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Olive oil - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Olive oil
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Olive oil is a fat obtained from the olive (the fruit of Olea europaea; family Oleaceae), a traditional tree crop of the Mediterranean Basin. The oil is produced by grinding whole olives and extracting the oil by mechanical or chemical means. It is commonly used in cooking, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and soaps and as a fuel for traditional oil lamps. Olive oil is used throughout the world, but especially in the Mediterranean countries and, in particular, in Greece where the largest consumption per person can be found.[citation needed ]

Olive oil

Contents
1 History 1.1 Early cultivation 1.2 Production and trade 2 Varieties 3 Production and consumption 4 Regulation 4.1 Commercial grades 4.2 Retail grades in IOC member nations 4.3 Retail grades in the United States from the USDA 4.4 Previous USDA ratings 4.5 Label wording 4.6 Adulteration 5 Global consumption 5.1 Global market 6 Extraction 7 Constituents 7.1 Phenolic composition 8 Nutrition 9 Popular uses and research 9.1 Skin 9.2 Potential health effects attributed to fat composition 10 Uses 10.1 Culinary use 10.2 Religious use 10.2.1 Judaism 10.2.2 Christianity
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A bottle of Italian olive oil

Fat composition
Saturated fats Palmitic acid: 7.520.0% Stearic acid: 0.55.0% Arachidic acid: <0.6% Behenic acid: <0.3% Myristic acid: <0.05% Lignoceric acid: <0.2% Unsaturated fats yes Monounsaturated Oleic acid: 55.083.0% fats Palmitoleic acid: 0.33.5% Polyunsaturated Linoleic acid: 3.521.0 % fats -Linolenic acid: <1.0%

Properties
Food energy per 100 3,700 kJ (880 kcal) g Melting point Boiling point Smoke point 6 C (21 F) 300 C (572 F) 190 C (374 F) (virgin) 210 C (410 F) (refined)
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10.2.3 Islam 10.3 Other 11 See also 12 References 13 Further reading

Specific gravity at 20 C Viscosity at 20 C Refractive index

0.91500.9180 (@ 15.5 C) 84 cP 1.46771.4705 (virgin and refined) 1.46801.4707 (pomace)

History
Early cultivation
The olive tree is native to the Mediterranean basin; wild olives were collected by Neolithic peoples as early as the 8th millennium BC.[1] The wild olive tree originated in Asia Minor[2] in ancient Greece.

Iodine value Acid value

7594 (virgin and refined) 7592 (pomace) maximum: 6.6 (refined and pomace) 0.6 (extra-virgin)

Saponification value 184196 (virgin and refined) 182193 (pomace) Peroxide value 20 (virgin) 10 (refined and pomace)

It is not clear when and where olive trees were first domesticated: in Asia Minor in the 6th millennium; along the Levantine coast stretching from the Sinai Peninsula to modern Turkey in the 4th millennium;[1] or somewhere in the Mesopotamian Fertile Crescent in the 3rd millennium. A widespread view exists that the first cultivation took place on the island of Crete. Archeological evidence suggest that olives were being grown in Crete as long ago as 2,500 BC. The earliest surviving olive oil amphorae date to 3500 BC (Early Minoan times), though the production of olive is assumed to have started before 4000 BC. An alternative view retains that olives were turned into oil by 4500 BC by Canaanites in present-day Israel.[3] Until 1500 BC, eastern coastal areas of the Mediterranean were most heavily cultivated. Olive trees were certainly cultivated by the Late Minoan period (1500 BC) in Crete, and perhaps as early as the Early Minoan.[4] The cultivation of olive trees in Crete became particularly intense in the post-palatial period and played an important role in the island's economy.
Ancient Greek olive oil production workshop in Klazomenai, Ionia (modern Turkey)

Recent genetic studies suggest that species used by modern cultivators descend from multiple wild populations, but a detailed history of domestication is not yet understood.[5]

Production and trade

Olive trees and oil production in the Eastern Mediterranean can be traced to archives of the ancient city-state Ebla (26002240 BC), which were located on the outskirts of the Syrian city Aleppo. Here some dozen documents dated 2400 BC describe lands of the king and the queen. These belonged to a library of clay tablets perfectly preserved by having been baked in the fire that destroyed the palace. A later source is the frequent mentions of oil in Tanakh.[citation needed ] Dynastic Egyptians before 2000 BC imported olive oil from Crete, Syria and Canaan and oil was an important item of commerce and wealth. Remains of olive oil have been found in jugs over 4,000 years old in a tomb on the island of Naxos in the Aegean Sea. Sinuhe, the Egyptian exile who lived in northern Canaan about 1960 BC,
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wrote of abundant olive trees.[6] Besides food, olive oil has been used for religious rituals, medicines, as a fuel in oil lamps, soap-making, and skin care application. The Minoans used olive oil in religious ceremonies. The oil became a principal product of the Minoan civilization, where it is thought to have represented wealth. The Minoans put the pulp into settling tanks and, when the oil had risen to the top, drained the water from the bottom.[citation needed ] Olive tree growing reached Iberia and Etruscan cities well before the 8th century BC through trade with the Phoenicians and Carthage, then spread into Southern Gaul by the Celtic tribes during the 7th century BC.

Ancient oil press (Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology, Bodrum, Turkey)

The first recorded oil extraction is known from the Hebrew Bible and took place during the Exodus from Egypt, during the 13th century BC. During this time, the oil was derived through hand-squeezing the berries and stored in special containers under guard of the priests. A commercial mill for non-sacramental use of oil was in use in the tribal Confederation and later in 1000 BC, the fertile crescent, and area consisting of present day Palestine, Lebanon, and Israel. Over 100 olive presses have been found in Tel Miqne (Ekron), where the Biblical Philistines also produced oil. These presses are estimated to have had output of between 1,000 and 3,000 tons of olive oil per season. Many ancient presses still exist in the Eastern Mediterranean region, and some dating to the Roman period are still in use today.[citation needed ] Olive oil was common in ancient Greek and Roman cuisine. According to Herodotus, Apollodorus, Plutarch, Pausanias, Ovid and other sources, the city of Athens obtained its name because Athenians considered olive oil essential, preferring the offering of the goddess Athena (an olive tree) over the offering of Poseidon (a spring of salt water gushing out of a cliff). The Spartans and other Greeks used oil to rub themselves while exercising in the gymnasia. From its beginnings early in the 7th century BC, the cosmetic use of olive oil quickly spread to all of Hellenic city states, together with naked Olive crusher (trapetum) in Pompeii appearance of athletes, and lasted close to a thousand years despite (79 AD) its great expense.[7][8] Olive trees were planted in the entire Mediterranean basin during evolution of the Roman republic and empire. According to the historian Pliny, Italy had "excellent olive oil at reasonable prices" by the 1st century AD, "the best in the Mediterranean", he maintained. The importance and antiquity of olive oil can be seen in the fact that the English word oil derives from c. 1175, olive oil, from Anglo-Fr. and O.N.Fr. olie, from O.Fr. oile (12c., Mod.Fr. huile), from L. oleum "oil, olive oil" (cf. It. olio), from Gk. elaion "olive tree",[9] which may have been borrowed through trade networks from the Semitic Phoenician use of el'yon meaning "superior", probably in recognized comparison to other vegetable or animal fats available at the time. Robin Lane Fox suggests[10] that the Latin borrowing of Greek elaion for oil (Latin oleum) is itself a marker for improved Greek varieties of oil-producing olive, already present in Italy as Latin was forming, brought by Euboean traders, whose presence in Latium is signaled by remains of their characteristic pottery, from the mid-8th century.

Varieties
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Among the many different olive varieties or List of olive cultivars there are: in Greece Koroneiki, Lianolia, Chondrolia (a.k.a. Throumbolia), Tsounati, Patrinia and more. In Spain, the most important varieties are the Picual, Arbequina, Hojiblanca, and Manzanillo de Jan; In Italy, Frantoio, Leccino Pendolino, and Moraiolo; in France, Picholine; in California, Mission; in Portugal, Galega, Verdeal and Cobranosa; in Croatia, Oblica and Leccino. The oil from the varieties varies in flavour and stability (shelf life).[citation needed ]

Production and consumption

Spain produces 43.8% of world production of olive oil.[11] 75% of Spain's The Manufacture of Oil, production comes from the region of Andaluca, particularly within Jan 16th=century engraving by province, although other regions, including Catalonia also produce excellent J. Amman oil. Although, Italy is a net importer of olive oil it still accounts for 21.5% of the world's production. Major Italian producers are known as "Citt dell'Olio", "oil cities"; including Lucca, Florence and Siena, in Tuscany. However the largest production is harvested in Puglia. Greece accounts for 12.1% of world Production and Syria for 6.1%, as third and fourth largest producers in the World. Portugal accounts 5% and its main export market is Brazil. Australia now produces a substantial amount of olive oil. Many Australian producers only make premium oils, while a number of corporate growers operate groves of a million trees or more and produce oils for the general market. Australian olive oil is exported to Asia, Europe and the United States.[12] In North America, Italian and Spanish olive oils are the best-known, and top-quality extra-virgin oils from Italy, Spain, Portugal and Greece are sold at high prices, often in "prestige" packaging. A large part of U.S. olive oil imports come from Italy, Spain, and Turkey. The U.S. imported 47,800,000 US gallons (181,000 m3) of olive oil in 1998, of which 34,600,000 US gallons (131,000 m3) came from Italy.[13] New Zealand, The Republic of South Africa,[14] Argentina[15] and Chile[16] also produce extra virgin olive oil. Olive orchards in Arizona, California, and Texas are producing olive oil that is appearing on USA grocery market shelves alongside the Mediterranean olive oils.

Regulation
Main article: Olive oil regulation and adulteration The International Olive Council (IOC) is an intergovernmental organization based in Madrid, Spain, with 23 member states.[17] It promotes olive oil around the world by tracking production, defining quality standards, and monitoring authenticity. More than 85% of the world's olives are grown in IOC member nations. The United States is not a member of the IOC, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture does not legally recognize its classifications (such as extra-virgin olive oil). The USDA uses a different system, which it defined in 1948 before the IOC existed. On October 25, 2010, the United States adopted new olive oil standards, a revision of those that had been in place since 1948, which affect importers and domestic growers and producers by ensuring conformity with the benchmarks commonly accepted in the U.S. and abroad.[18]

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Olive oil is classified by how it was produced, by its chemistry, and by panels that perform olive oil taste testing.[19] The IOC officially governs 95% of international production and holds great influence over the rest. The EU regulates the use of different protected designation of origin labels for olive oils.[20] U.S. Customs regulations on "country of origin" state that if a nonorigin nation is shown on the label, then the real origin must be shown on the same side of the label and in comparable size letters so as not to mislead the consumer.[21][22] Yet most major U.S. brands continue to put "imported from Italy" on the front label in International Olive Council building [23] large letters and other origins on the back in very small print. "In fact, olive oil labeled 'Italian' often comes from Turkey, Tunisia, Morocco, Spain, and Greece."[24] These products are a mixture of olive oil from more than one nation and it is not clear what percentage of the olive oil is really of Italian origin. This practice makes it difficult for high quality, lower cost producers outside of Italy to enter the U.S. market, and for genuine Italian producers to compete.

Commercial grades
All production begins by transforming the olive fruit into olive paste. This paste is then malaxed (slowly churned or mixed) to allow the microscopic oil droplets to concentrate. The oil is extracted by means of pressure (traditional method) or centrifugation (modern method). After extraction the remnant solid substance, called pomace, still contains a small quantity of oil. The grades of oil extracted from the olive fruit can be classified as: Virgin means the oil was produced by the use of physical means and no chemical treatment. The term virgin oil referring to production is different from Virgin Oil on a retail label (see next section). Refined means that the oil has been chemically treated to neutralize strong tastes (characterized as defects) and neutralize the acid content (free fatty acids). Refined oil is commonly regarded as lower quality than virgin oil; oils with the retail labels extra-virgin olive oil and virgin olive oil cannot contain any refined oil. Olive pomace oil means oil extracted from the pomace using solvents, mostly hexane, and by heat. Quantitative analysis can determine the oil's acidity, defined as the percent, measured by weight, of free oleic acid it contains. This is a measure of the oil's chemical degradation; as the oil degrades, more fatty acids are freed from the glycerides, increasing the level of free acidity and thereby increasing rancidity. Another measure of the oil's chemical degradation is the organic peroxide level, which measures the degree to which the oil is oxidized, another cause of rancidity. To classify it by taste, olive oil is subjectively judged by a panel of professional tasters in a blind taste test. This is also called its organoleptic quality.

Retail grades in IOC member nations

In countries that adhere to the standards of the International Olive Council (IOC)[25] the labels in stores show an oil's grade. Extra-virgin olive oil Comes from virgin oil production only, contains no more than 0.8% acidity, and is judged to have a superior taste. Extra Virgin olive oil accounts for less than 10% of oil in many producing countries; the percentage is far higher in the Mediterranean countries (Greece: 80%, Italy: 45%, Spain
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30%). It is used on salads, added at the table to soups and stews and for dipping. Virgin olive oil Comes from virgin oil production only, has an acidity less than 1.5%, and is judged to have a good taste. Pure olive oil. Oils labeled as Pure olive oil or Olive oil are usually a blend of refined and virgin production oil. Olive oil is a blend of virgin and refined production oil, of no more than 2% acidity. It commonly lacks a strong flavor. Olive pomace oil is refined pomace olive oil often blended with some virgin oil. It is fit for consumption, but may not be described simply as olive oil. It has a more neutral flavor than pure or virgin olive oil, making it unfashionable among connoisseurs; however, it has the same fat composition as regular olive oil, giving it the same health benefits. It also has a high smoke point, and thus is widely used in restaurants as well as home cooking in some countries. Lampante oil is olive oil not suitable as food; lampante comes from olive oil's long-standing use in oil-burning lamps. Lampante oil is mostly used in the industrial market. Refined olive oil is the olive oil obtained from virgin olive oils by refining methods that do not lead to alterations in the initial glyceridic Italian label for "extra vergine" structure. It has a free acidity, expressed as oleic acid, of not more oil than 0.3 grams per 100 grams (0.3%) and its other characteristics correspond to those fixed for this category in this standard. This is obtained by refining virgin olive oils with a high acidity level and/or organoleptic defects that are eliminated after refining. Note that no solvents have been used to extract the oil, but it has been refined with the use of charcoal and other chemical and physical filters.

Retail grades in the United States from the USDA

As the United States is not a member, the IOC retail grades have no legal meaning in that country; terms such as "extra virgin" may be used without legal restrictions but as of October 25, 2010, the U.S. Standards for Grades of Olive Oil and Olive-Pomace Oil went into effect.[26] The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) currently has a four-part grading of olive oil based on acidity, absence of defects, odor and flavor:[26] U.S. Extra Virgin Olive Oil for oil with excellent flavor and odor and free fatty acid content of not more than 0.8g per 100g (0.8%); U.S. Virgin Olive Oil for oil with reasonably good flavor and odor and free fatty acid content of not more than 2g per 100g (2%); U.S. Virgin Olive Oil Not Fit For Human Consumption Without Further Processing is a virgin oil of poor flavor and odor; U.S. Olive Oil is an oil mix of both virgin and refined oils; U.S. Refined Olive Oil is an oil made from refined oils with some restrictions on the processing; These grades are voluntary. Certification is available from the USDA on a fee-for-service basis.[26]

Previous USDA ratings

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) previously listed four grades of olive oil. These grades were established in 1948, and are based on acidity, absence of defects, odor and flavor:[26]
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U.S. Grade A or U.S. Fancy possesses a free fatty acid content of not more than 1.4% and is "free from defects"; U.S. Grade B or U.S. Choice possesses a free fatty acid content of not more than 2.5% and is "reasonably free from defects"; U.S. Grade C or U.S. Standard possesses a free fatty acid content of not more than 3.0% and is "fairly free from defects"; U.S. Grade D or U.S. Substandard possesses a free fatty acid content greater than 3.0% and "fails to meet the requirements of U.S. Grade C". These grades are entirely voluntary and are available from the USDA on a fee-for-service basis.[26]

Label wording
The different names for olive oil indicate the degree of processing the oil has undergone as well as the quality of the oil. Extra-virgin olive oil is the highest grade available, followed by virgin olive oil. The word "virgin" indicates that the olives have been pressed to extract the oil; no heat or chemicals have been used during the extraction process, and the oil is pure and unrefined. Virgin olive oils contain the highest levels of polyphenols, antioxidants that have been linked with better health.[27] "Made from refined olive oils" means that the taste and composition are chemically controlled, usually to improve lower quality oils.[citation needed ] In Australia, Pure, Light and Extra-Light are terms introduced by manufacturers for refined oils to avoid labeling them as such. Standards Australia's code of practice for olive oil now recognises these words as meaning refined oil. Contrary to a common consumer belief, they do not have less calories than Extra-virgin oil as implied by the names.[28] Cold pressed or Cold extraction means "that the oil was not heated over a certain temperature (usually 80 F (27 C)) during processing, thus retaining more nutrients and undergoing less degradation."[29] First cold pressed means "that the fruit of the olive was crushed exactly one time-i.e., the first press. The cold refers to the temperature range of the fruit at the time it is crushed."[30] In Calabria (Italy) the olives are collected in October. In regions like Tuscany or Liguria, the olives collected in November and ground often at night are too cold to be processed efficiently without heating. The paste is regularly heated above the environmental temperatures, which may be as low as 10-15 C, to extract the oil efficiently with only physical means. Olives pressed in warm regions like Southern Italy or Northern Africa may be pressed at significantly higher temperatures although not heated. While it is important that the pressing temperatures be as low as possible (generally below 25 C) there is no international reliable definition of "cold pressed". Furthermore, there is no "second" press of virgin oil, so the term "first press" means only that the oil was produced in a press vs. other possible methods. PDO and PGI refers to olive oils with "exceptional properties and quality derived from their place of origin as well as from the way of their production".[31] The label may indicate that the oil was bottled or packed in a stated country. This does not necessarily mean that the oil was produced there. The origin of the oil may sometimes be marked elsewhere on the label; it may be a mixture of oils from more than one country.[23] The U.S. Food and Drug Administration permitted a claim on olive oil labels stating: "Limited and not conclusive scientific evidence suggests that eating about two tablespoons (23g) of olive oil daily may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease."[32]

Adulteration

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The adulteration of oil can be no more serious than passing off inferior, but safe, product as superior olive oil, but there are no guarantees. It is believed that almost 700 people died as a consequence of consuming rapeseed oil adulterated with aniline intended for use as an industrial lubricant, but sold in 1981 as olive oil in Spain (see toxic oil syndrome).[33] There have been allegations that regulation, particularly in Italy and Spain, is extremely lax and corrupt[citation needed ]. Major shippers are claimed to routinely adulterate olive oil and that only about 40% of olive oil sold as "extra virgin" in Italy actually meets the specification.[34] In some cases, colza oil (Swedish turnip) with added color and flavor has been labeled and sold as olive oil.[35] This extensive fraud prompted the Italian government to mandate a new labeling law in 2007 for companies selling olive oil, under which every bottle of Italian olive oil would have to declare the farm and press on which it was produced, as well as display a precise breakdown of the oils used, for blended oils.[36] In February 2008, however, EU officials took issue with the new law, stating that under EU rules such labeling should be voluntary rather than compulsory.[37] Under EU rules, olive oil may be sold as Italian even if it only contains a small amount of Italian oil.[36] Extra Virgin olive oil has strict requirements and is checked for "sensory defects" that include: rancid, fusty, musty, winey (vinegary) and muddy sediment. These defects can occur for different reasons. The most common are: Raw material (olives) infected or battered Inadequate harvest, with contact between the olives and soil
[38]

In March 2008, 400 Italian police officers conducted "Operation Golden Oil", arresting 23 people and confiscating 85 farms after an investigation revealed a large-scale scheme to relabel oils from other Mediterranean nations as Italian.[39] In April 2008, another operation impounded seven olive oil plants and arrested 40 people in nine provinces of northern and southern Italy for adding chlorophyll to sunflower and soybean oil, and selling it as extra virgin olive oil, both in Italy and abroad; 25,000 liters of the fake oil were seized and prevented from being exported.[40] On March 15, 2011, the Florence, Italy prosecutor's office, working in conjunction with the forestry department, indicted two managers and an officer of Carapelli, one of the brands of the Spanish company Grupo SOS (which recently changed its name to Deoleo). The charges involved falsified documents and food fraud. Carapelli lawyer Neri Pinucci said the company was not worried about the charges and that "the case is based on an irregularity in the documents."[41] In February 2012, an alleged international olive oil scam occurred in which palm, avocado, sunflower and other cheaper oils were passed off as olive oil.[42] Spanish police said the oils were blended in an industrial biodiesel plant and adulterated in a way to hide markers that would have revealed their true nature. The oils were not toxic, however, and posed no health risk, according to a statement by the Guardia Civil. Nineteen people were arrested following the year-long joint probe by the police and Spanish tax authorities, part of what they call Operation Lucerna.[43] Two diametrically opposed trends exist in the olive-oil business. In the first, toward high quality olive oil, new milling technologies such as stainless steel mills, high speed centrifuges, temperature and oxygen controlled storage tanks are making it possible to produce the best extra-virgin olive oils in history; fresh, complex and every bit as varied as wine varietals. (There are about seven hundred different kinds of olives.) Consumer demand for high-quality olive oil in all of its variety, both in Europe and in North America, is increasing. On the other hand, there's a strong downward pressure on olive-oil quality, especially among large olive-oil traders and bottling companies. There is a massive output of low grade olive oils, which bottlers are selling as "extra virgin" olive oil,[44] even though this low grade oil doesn't meet the requirements of the extra-virgin grade. (E.U. and U.S. trade standards require extra-virgin olive oil to be free of sensory defects and these oils are deeply flawed.) Methods of chemical refinement, commonly known as "deodorization,"[45] allow unscrupulous
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producers to remove sensory defects and sell their sub-par oils, illegally, as extra-virgin. (By law, extra-virgin olive oil cannot have undergone chemical manipulation.). In 2012 The spot price of "extra-virgin olive oil" in European markets has dropped as low as 1.8 euro per kilo (about a liter). Honest producers around the world are being undercut by cheap foreign oil.[46]

Global consumption
Greece has by far the largest per capita consumption of olive oil worldwide, over 26 liters per person per year; Spain and Italy, around 14 l; Tunisia, Portugal, Syria, Jordan and Lebanon, around 8 l. Northern Europe and North America consume far less, around 0.7 l, but the consumption of olive oil outside its home territory has been rising steadily.

Global market
The main producing and consuming countries are: Production in tons (2010)[47] 3,269,248 1,487,000 548,500 500,000 352,800 177,400 169,900 161,600 160,100 66,600 33,600 111,749 Production % (2010) 100% 45.5% 16.8% 16% 10.8% 5.4% 5.2% 4.9% 4.9% 2.0% 1.0% 3.3% Consumption (2005)[48] 100% 20% 30% 25% 9% 3% 2% 2% 2% 2% 2% 18% Annual per capita consumption (kg)[49] 0.43 13.62 12.35 15 23.7 7 11.1 1.2 5 1.8 7.1 1.18

Country World Spain Italy Egypt Greece Syria Morocco Turkey Tunisia Portugal Algeria Others

Extraction
Main article: Olive oil extraction Olive oil is produced by grinding olives and extracting the oil by mechanical or chemical means. Green olives usually produce more bitter oil, and overripe olives can produce oil that is rancid, so for good extra virgin olive oil care is taken to make sure the olives are perfectly ripened. The process is generally as follows: 1. The olives are ground into paste using large millstones (traditional method) or steel drums (modern method). 2. If ground with mill stones, the olive paste generally stays under the stones for 30 to 40 minutes. A shorter grinding process may result in a more raw paste that produces less oil and has a less ripe taste, a longer
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process may increase oxidation of the paste and reduce the flavor. After grinding, the olive paste is spread on fiber disks, which are stacked on top of each other in a column, then placed into the press. Pressure is then applied onto the column to separate the vegetal liquid from the paste. This liquid still contains a significant amount of water. Traditionally the oil was shed from the water by gravity (oil is less dense than water). This very slow separation process has been replaced by centrifugation, which is much faster and more thorough. The centrifuges have one exit for the (heavier) watery part and one A cold press olive oil machine in for the oil. Olive oil should not contain significant traces of Israel. vegetal water as this accelerates the process of organic degeneration by microorganisms. The separation in smaller oil mills is not always perfect, thus sometimes a small watery deposit containing organic particles can be found at the bottom of oil bottles. 3. In modern steel drum mills the grinding process takes about 20 minutes. After grinding, the paste is stirred slowly for another 20 to 30 minutes in a particular container (malaxation), where the microscopic oil drops unite into bigger drops, which facilitates the mechanical extraction. The paste is then pressed by centrifugation/ the water is thereafter separated from the oil in a second centrifugation as described before. The oil produced by only physical (mechanical) means as described above is called virgin oil. Extra virgin olive oil is virgin olive oil that satisfies specific high chemical and organoleptic criteria (low free acidity, no or very little organoleptic defects). 4. Sometimes the produced oil will be filtered to eliminate remaining solid particles that may reduce the shelf life of the product. Labels may indicate the fact that the oil has not been filtered, suggesting a different taste. Unfiltered fresh olive oil that has a slightly cloudy appearance is called cloudy olive oil. This form of olive oil used to be popular only among olive oil small scale producers but is now becoming "trendy", in line with consumer's demand for more ecological and less-processed "green" products. The remaining paste (pomace) still contains a small quantity (about 510%) of oil that cannot be extracted by further pressing, but only with chemical solvents. This is done in specialised chemical plants, not in the oil mills. The resulting oil is not "virgin" but "pomace oil". The term "first press", sometimes found on bottle labels, is today meaningless, as there is no "second" press; it comes from ancient times of stone presses, when virgin oil was the one produced by battering the olives. The label term "cold-extraction" on extra virgin olive oils indicates that the olive grinding and stirring was done at a temperature of maximum 25 C (77 F), as treatment in higher temperatures risks decreasing the olive oils' quality (texture, taste and aroma).[50]

Constituents
Olive oil is composed mainly of the mixed triglyceride esters of oleic acid and palmitic acid and of other fatty acids, along with traces of squalene (up to 0.7%) and sterols (about 0.2% phytosterol and tocosterols). The composition varies by cultivar, region, altitude, time of harvest, and extraction process.

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Fatty acid Oleic acid Linoleic acid Palmitic acid Stearic acid

Percentage 55 to 83%

ref.
[51][52]

3.5 to 21% [51][52] 7.5 to 20% [51] 0.5 to 5%

[51] [51]

-Linolenic acid 0 to 1.5%

Phenolic composition

Olive oil contains polyphenols such as esters of tyrosol and hydroxytyrosol, including oleocanthal and oleuropein,[53] having acidic properties that give extra-virgin unprocessed olive oil its bitter and pungent taste. Olive oil is a source of at least 30 phenolic compounds.[54] Other phenolic constituents include aldehydic secoiridoids, flavonoids and lignans (acetoxypinoresinol, pinoresinol).[55] The latter two compounds are only present in extra virgin oil.[56] Hydroxytyrosol (2-(3,4-Di-hydroxyphenyl)-ethanol or DHPE) is a phenolic component of extra-virgin olive oil. An olive oil fraction containing DHPE was shown to inhibit platelet aggregation and eicosanoid (thromboxane B2) formation in vitro.[57] Oleocanthal from olive oil is a non-selective inhibitor of cyclooxygenase (COX) similar to classical NSAIDs like ibuprofen. It has been suggested that long-term consumption of small quantities of this compound from olive oil may be responsible in part for the low incidence of heart disease associated with a Mediterranean diet.[58]

General chemical structure of olive oil (triglyceride). R1, R2 and R3 are alkyl groups (approx. 20%) or alkenyl groups (approx. 80%).

Nutrition
As they are the least processed forms of olive oil, extra virgin or virgin olive oil have more monounsaturated fatty acids than other olive oil. These types also contain more polyphenols, which may have benefits for the heart.[59] 1tbsp of olive oil (13.5g) contains the following nutritional information according to the USDA:[60] Calories : 119 Fat: 13.50 Carbohydrates: 0 Fibers: 0 Protein: 0

Olive oil
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy Carbohydrates Fat - saturated - monounsaturated - polyunsaturated - omega 3 fat - omega 6 fat Protein Vitamin E Vitamin K 3,701 kJ (885 kcal) 0g 100 g 14 g 73 g 11 g <1.5 g 3.521 g 0g 14 mg (93%) 62 g (59%)
100 g olive oil is 109 ml Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults.
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Popular uses and research

Skin

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Olive oil has a long history of being used as a home remedy for skincare. Egyptians used it alongside beeswax as a cleanser, moisturizer, and antibacterial agent since pharaonic times.[61] In ancient Greece, the substance was used during massage to prevent sports injuries, relieve muscle fatigue, and eliminate lactic acid buildup.[62] In 2000, Japan was the top importer of olive oil in Asia (13,000 tons annually) because consumers there believe both the ingestion and topical application of olive oil to be good for skin and health.[63] There has been relatively little scientific work done on the effect of olive oil on acne and other skin conditions. However, one study noted that the abundance of squalene in oils in general shows promise for sufferers of seborrheic dermatitis, acne, psoriasis, and atopic dermatitis. Squalene is used as an antioxidant, moisturizer, and as a convenient vehicle to carry other substances in topical application.[64] Another researcher reported that a mixture of honey, beeswax, and olive oil alleviates diaper dermatitis, psoriasis, and eczema by inhibiting the growth of Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans.[65] Olive oil is popular for use in massaging infants and toddlers, but scientific proof of its efficacy is mixed. One analysis of olive oil versus mineral oil found that, when used for infant massage, olive oil can be considered a safe alternative to sunflower, grapeseed and fractionated coconut oils. This stands true particularly when it is mixed with a lighter oil like sunflower, which "would have the further effect of reducing the already low levels of free fatty acids present in olive oil." The study also notes that there appears to be much confusion surrounding mineral oil, and that further studies should be done on refined mineral oil to back up claims about its superiority to olive oil.[66] Another trial echoes this claim, stating that olive oil lowers the risk of dermatitis for infants in all gestational stages when compared with emollient cream.[67] However, yet another study found that topical treatment with olive oil for newborns "significantly damages the skin barrier" when compared to sunflower oil, and that it may make existing atopic dermatitis worse. The researchers conclude that they do not recommend the use of olive oil for the treatment of dry skin and infant massage.[68] Clinical trials have found that olive oil does not act to prevent or reduce stretch marks.[69][70] The fatty substance was found to reduce inflation via oleuropein, which is touted for its antioxidant, antiatherosclerotic, and anti-inflammatory characteristics.[71]

Potential health effects attributed to fat composition

Preliminary clinical studies provide evidence that consumption of olive oil may lower risk of heart disease risk factors such as lower blood cholesterol levels and reduced LDL cholesterol oxidation,[72] and that it may also possibly influence inflammatory, thrombotic, hypertensive and vasodilatory mechanisms.[32][73][74][75] Although epidemiological studies indicate that a higher proportion of monounsaturated fats in the diet may be linked with a reduction in the risk of coronary heart disease,[76] a cause and effect relationship has not yet been established with sufficient scientific evidence.[77] In the United States, producers of olive oil may place the following restricted health claim on product labels: Limited and not conclusive scientific evidence suggests that eating about 2 tbsp. (23 g) of olive oil daily may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease due to the monounsaturated fat in olive oil. To achieve this possible benefit, olive oil is to replace a similar amount of saturated fat and not increase the total number of calories you eat in a day.[78] This decision was announced November 1, 2004, by the Food and Drug Administration after application was made to the FDA by producers.[79] Similar labels are permitted for foods rich in omega-3 fatty acids such as walnuts and hemp seed.[80]
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Olive oil - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Other possible effects of olive oil may be a property to balance omega-6 fats and omega-3 fats[citation needed ] and to affect blood sugar levels and blood pressure,[81] but these effects were dismissed in reviews by the Scientific Committee of the

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