionviatheinternet.Theimagesofcraftsareplacedonthe PEOPLinkwebpageandeffortsaremadetopromotethemtoretailandwholesalebuyersinthe industrializedcountries.InGujarat,India,womenproducersusetheDairyInformationSystem Kiosk[DISK]whichmanagesadatabaseofallmilkcattleandprovidesinformationabout veterinaryservicesandotherpracticalinformationaboutthedairysector.

CHALLENGESOFICTUSEFORWOMENSECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT
WomenfaceenormouschallengestouseICTfortheirowneconomicempowerment.Usingand benefittingfromICTrequireseducation,training,affordableaccesstothetechnology, informationrelevanttotheuserandagreatamountofsupport[tocreateanenabling environment].Accesstoaffordableservicesandavailabilityofinfrastructureiswithoutdoubta majorrequirementifICTsaretobeusedforwomenseconomicempowerment.Availabilityof electricity,transportandsecuritymayalsoinfluencetheuseofICT. Radioandtelevision,asthewidestformofcommunication,provideonewayofsolving informationdissemination.InadditiontobeingusedaseffectiveICTfordevelopment,radioand televisionshouldbeconsideredandusedasameansofeducatingthepopulationonthebenefits ofICTfordevelopment.RadioandTelevisionprogrammescanbedevelopedtoeducatewomen onvariousdevelopmentissues,includingthevarioususesofICT,thusincreasingawarenessand knowledgeofICTsuses.Whenpossible,suchprogrammesshouldbedevelopedandconducted bywomenandtheircontentshouldreflectagenderperspective. Evenwheninfrastructureisavailable,affordableaccessisaconcerninmostdeveloping countries.Universalaccesspoliciesaimatdevelopingsolutionsthatprovidecommunityaccess ataffordableprices.ExpansionofpublictelephoneandICTaccesspointsareexamplesofthese solutions.Telecenters,however,donotguaranteeaffordableaccessbecausemosttelecenters arerunasbusinessventuresthatneedtobesustainedandthereforechargeforservices accordingtotheircosts. Lackoflocalandcommunityrelatedcontentinlocallanguagescontinuestobeamajorbarrier inwomensuseofICTforeconomicempowerment.TomakeICTmoreusefulandmeaningful, particularlyforruralandpoorwomen,relevantinformationandtoolsneedtobeprovidedto addresswomensneedsanddemands.Multimediacanbedevelopedtoprovideinformation bothinspokenandwrittenlanguage.Thechallengeistodevelopcontentthatisrelevantand usefultocommunitiesintheirownlanguage.

PRACTICALSTRATEGIESFORWOMENSECONOMIC EMPOWERMENTTHROUGHICTUSE.
Understandingthechallengesallowsustoaddresstheproblemsbetteranddevisestrategies thatconsiderthecomplexdimensionofwomenslives.Oneofthestrategiesadoptedtoincrease accessofremoteareasandmarginalizedgroupstoICTisthedevelopmentofpublicaccess centers,suchaspublicphones,telecenters,libraries,informationcentersorcybercafes. Telecenterscanbepartofexistinginstitutionssuchashealthcenters,schoolsandcommunity centers.ThegrowthofcybercafesandkioskshasbeenrapidinIndia,especiallyinthesouthern stateswhereliteracyishigh.AsurveyineightIndiancitieshasshowedthatnonworking womenaccessthenet63%fromcybercafesand32%fromhome.Aknowledgecenterprojectof theM.S.SwaminathanResearchFoundationinIndiahasconnectedfourvillagesinPondicherry withpracticallocalinformationinTamil.Thishasprovedusefulinimprovingagricultural practicesandmarketingandaccesstomedicalfacilities. Toensurethatwomentakefulladvantageoftheseitisimportanttomakethevenue comfortableandsafe.Inmanycases,thelocationofandarrangementsaroundpublicaccess centersaredecidedwithoutkeepingtheconstraintsonwomeninmind,suchasinappropriate openingtimes[includingevenings],securityissuesandlackoftransport.Womensmultiple rolesandresponsibilitiesmayalsolimitthetimeavailabletousesuchfacilities.Experiencealso showsthatwomenaremorecomfortableinwomenonlytrainingenvironments. Trainingprogrammesshouldbeofferedfreeofchargeor,infact,beconsideredajob,inthat participantsarepaidacertainsalaryasanincentivetoparticipateandincreasetheireducation andqualificationlevel. ContentinlocallanguageisextremelyimportantifICTaretomakeadifferenceinwomens lives.Itistherefore,extremelyimportanttodevelopcontentthataddresses local/regional/nationalneeds,toprovideinformationrelevanttolocal/regional/nationalissues anddisseminatethatinformationinappropriatelanguage.ThequestionisHowICTcanadjust totheneedsofwomenratherthanwomenhavingtoadjusttotheICTsector?Inorderto respondtothisquestion,genderandICTadvocatesandpractitionersmustengageingender awareparticipatorymethodstoassesstheneedsofwomenanddevelopaclearunderstanding ofhowICTcanbestbeusedasatoolforwomenseconomicempowermentsothatwecan developcreativesolutionsthatpromoteandfacilitatetheuseofICT.Usingtheexampleof womenintheinformalsector,itisimportanttoallowwomentochoosethetechnologytheyfeel mostcomfortablewith,suchasacellulartelephonetocallformarketprices,evenifitmaynot bethemostefficientsolution. ItisimportanttoviewICTasatooltomeetwomensdevelopmentneedsandaccordinglyall formsofICTshouldbeconsideredtodeterminewhicharemoreappropriateinaparticular settingandfortheaparticularprogramme.Itisourresponsibilitytomaketechnologyworkfor thepeopleandinmanycases,thisrequiresagradualtransitioninICTusage.Forexample, womenintheinformalsectormaydecidethatcellularphonesareallthattheyneedtoimprove theirbusiness,butmaybecomemoreinterestedintheuseofinternetforbusinesspurposes oncetheirbusinessesgrowandtheyfeelmorecomfortablewithusingtechnology.

NABANNAASUCCESSSTORYOFEMPOWERMENT
NetworkingRuralWomenandKnowledge,aUNESCOprojectinNabanna,India,explores innovativeusesofdatabases,intranetportalsandwebbasedpartnershipsinthelocallanguage forthebenefitofpoorwomen.Theprojectputsemphasisonbuildingaframeworkfor informationsharing,contentcreation,offlineinformationdisseminationandwebbased partnershipwithorganizationslocatedoutsidetheregion.Thepurposeoftheprojectisbuilding womenslocalinformationnetworksbyprovidingsimplefacilitiesandtrainingatfiveICT centersinBaduria,Rudrapur,Taragunia,ArbeliaandPunda. Throughthisprojectacoregroupof60informationagentsaged2040yearshavegained accesstoandcontrolofinformationandcommunicationtechnologythroughusingICTs. ThroughtheNabannaNetworkwomensharelocalindigenousinformationaswellas informationobtainedattheinformationgroupmeetingsornewsletter,e.g.womeninBaduria haveexchangedinformationonincomegeneratingactivities,specificeducationprojects, microfinanceandhealth.Therefore,youngeducatedwomenhaveobtainedaccesstoand controlofICTswherelesseducatedandolderwomenhaveobtainedaccesstoinformation throughthehumannetwork. WomeninBaduriahaveenhancedtheiragencythroughICTs.UNESCO[2004]reportsthe followingchangesinwomensagencyaftergainingaccesstoinformationandcommunication throughNabanna: WomengainedmorerespectintheirlocalcommunitiesasaresultofICTskills acquiredatthecenterlearningtouseacomputerandaccruinganddistributingthe Informationtolocalpeople.Thisresultedingreaterrespectbothatfamilyand communitylevel. Youngerwomenfelttheywereabletoapproachthejobmarketwithgreater confidencethanbefore.ICTskillshelpthemtofindjobsandincreasetheirincome. WomenbecamemorecreativeafterlearningaprogramlikePaintbrushinWindows XP. Womenhaveachievedanincreaseinincomeaswellasenhancementofsolidarity amongwomeninthecommunity.

WhilelearningtousecomputerstogetherattheICTcenterwomenoftendiscusstheirproblems, creatingasenseofunityanddevelopingleadershipqualities.ICTincreaseswomensagencyin thehousehold,communityandthemarket.Inthehousehold,informationobtainedthroughICT enablesthemtonegotiateandbargainwiththeirfamilymembers.Thuswomenhaveenhanced theirsisterhoodandexperiencedcollectiveempowermentthroughtheNabannanetwork.This sisterhoodinthecommunityempowerswomenasagroupandallowsthemagreatervoicein thecommunity,henceincreasingtheirinfluenceonlocalgovernmentforimplementingprojects topromotematernalhealth,girlseducationandsanitation.However,althoughtheNabanna projecthastriedtoincludemarginalizedwomenintheinformationnetwork,illiterateand indigenouswomenstillhavedifficultyaccessingICTs.

THEWAYAHEAD:KEYISSUESFORTHEFUTURE
EquitableaccesstoICTtechnologyandtheautonomytoreceiveandproducetheinformation relevanttotheirconcernsandperspectivesarecriticalissuesforwomen.Theythereforeneed tobeinvolvedindecisionmakingregardingthedevelopmentofnewtechnologyinorderto participatefullyinitsgrowthandimpact.Accessandcostsbeingsomeofthegreatestbarriers forICTuse,itisoftheutmostimportancetoengagewomenandgenderadvocatesinthe policymakingprocessanddialogue.ItisimportanttoengenderICTpolicytoensurethat women,particularlyruralandpoorwomen,benefitfromICT.Gendermustbeconsideredfrom thestartofprojectdesign.OnlythencanICTpoliciesandprojectsproperlyaddressthegender digitaldivideandfurthercontributetowomenseconomicempowerment. PersonalownershipofICTisnotfeasibleintheforeseeablefutureforthevastmajorityof womenindevelopingcountries.Hencethequestionofwhereandhowtheycangainaccessto ICTbecomesimportant.Thisisanareawhereintermediaryorganizationscanhelpbridgethe lastmileofconnectivity.Theycanensurethatemailaccounts,bulletinboards,searchengines, mailinglists,andotherusefulfunctionsserveascommunication,networkingandcollaboration channelsamongwomensgroups,andbetweenwomenandtheexternalsphere.Inorderto facilitateaccessforwomenfromotherclassesandsectors,theseintermediaryorganizations needtobestrategicallylocatedinlocalinstitutionstowhichwomenhaveopenandequal access,suchashealthcenters,womensNGOs,womensemploymentcenters,libraries,womens studiesdepartmentsandinstitutes,communitycentersetc. ThepotentialofICTforwomenindevelopingcountriesishighlydependentupontheirlevelsof technicalskillandeducationandistheprincipalrequirementforaccessingknowledgefromthe globalpool.GovernmentandNGOsneedtoimparttechnicaleducationontheuseofICTasa partofbothformalandinformaleducationsystemandtoinitiatedistancelearningand vocationalcourses. Itneedstoberealizedthatinformationandcommunicationtechnologybyitselfcannotanswer alltheproblemsfacingwomensdevelopment,butitdoesbringnewinformationresourcesand canopennewcommunicationchannelsformarginalizedcommunities.Lastbutnottheleast, whenpoliciesandprogrammesareinplacetoimproveaccess,paucityoffundsshouldnotbea hindrancetoestablishingICTaccesspointsorevenimplementingtelecentertypeprogrammes. AsUNstudieshaveindicated,thoughthecostsofusingICTsfordevelopmentmaybehigh,not usingthematallmayprovetobecostlier.

REFERENCES
Banerjee,N.andS.Mitter,1998,WomenMakingaMeaningfulChoice:TechnologyandtheNew EconomicOrder,EconomicandPoliticalWeekly,Dec19,33,51,32473256. Gothoskar,S,2000,TeleworkingandGender,EconomicandPoliticalWeekly,35,26,2293 2298. Goyal,Ashima,2003,WhyWomenlagandWhytheymayLead,InformationforDevelopment, i4d,SepOct2003. Mitter,S,2000,TeleworkingandTeletradeinIndia,EconomicandPoliticalWeekly,35,26, 22412252. Nadamoto,Satoko,GenderandInformationandCommunicationTechnologies[ICTs]:A ComparativeAnalysisofThreeCasesinIndia,JournalofAsianWomensStudies,Vol14[12] Dec.2005,137154. Nath,Vikas,2001,EmpowermentandGovernancethroughInformationandCommunication Technologies:WomensPerspective,KnownetInitiative UmaDevi,S.,2002,Globalisation,InformationTechnologyandAsianIndianWomeninUS, EconomicandPoliticalWeekly,Oct.26,37,43,44214428. UNDP[2001],HumanDevelopmentReport,MakingNewTechnologiesWorkforHuman Development,OxfordUniversityPress.

SumanJainisaReaderintheDepartmentofEconomicsatLakshmiBaiCollege,DelhiUniversity. email:sjain772002@yahoo.co.in

Theterminformalsectorisusedmainlywithreferencetodevelopingcountries.TheILOdefinesitasan unorganizedsectorinwhicheconomicactivitiestakeplaceoutsidetheframeworkofpublicandprivate sectorestablishments.Suchactivitiesarecharacterizedbysmallscaleofoperations,easeofentry, relianceonfamilylabourandlocalresources,labourintensivetechnology,lowcapitalendowmentsa highdegreeofcompetition,unregulatedmarket,unskilledworkforceandacquisitionofskillsoutsidethe formaleducationsystem.InIndiathissectorcutsacrosswelldefinedcraftsorindustryconglomerates likecottageandhouseholdindustries,khadiandvillageindustries,handlooms,handicrafts,coir,seri culture,etcsetupalloverthecountryinrural,semiurbanandurbanenvironments.

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