IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 22, NO.

2, APRIL 2007

1009

An Improved Control Algorithm for Active Filters

Brij N. Singh, Member, IEEE, Bhim Singh, Senior Member, IEEE, Ambrish Chandra, Senior Member, IEEE, Parviz Rastgoufard, Senior Member, IEEE, and Kamal Al-Haddad, Senior Member, IEEE

AbstractThis paper proposes a new control algorithm resulting in signicant advantages toward smooth control of an active lter (AF). The majority of existing feedforward control methods of the AF system result in switching notches (sharp-rising ripples) in the supply current during transitions of stepped waveshaped nonlinear load current. This is due to switching signals for the AF devices, which are obtained by comparison of the sensed and reference currents of the AF. The proposed control algorithm is based on feedback control, wherein, switching signals for the AF devices are obtained by comparing sensed and reference supply currents. This not only eliminates switching notches in the supply currents but also reduces the supply current total demand distortion below the 5% mark recommended by the IEEE-519 standard. A TMS320C31 digital signal processor is used for real-time implementation of the proposed algorithm. To establish its viability and exibility, the proposed algorithm is also experimented with a laboratory prototype of the AF system made of a reduced number of switches. Index TermsActive lter (AF), direct current control, harmonics, indirect current control, power quality.

I. INTRODUCTION N unrelenting proliferation of nonlinear loads in industrial, commercial, and residential applications requires the supply of reactive power, harmonics power, and power losses pertaining to the former two. Over a period of three decades, various types of reactive power compensators have been researched and developed for power factor correction, harmonic compensation, and load balancing. It has been established by Akagi et al. [1] and Gyugyi [2] that a voltage-source inverter (VSI) can instantaneously supply reactive power and compensate harmonics of the nonlinear loads. This postulate led to the formulation of the famous theory of reactive power [1], [3]. According to the - theory, the instantaneous reactive power compensator comprising switching deviceswhich practically does not require any energy storage componentscan compensate fundamental reactive power in transient states along with harmonics currents caused by instantaneous imaginary power of the loads. Apart from reactive power theory [1], [3][5], there have been

numerous other theories [5][12] of harmonics compensation. These are called the notch lter [5]; ux observer [6]; dc-bus voltage control [7]; instantaneous power theory [8], [9]; and direct and indirect [10][12] current control techniques of the active lters (AFs). Also, attempts have been made on a reduced switch AF system [13] and four-pole topology of the AF system [14]. This paper modies reactive power theory [1], [3] to design a new control algorithm of the AF. It is shown that a desired level of sinusoidal shaping of the supply currents cannot be obtained using the theory of the AF systems control. This was partially due to the unavailability of fast signal processors and power-electronics devices when theory was proposed, developed, and experimented by Akagi et al. [1], [3]. A thorough investigation of the experimental results reported in many papers over two decades, including the benchmark theory paper [1], reveals that the total demand distortion (TDD) in the supply currents cannot be brought down below 5% to satisfy the IEEE-519 standard. This is due to the presence of notches in the supply currents, while an AF system attempts to compensate harmonics and the reactive power of nonlinear loads using feedforward control methods [1], [3][7]. Feedforward methods have attempted to shape supply currents by using switching signals obtained via comparison of the sensed and reference currents of the AF system. With feedforward methods, notches in the supply currents occur during transitions of step-waveshaped nonlinear load current from one step to another step. In this investigation, a signicant modication in formulation and application of reactive power theory results in a new and improved feedback control algorithm of the AF system. In the proposed feedback method, the current controller exhibits waveshape information of the supply currents, enabling it to ensure notch-free supply currents locked in-phase with the supply voltages. The proposed improved control algorithm is also experimented with a laboratory prototype of the AF system made of a reduced number of switches. The remainder of this paper is organized into several sections. Section II covers a description on active lter topologies. Section III is devoted to harmonics and reactive power compensation theory. Section IV covers experimental results. Section V provides concluding remarks.

Manuscript received March 14, 2005; revised July 17, 2006. Paper no. TPWRD-00140-2005. B. N. Singh and P. Rastgoufard are with the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70118 USA (e-mail: singh@eecs.tulane.edu; parvizr@tulane.edu). B. Singh is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi 110 016, India (e-mail: bhimsinghr@gmail.com). A. Chandra and K. Al-Haddad are with the Department of Electrical Engineering, cole de Technologie Suprieure, Universit du Qubec, Montreal, QC H3C 1K3 Canada (e-mail: Ambrish.Chandra@etsmtl.ca; Kamal.Al-Haddad@etsmtl.ca). Digital Object Identier 10.1109/TPWRD.2006.886790

II. TOPOLOGY OF AFS Fig. 1 shows the basic topology of an AF system for testing the performance of an improved control algorithm. Having tested the AF system shown in Fig. 1, the developed improved algorithm is extended to control a reduced switch topology of an AF system shown in Fig. 2. This aims to verify the viability

0885-8977/$25.00 2007 IEEE

1010

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 22, NO. 2, APRIL 2007

development given in Appendix B has led to two important equations of load current expressed in axes, as follows:

(1)

(2) According to the proposed algorithm, to obtain the sinusoidal unity power factor currents at source terminals, the CCVSI (active lter) needs to compensate for the second, third, and fourth parts of the currents expressed in (1) and (2). For real-time implementation of CCVSI (active lter), two control techniques have been investigated in the past [10][12]the direct and indirect current control techniques. The remainder of this section is devoted to the development partitioning of of switching methods that use the dc/ac and the load currents according to the developed expressions (1) and (2). A. Direct Current Control Technique of CCVSI In the direct current control technique, the switching signals for CCVSI (active lter) devices are obtained by comparison of reference ( , , and ) and sensed ( , , and ) currents of CCVSI. The - axes reference currents of CCVSI can be obtained from (1) and (2) and expressed as (3) (4) The last two terms on the right-hand side of (3) and (4) correspond to harmonics power needed by the nonlinear load, whereas, the rst term corresponds to the average value (dc component) of reactive power demanded by the nonlinear load. Equations (3) and (4) suggest that to shape the supply current close to sinusoidal waves, CCVSI should supply the dc component of load reactive power and total harmonic power needed by the nonlinear load. The negative sign before parenthesis on the right-hand side of (3) and (4) justies the direction of reactive and harmonic powers owing from CCVSI to the nonlinear load. The reactive power theory-based direct current control algorithm of the AF proposed by Akagi et al. [1], [3] is shown in Fig. 3. The proposed modied control algorithm of the active lter (CCVSI) with direct current control is presented in Fig. 4. The reference currents ( , , and ) output from control algorithm (Fig. 4) are compared with the sensed currents ( , , and ) in pulsewidth-modulated (PWM) current controller and obtained switching signals control the devices of the AF circuit. Fig. 5 shows a DSP-based experimental system that is used to test the modied direct current control algorithm. The frequency of the carrier signal used in the PWM current controller

Fig. 1. Basic scheme of nonlinear load and active lter.

Fig. 2. Basic scheme of nonlinear load with a reduced switch AF.

and usefulness of attempted modications and improvements in formulation of the reactive power theory [1], [3]. III. HARMONICS AND REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION An inspection of Figs. 1 and 2 reveals that to shape the , and ) close to sinusoidal and to supply currents ( , lock them in-phase with the supply voltages ( , , and ), the AF system should supply harmonics and reactive power of the three-phase nonlinear load and only active power should ow from the supply system to the load. This requires careful modications and improvements in the reactive power theory proposed by Akagi et al. [1]. A systematic mathematical formulation of reactive power theory [1] is given in Appendices A and B. In Appendix B, it is shown how the compensation of reactive power and harmonics of a nonlinear load is carried out using the current-controlled voltage-source inverter (CCVSI). Therefore, the CCVSI (active lter) is identied as an example for utilizing the mathematical model formulated in Appendix B. The theoretical

SINGH et al.: AN IMPROVED CONTROL ALGORITHM FOR ACTIVE FILTERS

1011

Fig. 3. Direct current control algorithm of the AF system [1].

Fig. 4. Proposed modied direct current control algorithm of the AF. Fig. 6. Switch in response to the AF system with a modied direct current control algorithm at a load of 1.19 kW.

the transitions of step-wave-shaped load current, resulting in a higher value of TDD in the supply current. B. Indirect Current Control Technique of CCVSI In the indirect current control technique, the switching signals for CCVSI (active lter) devices are obtained by comparison of reference ( , , and ) and sensed ( , , and ) supply currents in the PWM current controller. The - axes reference supply currents are obtained using (1) and (2). As reported by Akagi et al. [1], the supply system should provide the only real power of the load. Therefore, the axes reference currents of CCVSI are expressed as and
Fig. 5. DSP-based AF system with modied direct current control.

(5)

is set at a low value of 3 kHz. This is to minimize switching losses. The test results with the modied direct current control algorithm are shown in Fig. 6. Fig. 6 shows the switch in response to the AF system with the modied direct current control algorithm. In this gure, , supply current , load current , the supply voltage AF current , and dc bus voltage of the AF are shown along with their values. From Fig. 6, it is observed that the AF system attempts to provide a sinusoidal shape for the supply current. However, due to the drawback of the feedforward control method, the supply current exhibits notches during

The block diagram of the control algorithm of active lter (CC-VSI) with the indirect current control is shown in Fig. 7. The system is tested with the indirect current control algorithm (Fig. 7), and the experimental setup is depicted in Fig. 8. Experimental test results of the AF system with the modied indirect current control technique are depicted in Fig. 9. Referand supply voltage values along with time ence current , and AF curvariation of the supply current , load current rent are depicted in Fig. 9. From Fig. 9, it is clear that TDD in the supply current is above 5% for 29.7% TDD in nonlinear load current. This is due to the presence of slight distortion in the supply current. Further investigation reveals that the use of quantity in (5) allows for the ow of somewhat distorted

1012

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 22, NO. 2, APRIL 2007

Fig. 7. Proposed indirect current control algorithm of the AF system (ac component of load real power ows from supply to load).

Fig. 9. Switch in response to the AF system with a modied indirect current control technique at a 1.19-kW load (ac component of the load real power ows from the supply to the load, reference supply current i outputted from the DSP exhibits distortion).

Fig. 8. DSP-based AF system with modied indirect current control (ac component of load real power ows from the supply to the load).

currents from supply to load. As quantity can be partitioned in two parts ( ), a slight distortion in the supply current shown in Fig. 9 is due to the presence of harmonics power accounted for by quantity . To address this problem, the modied indirect current control algorithm represented by (5) and depicted in Fig. 7 needs further improvement. C. Enhancement of Harmonic and Reactive Power Sharing Attributes of AFs With Proposed Algorithm The real power used in (5) consists of two componentsthe dc component of the load real power and the ac component of load real power . The latter component along with the reactive component constitutes the load harmonic power. The part is an ac component of load reactive power. To have distortion-free smoothly varying sinusoidal supply currents, it is very essential that only the dc component of load real power ows from the supply to the load and the rest of the powerthe sum should ow from the AF to the load. of From the test results shown in Fig. 9, it is clear that the current control technique works well to generate switching signals for AF devices; however, the main culprits are distorted reference currents ( , , and ) generated from the DSP. In Fig. 7, reference currents , , and are based on power ,

where the ac component ( ) of the load real power ( ) accounts for distortion in the reference supply currents. To address this problem of distortion in the reference ( , , and ) and corresponding actual ( , , and ) supply currents, the indirect control algorithm of the AF system is further modied to obtain an improved indirect current control algorithm. In an improved indirect current control algorithm of the AF system, axes reference supply currents can be obtained by implementing (6) in place of (5). The new equations used to compute reference supply currents in coordinates are expressed as and (6)

The improved control algorithm of the AF system is shown in Fig. 10. The algorithm shown in Fig. 10 is also based on an indirect current controlled VSI (AF system). Fig. 11 shows the power-ow diagram for the proposed improved control algorithm of the AF system. For the nonlinear load specied as a dc drive, a variable frequency ac drive, and unbalanced rectier load, the AF system feeds only the harmonics and reactive power of the load and would not provide any net real power unless equipped with an energy storage device, such as superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES), ywheel, battery pack, etc. Also, from an economic standpoint, the proposed control algorithm ensures that the supply system feed only the dc component of the load real power. If properly exploited

SINGH et al.: AN IMPROVED CONTROL ALGORITHM FOR ACTIVE FILTERS

1013

Fig. 10. Improved indirect current control algorithm of the AF system (ac component of load real power ows from AF to load).

Fig. 11. Improved indirect current control-based compensation scheme for load harmonics and reactive power (the supply system feeds only the dc component of load real power and AF system feeds ac component of load real power besides feeding load reactive power).

Fig. 12. Switch in response to the AF system (ac component of load real power ows from the active lter to load, reference supply current outputted from the DSP is free from distortion).

by system designers, this may result in size reduction of the utility transformer and feeder cables, power loss reduction in the supply system, and signicant size reduction in the dc bus capacitor of the AF system. The switch in response to the AF is shown in Fig. 12 and values of all currents and the voltage of the system are depicted as a function of time. It is clear from Fig. 12 that as opposed to the algorithm depicted in Fig. 7, the reference supply current generated from an improved indirect current control algorithm of Fig. 10 is free from any distortion; therefore, the PWM current controller forces actual currents to be free from any distortion. A quick comparison between Fig. 6 (results based on the control algorithm shown in Fig. 4) and Fig. 12 (results based on an improved control algorithm shown in Fig. 10), reveals that the improved indirect current control algorithm results in switching notches and distortion-free unity power factor supply currents. Therefore, load harmonics and reactive power are fed from the AF, and the supply system feeds only the dc component of the load real power. Fig. 13 depicts the harmonic spectrum of the supply currents obtained with different types of control algorithms. Before carrying out any further investigation, it is essential to comprehend the reasons for occurrence of switching notches in the supply currents when the AF system employs the direct current control algorithm (Figs. 3 and 4). Therefore, in the remainder of Section III, reasons are provided for the occurrence of switching notches in the supply currents of an AF system with the direct current control algorithm.

Fig. 13. Harmonic spectrum of the supply and load currents with a different control algorithm of the AF.

D. Switching Notches in Supply Currents From Fig. 6, it is observed that a three-phase RL nonlinear load current, shown only for phase a ( ), exhibits a step waveshape with discontinuities (zero current for a total of 120 per ac cycle) and there is an instantaneous change from one step to another step. Fortunately, contrary to the RC nonlinear load, the waveshape of the RL nonlinear load current is somewhat independent of the load power. With an increase or a decrease in

1014

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 22, NO. 2, APRIL 2007

load power, the load current only changes its magnitude during the intervals when power ows from the input to output port of the nonlinear load. Due to an instantaneous change from one step to another step and the presence of a discontinuous period in the load current, an instantaneous compensation of the load harmonics is required. Failing instantaneous compensation of the load harmonics, the switching notches are the result in supply currents. Therefore, a delay in the compensation of harmonics of an R-L nonlinear load results in switching notches in the supply currents. E. Switching Notches Free Performance of the Indirect Current Control Algorithm It is also essential to nd out why the direct current control algorithm of CCVSI suffers from the problem of switching notches, whereas the indirect current control algorithm of CCVSI is free from these problems. As it is clear from Figs. 3 and 4 and the previous discussion, in the case of the direct current control algorithm, the switching signals for the devices of the AF are obtained by comparing sensed ( , , and ) and reference ( , , and ) currents of the AF (CCVSI). On the other hand, in case of the indirect current control algorithm (Figs. 7 and 10), the switching signals for the devices of the AF (CC-VSI) are obtained by comparing sensed , ( , , and ) and reference ( , , and ) supply currents. There are mainly two reasons why the indirect current control algorithm is free from switching notches. ( , , and 1) Reason 1: The reference AF currents ) are fast-varying nonsinusoidal signals, while the reference ( , , and ) are slow-varying (60-Hz) supply currents sinusoidal signals. Therefore, in computation of the reference currents for both the direct and indirect algorithms of current control, DSP computation speed is an important factor. The TMS320C31 DSP [15] used for real-time implementation of the AFs control algorithm requires 205 s. This time is equivalent to only 4.428 for a slow-varying 60-Hz system. On the other hand, this time delay caused by DSP computation is quite sub( , , and ) stantial for fast-varying reference currents in case of the direct current control algorithm. Therefore, unlike the indirect current control algorithm in case of the direct current control algorithm, instantaneous compensation is not impossible but it is certainly a difcult task to accomplish. This is due to the involvement of a substantial amount of DSP computation time (205 s). 2) Reason 2: On one hand, the direct current control algorithm operates on the principle of feedforward control, wherein ( , , and ) are comthe reference currents of the AF ( , , and ) currents of pared with the actual (sensed) the AF. Hence, at any instant on an ac cycle, the direct current controller does not have accurate information about the shape of the actual (sensed) supply current ( , , and ). Therefore, even if there are switching notches in the supply current, the direct current controller does not possess necessary information to compensate for these notches. On the other hand, the indirect current control algorithm operates on the principle of feedback, where switching signals for AF devices are obtained by ( , , comparison of sinusoidal reference supply currents ( , , and ) supply and ) with the actual (sensed)

currents. Therefore, at any instant on the ac wave, the indirect current controller has exact information about the shape of the supply currents and, hence, the indirect current controller exercises a desired corrective action to provide notches-free sinusoidal supply currents. It is essential to note that both the algorithms shown in Figs. 7 and 10 are based on indirect current control of the AF system. These control algorithms (Figs. 7 and 10) work on the principle of feedback control and the supply currents are free from switching notches. However, distortion present in the actual supply currents depends upon the shape of the reference supply currents generated from the DSP. This is the reason why an improved indirect current control algorithm (Fig. 10) provides switching notches and distortion-free supply currents, whereas in case of the algorithm shown in Fig. 7, the switching notches-free supply currents exhibit a slight distortion owing to the shape of reference currents generated from the DSP system. IV. EXPERIMENTATION OF IMPROVED CONTROL ALGORITHM The proposed improved control algorithm (Fig. 10) of the active lter is implemented using a TMS320C31 DSP system. The performance of the improved control algorithm depends on the design of the low-pass lter (LPF) needed to partition real power of load in its ac and dc components and to disseminate relevant information from sensed signals. Therefore, design and digital implementation of the LPF is of vital importance and bilinear transformation is used to carry out this task. The design of the LPF is detailed in Appendix C. Appendix D provides the system parameters. A. System Response With Standard Three-Phase Topology of AF The three-phase circuit of an active lter and nonlinear load arrangement is shown in Fig. 1. The switch in and steady-state responses of the AF system with the improved control algorithm are shown in Fig. 14. It is found that as soon as the AF system is turned on, three-phase nonlinear load currents are shaped in switching notches and distortion-free balanced sinusoidal unity power factor currents. Fig. 14(b) shows the steadystate response of the system. Values of all the quantities reported in Fig. 14 are also given. Fig. 15 shows the load perturbation response of the AF system and it is found that there is smooth changeover from one load condition to another load condition. Also, during transient transition, the system maintains unity power factor operation without the occurrence of switching notches in the supply currents. Experimental results shown in Fig. 15 validate the design perfection of the LPF implemented in DSP. It is also conrmed that the proposed improved control algorithm offers better response compared to the control algorithm (Fig. 3) proposed by Akagi et al. [1]. This is due to years of sustained improvements in the power-electronics devices, DSP technology, and control techniques. The values of all quantities depicted in Fig. 15 are given. B. Response of System With Reduced Switch Topology of AF The improved control algorithm (Fig. 10) is implemented with a reduced switch active lter. Contrary to the previous in-

SINGH et al.: AN IMPROVED CONTROL ALGORITHM FOR ACTIVE FILTERS

1015

Fig. 14. Response of the AF system with an improved indirect current control algorithm at the 1.19-kW load (ac component of load real power ows from the active lter to load).

Fig. 16. Switch in response to a reduced switch AF at 0.73-kW load.

Fig. 15. Load perturbation response of the AF system for an increase in load from 0.52 to 1.23 kW.

vestigation [13] on a reduced switch AF system, the proposed improved control algorithm of the AF system offers better performance and does not need any phase-locked loop (PLL) control circuits, therefore, reducing the cost and complexity of a

real-time system. Also, the proposed control algorithm works well in the presence of distortion in the voltage at PCC. Apart from these advantages, the proposed control algorithm targets eliminating switching devices in one leg of the CCVSI. The modied reduced switch active lter along with load arrangement is shown in Fig. 2. Since one leg of the CCVSI is eliminated by the center tap capacitor, the gate drive circuit requirement and associated electronic circuit, including the number of current sensors, are reduced. This further reduces the overall cost of the system, while raising the system reliability as an occurrence of shoot through fault will be limited to only two legs of the CCVSI circuit. Fig. 16 depicts the switch in response to the reduced switch AF system. It is found from this gure that as soon as switching signals are issued, the AF starts supplying harmonics and reactive power of nonlinear load, and the supply current is locked in-phase with the supply voltage. For a stepped-wave load current, the supply current exhibits notches and distortion-free sinusoidal shape. It is also found that both halves of the center-tapped dc bus capacitor experience same value of ), which is very vital for safe, reliable, voltage ( and balanced operation of the AF circuit. The dc bus voltage of the AF circuit is found to be self-supporting. In Fig. 17, the harmonic spectrum of the supply and load current is given for standard and reduced switch topologies of the AF. The load perturbation response of the reduced switch topology of the AF system is shown in Fig. 18. It is found from this gure that there is a smooth transition from one value of the load to another value. Also, switching notches and distortion-free supply current always maintain their sinusoidal shape

1016

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 22, NO. 2, APRIL 2007

Fig. 17. Comparison of harmonic spectrum of the supply current with standard and reduced switch topologies of the AF.

real power and ac component of load reactive power ) and dc component of load reactive power are supplied from the AF system. From Figs. 1618, it is revealed that the modied reactive power theory (Figs. 4, 7, and 10) performs well and provides a self-supporting dc bus voltage of the AF system even without voltage sensing at the dc bus of the AF system. This is due to a proper balance of power ow from source to the load. In theory, it should work without any problems; however, in real-time implementation, a very small amount (1 to 3% of load rating) of real power is needed to meet power losses in the AF circuit. The control system is able to force the ow of minimal real power that needs to have a self-supporting dc bus voltage of the AF system. This is evident from smooth current control depicted in experimental results, which is otherwise not possible if the AF dc bus voltage is not maintained, and losses in the AF circuit are not fed from the supply system. To keep losses in the AF circuit to a minimum, possibly while maintaining its performance, a PWM carrier frequency of 3 kHz is chosen, which is very low compared to the high-frequency carrier signal used in many applications, such as electric drives, where suppression of acoustic noise is one of the performance indices. It is found that in reduced switch topology of the AF system, no control is required to maintain the equal value of the voltage for both the halves of the center-tapped dc bus capacitor. This is made possible by selecting equal values of capacitance for both halves of the dc bus capacitor in the AF circuit. Also, unlike alternative techniques [5][13], where dc bus voltage sensing is essential, in this paper, the AF system is controlled with the reactive power theory-based algorithms, which do not require voltage sensing of the AF dc bus. V. CONCLUSION The instantaneous reactive power theory has been modied to obtain an improved control algorithm of the AF. The low-pass lter (LPF) was needed for the proposed control algorithm. The LPF designed and implemented in the DSP system has been found to perform well over a desired range of load variation in the system. It has been found that the proposed control algorithm offers notches and distortion-free supply currents during steady and transient operating conditions of the nonlinear load. It has been found that the reduced switch topology of the AF systems operates well with the proposed control algorithm and prevents the ow of harmonics and reactive power from supply to load. Through extensive experimentation, it has been found that the proposed control algorithm does not require the AF dc bus voltage-control loop and also ensures equal voltage across both halves of the center-tapped capacitor in the reduced switch AF circuit. Therefore, it has been possible to eliminate two voltage sensors and their electronic circuit for a DSP interface, which may be needed for reliable operation with other control techniques of the AF system. APPENDIX A DEFINITION OF INSTANTANEOUS IMAGINARY POWER [1], [3] In a three-phase system, instantaneous voltages and currents can be expressed as space vectors in plane. The load

Fig. 18. Load perturbation response of the reduced switch AF for a load change from 0.35 to 0.82 kW.

while being in-phase with the supply voltage. The dc voltage of center-tapped capacitor used in the third leg of the AF system remains constant and equal for both halves of the dc bus capacitor. Therefore, the AF system exhibits a self-supporting dc bus voltage, as it is an essential requirement for the harmonics and reactive power compensation of nonlinear loads. C. Self-Supporting DC Bus of AF System It is clear from discussion in Sections II and III that the modied reactive power theory proposed in this investigation ensures the ow of the dc component of load real power from the ) of supply system. The remaining three components ( the total load power, namely, harmonics (ac component of load

SINGH et al.: AN IMPROVED CONTROL ALGORITHM FOR ACTIVE FILTERS

1017

Fig. 19.

 coordinates transformation.

axis. Therefore, is real power in a three-phase circuit with diand are not commension in . Contrarily, and ponents of instantaneous power because each term is the product of instantaneous voltage on one axis and instantaneous current on the perpendicular axis. Therefore, is not dealt as a conventional electrical quantity and does not have any of the units W, VA, or VAr. To properly account , a new dimension has been introduced by Akagi et al. [1] that is briey described in Appendix B. Furthermore, the negative sign is due to the fact that the angle between in (A.6) preceding and is greater than 90 for a nonunity power factor load. APPENDIX B DEFINITION AND PHYSICAL MEANING OF INSTANTANEOUS REACTIVE POWER The load currents in orthogonal plane can be expressed using (A.6) such that (A.7) (A.2) The computation of currents and of (A.7) in the orthogonal plane is possible by using (A.6), because of the de. The instantaneous load currents on terminant the orthogonal plane of (A.7) are divided into two components and can be expressed as (A.8)

voltage vectors ( , , and ) at the point of common cou, and ) can be pling (PCC) and load current vectors ( , coordinates as follows: transformed in (A.1)

In (A.1) and (A.2), , , and axes are xed on the same plane and are separated from each other by , as shown in Fig. 19. The are axes of an orthogonal plane with the - axis being synchronized with the -axis of plane and the -axis being orthogonal to the -axis. It is noted that load (L) voltage vectors , , and at the PCC may be considered , , and under the same as supply (s) voltage vectors the assumption of a smaller value of source impedance, which occurs quite often. The instantaneous power of a three-phase load can be dened as (A.3) In (A.3) , is also equal to the instantaneous power obtained from the conventional relationship of (A.4) as follows: (A.4) The instantaneous imaginary power of the three-phase load is dened as (A.5) [1] (A.5) In (A.5) , represents the cross product of the two quantities. Therefore, instantaneous power ( ) and instantaneous imaginary power ( ), which is the amplitude of reactive power, are expressed as (A.6) In (A.6), and are two components of instantaneous load real power because these two are the product of instantaneous voltage and current that are projected on the same

(A.8) In (A.8), the -axis instantaneous real component of load curis rent

where the -axis instantaneous reactive component of load curis rent

where the -axis instantaneous real component of load current is

where the -axis instantaneous reactive component of load curis rent

The physical meaning and the reasons for the naming by Akagi et al. [1] for instantaneous real and reactive current are further claried in the following paragraphs.

1018

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 22, NO. 2, APRIL 2007

Let the instantaneous real powers in the -axis and - axis be and , respectively. The respective powers are given by the conventional denition as follows:

APPENDIX C DESIGN AND DIGITAL IMPLEMENTATION OF LOW-PASS FILTER The LPF is used to separate the load real and reactive powers in dc and ac components. The design of the LPF is given here. The transfer function of an LPF in frequency domain can be expressed as (A.16) Here, is the cutoff frequency of the LPF. Using bilinear transformation [16], the mapped into the -plane by

(A.9) Using (A.8) and (A.9) , the instantaneous real power ( ) in the three-phase load circuit is given as follows:

-plane can be

(A.10) (A.17) It is noted that the sum of the third and the fourth terms in the right-hand side of (A.10) is always zero. From (A.8) and (A.9), the following equations are obtained: (A.11) (A.12) An inspection of (A.11) and (A.12) leads to the following essential conclusions [1], [3]. coincides 1) The sum of instantaneous real power with the instantaneous real power in the three-phase load and are named as instantacircuit. Therefore, neous real power. and cancel each other 2) The instantaneous powers and make no contribution to the instantaneous power ow from the source to the load. Therefore, the sum of and are called instantaneous reactive power of the load. The instantaneous real power ( ) and reactive power ( ) of the load can be further divided into dc and ac components as given below and (A.13) (A.18) By rewriting, (A.18) can be expressed as follows: Here, is the sampling time of the DSP used for real-time implementation of the AF control algorithm. By substituting the value of , (A.16) can be further expressed as (A.18)

(A.19) Equation (A.19) can be converted in time domain as follows:

(A.20) To convert an -domain equation in time domain, is re, and is replaced by . Therefore, placed by the output of the LPF at the th sampling instant is expressed as

In (A.13) , and are the dc and the ac components of the instantaneous real power of the load, and and are the dc and ac components of load instantaneous reactive power, respectively. Based on the dc and ac components of the instantaneous real and reactive power of the load, the axes projections of load and can be expressed as currents

(A.21) Equation (A.21) can be rewritten as

(A.14)

(A.22) where output of the LPF at the th sampling instant; output of the LPF at the th sampling instant; input to the LPF at the th sampling instant; input to the LPF at the th sampling instant.

(A.15) and into Partitioning the orthogonal load currents four dc and ac components of the real and reactive instantaneous power are used to compensate load reactive power and harmonics.

SINGH et al.: AN IMPROVED CONTROL ALGORITHM FOR ACTIVE FILTERS

1019

For the proposed control algorithm of the AF system, s (the DSP sampling time of the AF control algorithm) . A 10-Hz cutoff frequency for the LPF works and well as the gain of the LPF for the frequency of and signals Hz. This ensures proper division of will be zero for and in two parts: and . By substituting s and Hz, (A.22) is expressed as (A.23) When, implemented in DSP, (A.23) works as an LPF for and provides ltered output . For the AF input signal are and and output signals system, input signals of the LPF are and . APPENDIX D PARAMETERS OF AF SYSTEM TEST BENCH The following are the parameters and details of the prototype laboratory test system: per phase rms supply voltage 60 V (for a six-switch AF system) and 40 V (for a reduced switch AF 60 Hz, 0.1 , 0.5 mH, 0.1 , system), 3.94 mH, 5 F (for a six-switch AF system) and 175 F (for a reduced switch AF system), and DSP computation time 205 s. REFERENCES
[1] H. Akagi, Y. Kanazawa, and A. Nabae, Instantaneous reactive power compensators comprising switching devices without energy storage components, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. IA-20, no. 3, pp. 625630, May/Jun. 1984. [2] L. Gyugyi, Reactive power generation and control by thyristor circuits, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. IA-15, no. 5, pp. 521532, Sep./Oct. 1979. [3] H. Akagi and A. Nabae, The p -q theory in three-phase systems under non-sinusoidal conditions, J. ETEP, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 3731, Jan./Feb. 1993. [4] L. S. Czarnecki, On some misinterpretations of the instantaneous reactive power p -q theory, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 828836, May 2004. [5] M. Rastogi, N. Mohan, and A. A. Edris, Filtering of harmonics currents and damping of resonances in power systems with a hybrid-active lter, in Proc. IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conf., Dallas, TX, 1995, pp. 607612. [6] S. Bhattacharya, A. Veltman, D. Divan, and R. D. Lorenz, Flux based active lter controller, in Proc. IEEE Ind. Applicat. Soc. Annu. Meeting, Orlando, FL, 1995, pp. 24832491. [7] B. Singh, B. N. Singh, A. Chandra, and K. Al-Haddad, DSP-based implementation of an improved control algorithm of a three-phase active lter for compensation of unbalanced non-linear loads, J. ETEP, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 2934, Jan./Feb. 2000. [8] L. Malesani, L. Rossetto, and P. Tenti, Active lter for reactive power and harmonics compensation, in Proc. IEEE PESC Conf., Vancouver, BC, Canada, 1986, pp. 321330. [9] B. Singh, K. Al-Haddad, and A. Chandra, A new control approach to three-phase active lter for harmonics and reactive power compensation, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 133138, Feb. 1998. [10] J. Dixon, J. Contardo, and L. Moran, DC link fuzzy control for an active power lter, sensing the line current only, in Proc. IEEE Power Eng. Soc. Conf., St. Louis, MO, 1997, pp. 11091114. [11] B. N. Singh, A. Chandra, and K. Al-Haddad, DSP-based indirect-current-controlled STATCOM Part 1: Evaluation of current control techniques, Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng., Elect. Power Appl., vol. 147, no. 2, pp. 107112, Mar. 2000.

[12] , DSP-based indirect-current-controlled STATCOM Part 2: Multifunctional capabilities, Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng., Elect. Power Appl., vol. 147, no. 2, pp. 113118, Mar. 2000. [13] G. Joos, S. Chen, and K. Haddad, Four switch three phase active lter with reduced current sensors, in Proc. IEEE Power Eng. Soc. Conf., 2000, vol. 3, pp. 13181323. [14] B. N. Singh, P. Rastgoufard, B. Singh, A. Chandra, and K. Al-Haddad, Design, simulation and implementation of three-pole/four-pole topologies of active lters, Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng., Elect. Power Appl., vol. 151, no. 4, pp. 467476, Jul. 2004. [15] MX31 Modular Embedded System Developers Guide. Berkeley, CA: Integrated Motions, Inc., 1992. [16] A. V. Oppenheim, R. W. Schafer, and J. R. Buck, Discrete-Time Signal Processing, Second ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1999. Brij N. Singh (S93M98) was born in Shahpur Charki, India, in 1968. He received the B.E. degree from Madan Mohan Malviya Engineering College, Gorakhpur, India, in 1989, the M.E. degree from the University of Roorkee, Roorkee, India, in 1991, and the Ph.D. degree from the Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi, India, in 1996. In 1996, he joined the cole de Technology Suprieure, Universit du Qubec, Montreal, QC, Canada, as a Postdoctoral Fellow to work in the areas of exible ac transmission systems (FACTS) and power quality. In 1999, he joined Concordia University, Montreal, and worked in the area of power supplies for telecommunication and computer systems. In 2000, he joined the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, as an Assistant Professor. Currently, he is the Principal Investigator of a research project funded by the National Science Foundation. His elds of research interest include power electronics, power quality, computational intelligence, modeling/analysis and digital control of electrical machines, and renewable energy systems. Dr. Singh received three teaching excellence awards (IEEE ETA KAPPA NU/IEEE Teaching Award awards voted by electrical engineering undergraduate students) for outstanding instruction in electrical engineering at Tulane University.

Bhim Singh (SM99) was born in Rahamapur, India, in 1956. He received the B.E. electrical degree from the University of Roorkee, Roorkee, India, in 1977, and the M.Tech. and Ph.D. degrees from the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), New Delhi, India, in 1979 and 1983, respectively. In 1983, he joined the Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Roorkee, as a Lecturer. He became a Reader there in 1988. In 1990, he joined the Department of Electrical Engineering, IIT, as an Assistant Professor. He became an Associate Professor in 1994 and a Full Professor in 1997. His elds of interest include power electronics, electrical machines and drives, active lters, static var compensators, analysis, and digital control of electrical machines. Dr. Singh is a Fellow of the Indian National Academy of Engineering (INAE), Institution of Engineers (India), and Institution of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineers (IETE) and a Life Member of the Indian Society for Technical Education (ISTE), System Society of India (SSI), and the National Institution of Quality And Reliability (NIQR).

Ambrish Chandra (SM99) was born in India in 1955. He received the B.E. degree from the University of Roorkee (now IIT), Roorkee, India, in 1977, the M.Tech. degree from IIT, New Delhi, India, in 1980, and the Ph.D. degree from the University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada, in 1987. He was a Lecturer and then a Reader with the University of Roorkee. Since 1994, he has been a Professor with the Electrical Engineering Department at cole de Technologie Suprieure, University of Qubec, Montreal, QC, Canada. His main research interests are power quality, active lters, static reactive power compensation, and exible ac transmission systems (FACTS). Dr. Chandra is a member of the Ordre des Ingnieurs du Qubec, Canada.

1020

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 22, NO. 2, APRIL 2007

Parviz Rastgoufard (SM01) received the B.S. degree in electrical engineering from the State University of New York, Buffalo, in 1976 and the M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in systems science from Michigan State University, Ann Arbor, in 1978 and 1983, respectively. He has been with the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, School of Engineering, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, since 1987. He serves as the Chair of the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science and is the holder of Energy Chair in Electric Power Engineering. His research interests are large-scale electric transmission and generation systems planning, operation, and control in general and systems stability and security modeling, simulation, and analysis.

Kamal Al-Haddad (S82M88SM92) was born in Beirut, Lebanon, in 1954. He received the B.Sc.A. and M.Sc.A. degrees from the University of Qubec Trois-Rivires, Trois-Rivires, QC, Canada, in 1982 and 1984, respectively, and the Ph.D. degree from the Institut National Polythechnique, Toulouse, France, in 1988. From 1987 to 1990, he was a Professor in the Engineering Department, Universit du Qubec Trois Rivires. In 1990, he joined the Electrical Engineering Department, cole de Technologie Suprieure, Universit du Qubec, Montreal, QC, Canada, as a Professor. His elds of interest are static power converters, harmonics and reactive power control, and switch-mode and resonant converters, including the modeling, control, and development of industrial prototypes for various applications. He is a coauthor of the Power System Blockset software of Matlab. Dr. Al-Haddad has held the Canada Research Chair In Energy Conversion and Power Electronics since 2002. He is a member of the Order of Engineers of Quebec, Canada, and the Canadian Institute of Engineers.