Maritime Archaeology

Newsletter
No. 21 • Autumn 2006 from Denmark

Underwater archaeologists at the Zea Harbour Project. Photo: Bjørn Lovén / © ZHP 2005
N0. 21 • AUTUMN 2006
Continuity and a
CONTENTS:
new beginning
Continuity and a new beginning . . . . . . . 2

Jørgen Skaarup, Langelands Museum,

is retiring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
The management of waterlogged
archaeological sites in situ.
Research at the conservation department
of the National Museum of Denmark . . . . 6
The Zea Harbour Project. . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Parts of a wooden shipwreck
found in the Wadden Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Conservation of waterlogged wood
at the National Museum of Denmark.
Recent research and improvements . . . . . 18
An archaeological view at
the second Danish-Prussian war . . . . . . . 22
Just published:
ISBN 8785180343
Published by the Viking Ship Museum in Ros-
kilde in collaboration with the National Mu-
seum of Denmark
DKK 385 / EUR 52
Three years ago the final Maritime Archaeo-
logy Newsletter was issued by the Centre for
Maritime Archaeology in Roskilde. It summa-
rized the ten years of intensive research acti-
vities that the Centre had deployed since its
establishment in 1993 on the basis of two
five-year grants from the Danish National
research Foundation. The general sentiment
expressed in that issue, No. 20, was slightly
ambiguous to say the least. On the one hand
there were pride and gratifying satisfaction.
After all, a lot had been accomplished. As
intended, the Centre’s activities had brought
maritime archaeology on another level, both
in Denmark and abroad. A wide range
of international publications had been pro-
duced. The international peer evaluation
report concluded that the ten-year funded
period of the Centre had just been what the
developing field of maritime archaeology
had needed and that it had been ‘money
well spent’. Despite pride and satisfaction,
however, mournful sadness was not absent
from this last Newsletter. There was no
denying: with the Centre’s mission accom-
plished, a very interesting and intensive
period came to a close. There was no way
that the rules could be changed, however, or
that the targeted funding could be extended
beyond that point. What future lay ahead for
maritime archaeology? Would all initiatives
stop? Or would activities continue in slightly
altered settings? Would other institutions
take up parts of the challenges ahead? How
would personal and institutional careers
be affected? The fact that the University of
Copenhagen had discontinued the position
of a lecturer in maritime archaeology and
that the National museum had to face serious
reductions in its staff did not help to mollify
uncertainty and melancholy feelings.
Three years later there is every reason

2
to take stock of developments since. In
fact, the Centre’s parent institutions, the
National Museum and the Viking Ship
Museum in Roskilde, have consolidated
a wide range of maritime archaeological
efforts and research. The stream of pub-
lications is certainly not drying up. The
Centre of Maritime and Regional Studies
at the University of Southern Denmark and
its research school MARINERS/MAST have
taken on maritime archaeological research
in their cross-disciplinary approaches. PhD
projects have been initiated. Mette Busch of
the Viking Ship Museum will shortly defend
her thesis and Aoife Daly of the National
Museum will follow next year. Other institu-
tions, such as the Danish Institute in Athens,
host relevant projects. The heritage autho-
rity, Kulturarvsstyrelsen, and the regional
museums continue to develop policies for
archaeological sites in the Danish maritime
zones. A regular flow of activities, informa-
tion, and related research is the result. And
last but not least, the University of Southern
Denmark has decided to start an internatio-
nally oriented master’s course in maritime
archaeology this year. Such a curriculum is
rare internationally, and in Denmark it can
build on the wide Danish experience as well
as on the international background of tea-
chers and students. The programme is based
in Esbjerg, the maritime industrial city on the
Danish North Sea coast.
To this background, we decided to revi-
talize the Maritime Archaeology Newsletter
and to jointly introduce the first new issue.
Ole Crumlin-Pedersen, started the newsletter
in 1993 and has been its editor all through
its previous existence. Thijs Maarleveld, has
been appointed to lead the new program-
me in Esbjerg and takes over. Then, it will
no longer be the Maritime Archaeology
Newsletter from Roskilde. Neither, however,
will it be a newsletter from Esbjerg. Even
more than before, developments in Danish
maritime archaeology depend on a range
of participants with complementary roles in
heritage, interpretation, research and acade-
mia. Organizationally and geographically
they are employed at different places. This
should be reflected in the contributions
and in the Newsletter’s name. It is meant to
serve all maritime archaeological initiatives
in Denmark and perhaps as an instrument to
loosely bind these together where needed.
So from now on, it will be the Maritime
Archaeology Newsletter from Denmark.
Otherwise, the format remains unchanged.
In this first – or rather 21st – issue a new
find from the Wadden Sea is introduced by
Søren Byskov. Poul Jensen and Kristiane
Strætkvern present research that supports the
development of conservation techniques at
the National Museum’s conservation depart-
ment. David Gregory reports on issues related
to in situ management and monitoring. Otto
Uldum stands up for historical archaeology,
and Bjørn Lovén guides us through the infra-
structure of ancient Piraeus. It is a relatively
random collection of subjects illustrating
how diverse and interesting the Danish
maritime archaeological landscape actually
is; a landscape in which it is attractive to
take up maritime archaeological subjects or
studies. Future issues of the Newsletter will
be similarly diverse. With the aspiration to
create a binding element, it is the intention
to cover as much as possible. Projects and
institutions presently not represented are
therefore explicitly invited to contribute.
In response to current events, we con-
clude by congratulating Christian Lemée
with the presentation of his long-awaited
‘The Renaissance Shipwrecks from Chri-
stianshavn’ and Jørgen Skaarup with his reti-
rement. Jørgen’s steady contribution to our
field is summarized by Flemming Rieck. This
Newsletter is published just before the 11th
International Symposium on Boat and Ship
Archaeology and other relevant conferen-
ces where its international audience meets.
We certainly hope that they will appreciate
this new beginning of the newsletter, … in
appropriate continuity.
Thijs J. Maarleveld
Ole Crumlin-Pedersen
3
Jørgen Skaarup, Langelands Museum,
is retiring
In the year 2000, Langelands Museum could
celebrate its 100-years anniversary. Today
the museum is an institution with a wide
scope of activities. Besides its headquarters
in Rudkøbing it manages a broad range of
special exhibitions at a range of locations
on the island of Langeland. It is one of the
most active local museums in Denmark, and
marine and maritime aspects are high on
the agenda of the museum. Despite a his-
tory of more than a century it is remarkable
that the museum has only had three leaders:
its founder Jens Winther, Hakon Berg, and
finally Jørgen Skaarup, who has been at the
tiller for almost thirty years. After this con-
siderable period, Jørgen has now decided to
apply for his pension.
4
Jørgen Skaarup finished his archaeologi-
cal studies at the University of Copenhagen
in 1971 and was promptly employed at
Langelands Museum. In 1977, he became
its leader. In the period during which Jørgen
steered its course, the museum has under-
gone a remarkable development. The activi-
ties of the museum cover a wide spec-
trum, but in this Newsletter the focus will
of course be on maritime archaeology, in
which Jørgen and the museum have had a
specific significance.
The development of Maritime Archaeology
in Denmark accelerated after the excavation
of the Skuldelev ships in the fjord of Roskilde
in 1962. This investigation was carried out
by the National Museum, and at the time, no
other museums in the country were working
with our sunken cultural history. Langelands
Museum was the first local museum to take
underwater archaeology on the agenda. At
an early stage, Jørgen Skaarup realised that
many sites, wrecks, and artefacts which
today are situated on the seabed can add
significant new scientific information to the
knowledge of the Fyn-Langeland-region.
The museum took the responsibility for
underwater archaeology in the entire region,
and lately, that area has been enlarged to
incorporate the eastern fjords and waters of
Sønderjylland.
The museum has developed a solid coop-
eration with sports divers, who act as the
‘local eyes’ under water. Many hours have
been spent by Jørgen and the other museum
staff in order to educate these local inform-
ers. They have learned how to register,
record, and excavate under water. The exca-
vations have always been carried out under
the responsibility and supervision of profes-
sionally educated diving archaeologists. A
lot of high quality information has been
added to the archives of the museum and its
exhibitions reflect the museum’s underwater
archaeological work.
Jørgen Skaarup’s commitment to maritime
archaeology has been significant. He has
been working very hard to encourage other
museums in Denmark to engage in under-
water work. As a result, the locally funded
coverage of Denmark’s water-covered areas
is much better than ten years ago. This is not
to say that the system is presently foolproof
and ideal. One of the weaknesses is that
only very few professionals are exclusively
employed to dedicate their time to underwa-
ter archaeology. Another is that the money
for their activities depends on the regions,
whereas the significance of underwater heri-
tage often surpasses the regional scale.
The most important scientific result of
the underwater investigations carried out
by Langelands Museum has recently been
published in the International Series of BAR,
British Archaeological Reports, so that it
is available for the international scientific
community. Its title is Møllegabet II – A sub-
merged Mesolithic settlement in southern
Denmark. Møllegabet is by far the largest
excavation under water, which was hitherto
carried out by the museum, but it is certainly
not the only one. Besides submerged settle-
ment sites, quite a number of wreck-sites
can be added to the list of places that have
been investigated under Jørgen Skaarup's
leadership.
With the retirement of Jørgen one of
the strong personalities of Danish maritime
archaeology is leaving. He will be missed by
his colleagues in Denmark and abroad, but
hopefully he will continue to take part in the
ever ongoing debate on which direction the
management of archaeology should take. In
1987, Jørgen was given the Erik Westerby
Award in recognition of his great achieve-
ments in the field of archaeological research.
He has given a long series of lectures
on different archaeological themes both in
Denmark and in international gatherings.
He has written numerous papers, and his
list of published books covers a wide range
of archaeological subjects and is certainly
impressing:
Hesselø-Sølager (tragtbægerkulturens fangst-
bopladser), 1973.
Stengade. Ein langeländischer Wohnplatz
mit Hausresten aus der frühneolithischen
Zeit. 1975.
Stengade II. En langelandsk gravplads med
grave fra romersk jernalder og vikingetid.
1976.
Flaadet. En tidlig maglemoseboplads på
Langeland. 1979.
Yngre stenalder på øerne syd for Fyn. 1985.
Møllegabet II. A submerged Mesolithic set-
tlement in southern Denmark. 2004.
Øhavets middelalderlige borge og voldste-
der. 2005.
His colleagues in maritime archaeology
wish to thank Jørgen for his always inspir-
ing company. Might the future give him fair
wind to sail with in his new boat, and hope-
fully this boat will stop whenever the blue
and white flag indicates ongoing underwater
activities in the Danish waters.
Flemming Rieck
5
The management of waterlogged
archaeological sites in situ.
Research at the conservation department
of the National Museum of Denmark
Introduction
Denmark is surrounded by water, and even
ashore there are many lakes, rivers, and wet-
lands. All these waterlogged environments
have yielded, and will potentially yield
many more, archaeological finds.
Worldwide, the increase of commercial
developments, be they pipelines, cables
or wind farms offshore, or road and hous-
ing developments on land, has lead to the
ever-increasing discovery of new archaeo-
logical finds. These finds are often excavated
under ‘Rescue’ conditions. In order to set
other finds aside for future enjoyment and
research, there is a growing trend and need
to preserve archaeological finds where they
6
lie, in situ or, alternatively, to redeposit
finds in benign environments following their
excavation and archaeological documenta-
tion (reburial).
Since 1996, the National Museum has
researched into assessing the feasibility of
preserving archaeological sites on land and
underwater in situ. The archaeology unit of
the National Museum’s conservation depart-
ment presently has four staff and a full-time
PhD student. Two staff-members research
exclusively in these two related areas. In
order to advise on in situ preservation on a
sound scientific basis, the group has concen-
trated its research in three areas: deteriora-
tion mechanisms, methods of monitoring,
and development of protective measures.
All three are especially tuned to waterlogged
environments in archaeological sites on land
and under water. The work of the group will
be illustrated with a few case studies.
In situ preservation of sites on land
Nydam Mose
During the Iron Age, Nydam Mose was
a small lake into which artefacts were
deposited on several occasions between
around 200 and 500 AD. The present-day
site is a waterlogged water-meadow and
since 1859, several archaeological cam-
paigns have taken place. The last of these
was in 1997 when, because of the volume
of finds and financial resources needed for
conservation, the feasibility of preserving
the site in situ was explored. Since 1997,
environmental parameters of the site have
continuously been monitored in order to
discover whether the present conditions of
the site are conducive to the future protec-
tion of the artefacts. Related to this, a PhD

Left: The find mate-

rial in Nydam Mose
is astonishingly rich.
Metals, wood, and
leather are all com-
bined in the buried
weaponry. Photo:
Per Poulsen.

Right: Geotextile
covering of Nydam
Mose. Photo: Hen-
ning Matthiesen.

7
project began in 2003. Its aim is to identify
the various micro-organisms causing dete-
rioration of wooden artefacts in the site.
By using molecular biological techniques
to extract the DNA of bacteria from wood,
it tries to identify both the bacteria which
have caused deterioration and those which
may continue to degrade the artefacts. The
project is due for completion in 2007.
Growth of the Horsetail (Equisetum) turns
out to be another major threat. It has a
root system penetrating 1-2 metres into the
ground. Unfortunately, these roots penetrate
many of the artefacts. Recently, a trial has
been conducted, covering an area with geo-
textile, to see if this can prevent the growth.
Much of the initial monitoring work at
Nydam concentrated on the areas where
past excavations had taken place. As these
areas covered approximately 10% of the
former iron age lake, geophysical investiga-
tions were carried out in 2005 in collabora-
tion with researchers from York University
8
in England, to assess if there were other
likely areas of the meadow which contain
archaeological finds.
Bryggen
Bryggen in Norway is one of the oldest
medieval trading ports in Europe. It was
inscribed on the World Heritage list in
1979. With its traditional timber buildings
it used to be one of the Hanseatic League’s
four overseas offices. The building structure
is actually pre-Hanseatic and dates back to
the 11th century. Extensive excavations were
carried out between 1955 and 1968 in the
northern half of Bryggen after a fierce fire.
These excavations were among the first to
reveal the huge amount of information that
urban deposits contain. The cultural deposits
under the protected area are up to 10 metres
The wooden foundations of medieval Bryg-
gen under excavation in the 1960's. Photo:
Asbjørn Herteig.
thick, covering the entire span of Bryggens
history. An extensive monitoring programme
was started in 2001 and is currently ongo-
ing. It aims at understanding the settling of
the sediments and timber foundations and at
mapping the preservation conditions.
Åmosen
Åmosen is internationally renowned for the
large amount of well-preserved prehistoric
archaeological finds which lie buried in the
area. A range of settlement sites, fishing sites,
and ritual deposits were found when peat
extraction was carried out during and after
the Second World War. Subsequent excava-
tions by the National Museum revealed evi-
dence of logboats, fishing equipment, weap-
ons, houses, shell middens, and a whole
host of organic materials such as wood, nut
shells, animal bones and antler, fish bones,
and insect remains which survived because
of the waterlogged conditions. During the
1960's, a large area of Åmosen was drained
for agricultural purposes, which unfortu-
nately had a detrimental effect on many of
the finds. In 1993, a large area of the site
was officially protected and a small lake
was created to protect the archaeology.
From the mid 1990's, the 'In Situ Group'
has been actively monitoring selected areas
of Åmosen to assess the preservation condi-
tions. Presently, there are plans to protect a
much larger area of Åmosen by establishing
a Nature and Culture park. This seeks to
increase the waterlevel in the area and pre-
vent further deterioration of the peat which
is protecting the rich archaeology.
In situ preservation of sites underwater
When the Centre for Maritime Archaeology
in Roskilde was closed in 2003, research into
in situ preservation of archaeological finds
in the marine environment has continued
at the conservation department. As a mat-
ter of course a close collaboration with the
Viking Ship Museum has been developed,
whereas collaboration with other museums
with responsibility for marine archaeology is
developing. The main themes of research in
recent years have been to identify the mecha-
nisms of degradation of wood, to develop
non-destructive methods to assess the state
of preservation of exposed archaeological
wood both in situ and in the laboratory, and
to develop methods to monitor the environ-
mental parameters within sediments around
shipwrecks.
Mechanisms of deterioration of wood in the
marine environment
One of the main threats to submerged
wood lying exposed on the seabed is from
woodborers like shipworm and gribble. In
order to assess the threats of these organ-
isms to exposed finds, maps of salinity, tem-
perature, and dissolved oxygen are being
prepared from data collected by the Danish
Environmental Agency. Using GIS, these
can be overlain with the positions of known
archaeological sites. Through an under-
standing of the ecological requirements of
the wood boring organisms, ‘Hot Spots’ of
where they are likely to thrive have been
identified. In this manner, it is possible to
identify areas in which wrecks and other
structures are especially under the threat of
such deterioration.
Even when wood is buried in sediments,
it will still undergo deterioration, albeit at a
very slow rate. This is caused by the action
of micro-organisms such as fungi and bac-
teria. Interestingly, the main bacteria caus-
ing deterioration of wood in waterlogged
environments has not yet been formally
identified and it is hoped that the aforemen-
tioned PhD project can address questions
about degradation of wood buried in marine
sediments.
In situ measurement of the state of preser-
vation of wood
To successfully preserve wood in situ it
is desirable to know its state of preserva-
tion. It is, for instance, important to know
whether archaeological wood is structur-
ally strong enough to be covered with
9
sand to prevent the action of wood boring
organisms. Moreover, it is essential to have
base line data for comparison over time.
Knowing its state of preservation will also
enable conservators to assess the optimal
conservation process in those cases where
it may be decided to raise it. The density of
waterlogged wood is a good parameter to
assess state of preservation. As more of the
wood cell is degraded by micro-organisms,
the density will decrease.
A project dealing with in situ determi-
nation of density of waterlogged wood in
marine environments by means of its relative
conductivity was started in 2005. Equipment
for measuring conductivity in waterlogged
wood under water was developed and cali-
bration curves for density of wood as a func-
tion of the relative conductivity established.
The research on conductivity measurements
is very promising, as the resolution of the
measurements gives the possibility for deter-
mination of density gradients in waterlogged
degraded wood. The equipment will be
developed further during 2006 and 2007, so
10
the depth of measurement in the wood will
be registered and the data logged automati-
cally.
Monitoring of the environment in marine
sediments
Should a site be reburied underwater, it is
important to be able to ascertain that the
environment around the site is conducive
to preservation. As mentioned above, pro-
cesses of deterioration are much slower
in waterlogged environments and in the
absence of oxygen. The National Museum
has been involved in the European Union
financed MoSS project (http://www.nba.fi/
Internat/MoSS/eng/index.html) which partly
sought to investigate the stabilisation and
monitoring of shipwreck sites. Since that
time, the Museum has been involved with
another large reburial project in Sweden.
The Reburial and Analysis of Archaeological
Measuring the state of preservation of ar-
chaeological wood in situ. Photo: David
Gregory.
The Reburial and Analysis of Archaeological
Remains (RAAR) project considers the effects
of reburial of the materials from the wreck
Fredericus (scuttled 1719) in the harbour of
Marstrand. For this purpose a monitoring
data-logger is put on the seabed (top) and
sediment is sampled from the reburial trench
(bottom). Photos: David Gregory.

Remains (RAAR) (http://www.svk.com/

reburial/index.htm) project considers the
effects of reburial of materials from the wreck
Fredericus in Marstrand. In this context, The
National Museums’ role has been to develop
methods to measure various parameters in
the re-burial sediments which will give an
indication of the presence of oxygen and to
understand whether the on-going processes
are predominantly associated with oxic or
anoxic conditions. From these results, a
‘worst case’ estimate of future deterioration
can be given.

In conclusion
The above is just a very brief overview of
some of the major projects that the National
Museum is working on in connection with
the management of archaeological sites
on land and underwater. More informa-
tion is available at the National Museum’s
home page at: http://www.nationalmuseet.
dk/sw8878.asp where our publications are
listed along with our contact details. Finally,
I cannot fail to remark that it is fantastic not
only to see the revival of a Newsletter deal-
ing with Maritime Archaeology in Denmark,
but also to have the opportunity to contri-
bute to the first edition! Hopefully this won’t
be the last time! Congratulations to the edi-
tors, both with the Newsletter and with the
new course in Maritime Archaeology at the
University of Southern Denmark.
David Gregory

11
The Zea Harbour
Project
Introduction
The Maritime Archaeology Newsletter from
Denmark is an appropriate platform to
present a maritime archaeological project
that takes place in the Mediterranean. The
project began in 2001. It includes analy-
sis of a specific type of maritime cultural
landscape, naval harbours, and it includes
extended fieldwork. As such, it can be an
excellent platform for students in maritime
archaeology as it has clear scientific objec-
tives and a good embedding in heritage
management.
The project
The Zea Harbour Project combines land
and underwater archaeological investiga-
12
tions at Zea Harbour in Piraeus, Greece.
The project began in 2001 as a cooperative
effort between the Ephorate of Underwater
Antiquities, the 26th Ephorate of Prehistoric
and Classical Antiquities, and the Danish
Institute at Athens. In 2005, the project
began to investigate the harbour fortifica-
tions in Mounychia (modern Mikrolimano).
In June 2006, a survey of selected parts of
the fortification walls surrounding Piraeus
were initiated. The Carlsberg Foundation is
the principal sponsor of the project.
Objectives
The main objectives are to investigate
Piraeus' ancient naval installations and har-
bour fortifications. Their construction began
under the guiding hand of Themistocles just
before the outbreak of the first Persian War
Battle of Salamis 480 BC, Athenian trireme
ramming a Phoenician trireme from the Per-
sian fleet. Yannis Nakas / © ZHP 2006
in 490 BC. In 483/482 BC, Themistocles also
convinced the Athenian citizens to finance
the construction of 100 triremes. Triremes
were the state-of-the-art, fast and manoeuv-
rable, three-tiered oared warships with a
reinforced ram at the bow. Since Herodotus,
it is commonly acknowledged that it was
these ships that brought the (narrow) vic-
tory at Salamis that decisively reversed the
fortunes of the Persian invasion of Greece in
480 BC. Effectively, therefore, the triremes
led to the Persian defeat in 479 BC. As a
direct result of the decision to build these
warships, major development of the naval
installations in Piraeus most probably took
place. The installations in Piraeus were
crucial for keeping the navy operational. It
was considered essential to store the fast
and rather fragile vessels out of the water
when not in use. So, it is likely that the
developments in Themistocles’ time were
already comprehensive. One hundred and
fifty years later, in Alexander’s time, Zea was
Athens’ most important naval harbour with a
capacity for 196 warships manned by some
40,000 men. Zea’s shipsheds covered more
than 55,000 m2 (or the same area as eight
During the 4th century BC, 372 shipsheds
lined the shores of Piraeus' three major har-
bours. Yiannis Nakas / © ZHP 2004
football fields) making it one of the largest
and most important building complexes of
the Classical Period. The naval harbours
Mounychia and Kantharos housed 82 and
94 triremes respectively.
Shipsheds
It was essential to store the naval vessels out
of the water and under cover. For this there
are two reasons. First, their slender softwood
timbers were subject to attack by wood-eat-
ing marine worms. These shipworms were
a principal problem of all ancient navies; a
worm infested ship required major repairs
before it could be made seaworthy again.
Second, triremes were kept under a roof
because of the effects of sun and rain.
Rainwater inside the ship would soak the
timbers, swelling them, and allowing fungal
decay to attack them. On the other hand,
the fierce Mediterranean summer sun would
thoroughly dry and shrink the timbers of
an uncovered warship, rendering the ship
13
hopelessly leaky and thus unseaworthy. The
shipsheds that were designed to store the
warships when they were not in operation
were enormous. Their main characteristic
is a very long ramp facing the waterfront. It
was built on a slope to ensure that the ship
could come completely clear of the water.
The ramp supported the keel of the ship
during slipping and hauling operations and
is sheltered by an inclined tile roof held aloft
by plain limestone columns. Passages on
each side of the ramp provided access to the
building and working space for the hauling
and maintenance crews.
Zea
The project may concentrate on the classi-
cal structure of the site, but Zea has been
an active harbour for more than two and a
half millennia. Today it is home to a large
marina that houses a multitude of yachts
and small fishing boats. Cafés line the shore,
and the quays bustle with activity day and
night, with people parking their cars, eat-
ing, jogging, fishing, walking their dogs, and
young couples canoodling. These activities
14
When not in use triremes were hauled out of
the sea. Yannis Nakas / © ZHP 2006
are reflected in the many modern finds we
uncover, and our research also includes the
development of the modern harbour and its
history.
Activities in 2006
Work at Zea began in February; a small team
of six archaeologists carried out a five week
survey finalizing the documentation of ship-
sheds excavated in previous seasons.
On May 25 during the official visit by Her
Majesty Queen Margrethe II of Denmark to
Greece, Her Majesty opened the exhibition
‘Science and Art’ at the Danish Institute at
Athens. The exhibition presented a wide
range of the institute’s activities. As part of
this exhibition, the Zea Harbour Project
presented the preliminary results of our
archaeological research. The presentation
consisted of a 3D animated movie clip,
posters, a ‘diver’ with full equipment, along
with a display of excavated artefacts. The
animated movie clip is the first product
of the CHIMERA project, a collaboration
between Architecture & Design, Aalborg
University, Denmark, and the Zea Harbour
Project (the clip can be downloaded from
www.zeaharbourproject.dk/News). The aim
of the CHIMERA project is to produce real-
istic 3D models of ancient buildings, which
will allow both scientists and the broader
public to explore reconstructions of Piraeus’
ancient harbour installations and the ships
stationed there in Virtual Reality – thus add-
ing the feeling of ‘space’ in a 1:1 model.
Three students from Yale University were
trained in our novel surveying techniques.
This new project is generously sponsored by
Yale Alumnae (the American Friends of the
Zea Harbour Project). From mid September
until the end of October 2006, the project
plan is to continue the excavations of the
submerged shipsheds and harbour fortifi-
cations at Zea, and new excavations will
Archaeologist Stuart Heath inspecting the
submerged parts of a shipshed. Photo: Bjørn
Lovén / © ZHP 2006
begin on the submerged fortifications in the
Mounychia Harbour. The 2006 team will
consist of 15 staff members and 9 students.
Short term future
In 2007, we plan to start an underwa-
ter archaeological field school in collabo-
ration with Dr Dimitris Kourkoumelis of
the Ephorate of Underwater Antiquities
and of Thessaloniki University, Greece.
There are many well-established Maritime
Archaeology educations, but most of these
are theoretically based. We believe that it is
very important that the new generations of
archaeologists are also taught the practical
side of underwater archaeology to a level
where they can competently excavate and
document antiquities. In 2006, the Zea
Harbour Project will train six students in
underwater field archaeological methodolo-
gy during our research excavations, and
interested students should contact Bjørn
Lovén: bjoern.loven@gmail.com
Project website: www.zeaharbourproject.dk
Bjørn Lovén
15
Parts of a wooden shipwreck
found in the Wadden Sea
On the morning of Monday 24 April 2006,
the Fisheries and Maritime Museum in
Esbjerg received a call from the Esbjerg
based beam trawler, E 4 ”Ho Bugt”. On the
night before, the crew had made an unex-
pected catch in the waters called Knudedyb
between the Danish Wadden Sea islands of
Mandø and Fanø. In a position just on the
fringe of their normal fishing ground, four
pieces of wooden wreckage had got stuck in
the trawl, and once the crew had pulled the
catch aboard they could see that they had
The Knudedyb keelson and associated parts
at the Fisheries and Maritime Museum, the
day after its discovery. The keelson has ir-
regular notches to fit over the floors. The
keelson is 37 cm wide and has a preserved
length of 405 cm. Its maximum thickness is
27 cm. The (floor) timber is 255 cm long and
21 cm wide. It has a depth of 20 cm. Two
planks, with widths of 22 cm and 18 cm and
thicknesses of 5.5 cm and 4 cm have also
been recovered. Their preserved lengths are
205 and 261 cm respectively. Photo: Thyge
Jensen.
come across quite an unusual wreck.
Back in the harbour of Esbjerg, curators
from the Fisheries and Maritime Museum
identified the pieces of wreckage as two
planks, one floor and – very interestingly
– a keelson, all of which seemingly came
from a large vessel of considerable age.
Transportation was arranged for the parts
to be taken to the Fisheries and Maritime
Museum. Here, the parts were document-
ed and provisionally preserved by means
of keeping them wet and protected from
the sun. After two days, staff from the
Preservation Institute in Ølgod collected the
wreckage pieces in order to secure a more
stable preservation of the parts.
Expert opinions as to the type and dat-
ing of the vessel parts were obtained from
the Viking Ship Museum of Roskilde and
from the Maritime Archaeology Department
of the University of Southern Denmark.
Everyone agreed that there was a chance of
this being the first case of a (late) medieval
shipwreck found in the waters belonging
to what was once the roadsted of medieval
Ribe. It was suggested that the vessel would
have been not less than 18 metres in length, The dynamic environment of Knudedyb is
making it a ship of considerable size, taken likely to produce important maritime archae-
that it is indeed as old as we hope it is. ological information. The present findspot is
But obviously, there is a large uncertainty marked with a circle. Photo: Thyge Jensen.
involved in premature characterization of
such parts. The maststep is 29.5 by 19 cm. It is 8.5 cm
The first priority, therefore, has been deep and has a characteristic cross-notch at
to get a qualified estimate of the dating of the side that is probably its fore-end. Photo:
the wreckage. Thus, dendrochronology has Thyge Jensen
been called in, and on 29 May, dendrochro-
nologist Aoife Daly of the National Museum
in Copenhagen went to Ølgod in order to
cut out slices of each of the items for dat-
ing. Now, everyone awaits the results of this
examination. In any event, there are plenty
of reasons for maritime archaeology to look
further into the position given by E 4 ”Ho
Bugt” in the sea bottom of the Knudedyb,
where more secrets of early maritime history
of Southwest Jutland perhaps await to be
uncovered. An unintrusive survey, an assess-
ment of the site and a decision on its future
would be the obvious next steps. Parts of the
ship are evidently exposed. Parts have been
destroyed, but it is likely that the site can
produce important information.
Søren Byskov

17
Conservation of waterlogged wood
at the National Museum of Denmark.
Recent research and improvements
Background
Wooden archaeological objects saturated
with water cannot be dried without
precautions. Owing to degradation and the
presence of water, both the physical and
chemical properties of archaeological wood
are very different from those of fresh wood.
Such objects are extremely vulnerable
to dehydration, so the overall challenge
is to remove the water without collapse,
shrinkage, or warping of the material.
Research and development of methods
tend to follow the challenges connected
to major nds. At the National Museum’s
Department of Conservation in Brede,
research and development of methods began
with the conservation of the Skuldelev ships
during the 1960s and 70s and went further
ahead with the conservation of the Nydam
nd. Freeze-drying was then selected as the
Left. Surface of a dried out log boat, longitu-
dinal and transversal cracks due to shrinkage
and collapse. Right. A cross section of the
same log boat showing a well preserved core
and a heavily degraded surface. The logboat
(1030 BC) was excavated in Varpelev near
Køge in 1973. Photo: National Museum.
18
preferred dehydration method.
Recent research at the department has
primarily been concerned with materials
and processes in order to optimize the
freeze-drying process, both with respect to
quality and costs. Individual steps of the
conservation process have been the main
focus: analysis of the waterlogged material,
impregnation, freezing, and freeze-drying.
The outcome of this research is currently
applied in the conservation of the large finds
from Nydam and from Roskilde Harbour.
Challenges connected to the Nydam find
Over a period of 5 years, 30,000 pieces of
heavily degraded ship timbers and oars,
arrows, bows, knives, utensils, and other arte-
facts were excavated in the Nydam bog. They
were deposited between 300 and 500 AD.
Most of the artefacts consist of waterlogged
wood, several are metal, and a few hundred
are composites of metal and wood.
In connection with the conservation of the
Skuldelev ships, the conservators in Brede
had installed equipment for freeze-drying
waterlogged wood from tertiary butanol
(TBA) and polyethylene glycol (PEG). Due
to health hazards, however, this method was
abandoned, and since the beginning of the
1990s freeze-drying after pre-impregnation
with aqueous PEG-solutions has been chosen
instead.
The switch from TBA/PEG to water/PEG
was complicated by the fact that the freeze-
drying plant was not designed to operate
at such low temperatures as to ensure the
solidi cation of an aqueous PEG-solution
absorbed in wood. Nevertheless, the rst
hesitant attempts gave acceptable results.
Moreover, the capacity of the freeze-drying
plant was increased enormously as freeze-
drying water solutions makes optimal use of
the equipment.
The old freeze-drying plant was supple-
mented with a smaller research and produc-
tion plant in 1991, purchased in collabo-
ration with The School of Conservation.
Experience with this experimental instal-
lation led to the design of a larger unit. It
was financed by the VELUX foundation
and installed in 1996. Its tank is 8 meters
long and 2 meters in diameter. Both plants
are fitted with chamber walls that can be
cooled to -35°C, making it possible to freeze
the objects in the chamber and ensuring
freeze-drying of PEG-impregnated water-
logged materials.
In the production plant, between 400 and
600 Nydam artefacts are generally freeze-
dried in one batch. The process typically lasts
4 months. The objects from Nydam belong
to the category of heavily, homogeneously
degraded objects. Total collapse of the
material occurs if the conservation process is
unsuccessful. The process therefore requires
iron nerves, full control of the process, of
the equipment and knowledge of all process
parameters, including the impregnation
agents, the degraded wood, and the water.
Conservation research
Analysis of waterlogged wood
Most waterlogged wood appears to have an
intact surface and shape upon exposure. As
soon as water evaporates from the objects,
however, deformation of the material will
Wooden artefacts from Nydam immediately
after completion of the freeze-drying pro-
cess. Photo: National Museum.
19
start. The type of deformation will depend
upon the degree of degradation. A uniform-
ly, heavily degraded material such as the
objects from the Nydam site and Stone Age
Sites will shrink and collapse totally. A differ-
ent degradation pattern is frequently seen
with large timbers, hard wood species, and
less aged waterlogged finds. These objects
are degraded at the surface, often to various
depths. They have a less degraded core. It
is evident that the degree of degradation
depends on wood species, the dimension
of the object, the environment in which it
became waterlogged, and the duration of
its burial.
Various methods, destructive as well as
non-destructive, for the determination of
the degree of degradation have been devel-
oped, refined and tested. These methods
are essential for a well-founded choice of
conservation method. Moreover, they are
also of great importance for assessing the
Longitudinal section of waterlogged ash im-
pregnated with 0.5 g/g PEG 4000 and freeze-
dried. Right a vessel with laminar PEG. Left
an empty vessel observed from the inner part
showing pits and cracks in the cell wall. (LV-
SEM 175X). Photo: National Museum
20
possibility for in situ preservation, as is
explained by David Gregory elsewhere in
this Newsletter.
Freezing of aqueous PEG-solutions
A key-parameter for a successful freeze-dry-
ing process is that both water and PEG are
solid during the process. Therefore, research
on the temperatures at which aqueous PEG-
solutions melt and solidify has been conduc-
ted. The figure below shows an example
of the analysis of PEG-structures and distri-
bution of PEG in freeze-dried wood with
the aid of a low vacuum scanning electron
microscope (LV-SEM). Such observations
were complemented with more fundamental
research in order to determine maximum
temperatures for safe freeze-drying; that is
to say the maximum temperatures at which
both PEG and water are solid. To this end
phase diagrams were developed, including a
standard curve for collapse temperatures of
aqueous PEG-solutions as a function of the
molecular weight.
Several methods were employed. One
method is based on collecting data on freez-
ing and thawing temperature of aqueous
solutions in metal thermos flasks by means
of data-loggers. Another method is based
Comparison of experimental data and data
produced by simulating the freeze-drying
processed by the computerized model for
vacuum freeze-drying.
on logging the interrelated temperature and
strength properties of several solutions in the
process of thawing.
The freeze-drying process
In relation to the freeze-drying process
itself, a computerized mathematical model
describing heat and mass transfer has been
developed. The model is based on the physi-
cal principles related to heat and mass trans-
fer both in the vacuum freeze-drying cham-
ber and in porous waterlogged materials.
The model is used to produce simulations
of freeze-drying processes. These prove to
be in close agreement with experimental
data and can, therefore, be used to guide
a freeze-drying process in relationship to
temperature, pressure, wood density, PEG-
content, thickness, and width.
In 2005, the three freeze-drying plants at
the workshop in Brede have been equipped
with temperature sensors connected to data
loggers. This became useful to the back-
ground of our understanding of the col-
lapse temperatures of various impregnation
agents in aqueous solution. When starting
the freeze-drying process, the conserva-
tors place 3 to 5 sensors in representative
objects. The internal temperature can thus
be monitored. During the freeze-drying pro-
cess, it should never exceed the relevant
collapse temperature. Adjustments can be
made by regulating the temperature of the
chamber wall. This fine-tuning ensures a
better result and a reduction in process time
and therefore costs.
Other issues
Of course there are other issues to be
addressed by the laboratory's research. Not
all objects are suited for PEG treatment
and freeze drying. Composite artefacts can
include metals to which PEG is corrosive.
Freeze-dried objects lack flexibility, which
can be a problem when ship-component
need to be reassembled. Ropes and fibre
artefacts should not com out of conser-
vation looking greasy and dark. All such
problems are addressed and backed up by
research. Perhaps we should report on this
in a future issue of the Newsletter. Research
continoue vigorously, and the more so now
that the department, School of Conservation,
the Viborg County Conservation Laboratory
have jointly been enabled to install a new
research freeze-drying plant this spring.
Poul Jensen
Kristiane Strætkvern
21
An archaeological view at
the second Danish-Prussian war
The war between Denmark and Prussia in
1864 put an end to the Danish Crown’s
supremacy over the duchies in the southern
part of the Jutland peninsula. About two
fifths of the former area of the Danish State
was lost to the Prussians, and the new bor-
der was drawn south of Kolding. The mighty
German confederation had a modern army,
and it was soon clear that the Danes would
not hold their lines at the Danevirke fortifi-
cations. The war was a total disaster for the
Danes. It is true that the Danish Navy was
able to dominate the surrounding waters,
but to no avail because of the German supe-
riority on land.
The major task for the fleets in the
Baltic and in the North Sea was to block
the German harbours – in which they suc-
ceeded – but a less spectacular branch of
the navy plied the sounds and firths of the
inner Danish waters. The flotilla of oared
open vessels were stationed in pairs along
the south-eastern part of Jutland and around
the island of Als. They served as mobile ord-
nance, intended just as much as firepower
against enemy troops on land, as against
enemy ships – of which there were few. The
task was also to undertake reconnaissance
on both sea and land.
This role was actually very different from
the more prominent role the gunboats played
in the war against England after the defeat in
1801 and the subsequent confiscation of
the Danish fleet in 1807. The continued
‘Gunboat War’ that went on until 1814 saw
the construction of more than 200 gunboats
of mainly two sizes; the larger ‘kanonchalup’
(gun sloop) and the smaller ‘kanonjolle’ (gun
barge). These were put in action against
smaller men-of-war and merchantmen at
times when the wind suddenly failed, often
with some success.
22
The gunboats of the 1864 flotilla were
constructed by the navy master shipwright
Andreas Schifter. In the 1820s, a committee
had been formed to address the issues raised
by the experiences gained in the ‘Gunboat
War’. Its central advise was to design a
new sloop with improved capabilities with
regards to propulsion by sail as well as oars.
It should also be able to carry a new kind
of gun, widely known as the Paixhans gun
after its French inventor. This gun would
fire a grenade rather than a solid ball, and
tests had shown this to be effective against
wooden constructions, such as hulls. The
advantage of firing incendiary projectiles
from a low firing gun instead of a mortar
was tremendous, especially in combat at
sea. The grenade (or ‘bomb’ as it was called)
would ignite when fired from the gun. A
tube-shaped fuse provided for a delay, so
that it exploded when it hit the target.
The new sloop was equipped with one
60-pound Paixhans gun firing forward. It
was mounted in a carriage that ran on rails.
In this way, the heavy gun could be stowed
low in the central part of the hull in day-
to-day routine, whereas it could easily be
hauled to the bow in preparation for action.
The boat was also armed with a 24-pound
swivelling gun aft and four 4-pound howit-
zers. It was manned by a crew of 64 pulling
the 30 oars in pairs. The rigging consisted of
two masts with lugsails and a small mizzen.
Top right: Frauke Witte of Haderslev Muse-
um assists in the on-site operations in June
2006. Photo: Langelands Museum.
Bottom right: Finds in situ, such as a cop-
per nail and a lead bullet cast for navy pil-
lor breech rifle M 1849. Photo: Langelands
Museum.
23
With an overall length of slightly over 65
Danish feet (20.5 m) and a beam of nearly
15 feet, it was no dinghy.
Well described as it is, it would neverthe-
less be very interesting to have a chance to
look at an actual specimen of such a sloop.
Thanks to the perseverance of an enthu-
siastic diver of the island of Als it is now
possible to do so in Sandvig Bay. That sloop
is known to be the ‘Bombekanonchalup
19’. The scuttling and deliberate sinking
by its crew is well described in the Navy
records, as well as in preserved eye-witness
accounts of the events of 29 June 1864. After
the sinking, the location of one of the guns
was clearly visible from a small pier, since it
was lying at a depth of only 2.5 m. This was
salvaged in the 1890's, still loaded with 20
shot of appr. 6 cm. Presumably, this makes
it the 24-pounder, since the Paixhans gun
would be loaded with a ball grenade. One
of the four small howitzers mounted on the
gunwale was also salvaged along with some
other objects, such as a length of chain and
a copper kettle.
No. 19 was originally stationed further
south, at the northern entrance to the Als
Sound. It had instructions to perform recon-
naissance at night. When the Prussians
installed large siege guns on the opposite
shore, it moved to the inner part of Sandvig
Bay, where its field of operation became
very limited. The commanding officer was
the 36-year-old Hans Peter Edvard Marcher,
lieutenant of the reserve (or ‘monthlies’ as
they were called) from Copenhagen. He
took a bold decision by sinking his ship
because he hadn’t received any orders to do
so, but gained recognition for it.
Not far from Sandvig the gun barge
‘Baagøe’ was stationed at Hardeshøj, under
the command of Lieutenant Peter Carl
Petersen. Between 8 and 9 am on 29 June
this ship and No. 19 experienced the same
fate. Petersen performed the duty to blow up
his ship on specific order. The report from
Captain Muxol, who commanded the west-
ern Baltic squadron on board the schooner
24
‘Falken’ (The Falcon), stated that, ‘The rea-
son for their destruction was that one had
no choice. The order for the barge was
firm. The sloop would, in order to get out,
have to face more than 1½ miles of uninter-
rupted artillery fire from the enemy’s bat-
teries, which must be seen as unforgivable
purposelessness. It was not possible to save
more of the inventory.’
29 June was the day the Prussians invad-
ed the island of Als, crossing Als Sound
from the Jutland coast. During the night,
they started to go across the narrow part,
where No. 19 had originally been stationed,
using numerous small boats. The brand-new
Danish armoured steamer ‘Rolf Krake’ was
in the neighbourhood. It was armed with
four 60-pounders in two turrets and opened
fire on the crossing soldiers with shot and
grenades, causing severe injury. The cross-
ing was stopped, but ‘Rolf Krake’ had to
leave the scene at daybreak because of the
German artillery on land. The invasion was
completed during the day.
The invasion would leave No. 19, No.
21, No. 22, the gun barge ‘Baagøe’, the pad-
dle steamer ‘Hertha’, and the steam gunboat
‘Willemoes’ between enemy fire from two
sides. ‘Rolf Krake’ consequently came to the
rescue and managed to get most ships out of
the Als Sound by tying them to the far side,
thus sheltering them from fire. No. 19 and
‘Baagøe’, however, could not be rounded
up, and Marcher and Petersen acted as
described. When the crew of No. 19 await-
ed rescue, a despatch reached Marcher, yet
ordering him to scuttle his ship. The witness
to this also tells us that, ‘Just during the
transport on this stretch of road, the gunboat
blew up. We had great troubles calming the
horses. A mighty column of smoke reached
towards the sky, and thick nauseating smoke
pushed forward. When it receded a bit, only
the pitiful remains of the hull swam on the
troubled waves.’
Since 2003, the exact location of hull
remains attributed to the ship is known. After
having searched the area for some time,
Finn Rasmussen from Als reported the find.
Some coherent structures are visible on the
seabed, and a few iron objects have been
raised, such as a gudgeon and the head of
a sledgehammer. It is hoped that large por-
tions of the hull are preserved and that items
belonging to the ship can be identified on
the site. When it sank, the ship was fully
armed and ready. Due to the explosion one
must expect a truly dispersed wreck site.
Most likely, however, the hull was torn apart
in large bits and hopefully some of this has
been weighed down by the amount of iron
in the form of ammunition and of course the
ordnance itself.
In late June, Langelands Museum under-
An iron plate attributed to 'bombekanon-
chalup 19' is lifted on board the Langelands
Museum's historical motor yacht Mjølner for
documentation. It was put back on site after-
wards. Photo: Langelands Museum.
25
takes a preliminary investigation of the site
and actually spends the 142nd anniversary
of the sinking on site. The task is to survey
the site in order to establish its size, to locate
the hull remains, and hopefully to dig a
trench across one or more of the hull parts.
Judging from the eye-witness description, a
substantial amount of the hull was floating
on the surface immediately after the explo-
sion, leaving the possibility that it sank as
a coherent structure. There are no records
of the type of charge used (unless it is in
the full report in the admiralty) but if it was
a single charge made up of the explosives
available for the guns, then the sinking might
have been caused by blowing one big hole
in the hull, as we are dealing with an open
structure.
This, of course, is still conjectural but may
mean that much of the equipment remained
in the hull. This would mean better chances
of good preservation, and, more importantly,
The 'Bombekanonchalup' as rendered in J.H.
Schultz. Den Danske Marine, 1814-1848.
26
there would be a great likelihood that they
are stowed in their proper place. Evidently,
historical particularism dominates the way
the site should be addressed. On that basis,
the research potential of the site can be
excellent. Site and objects can be inter-
preted to the background of a well-known
context, in which the meaning of each item
and its position can be explained. This is a
particular strength, as is often put forward
when arguing the excavation of a named
and historically known wreck. A knapsack
recovered from a ship that had to be aban-
doned in a hurry has quite a different mean-
ing than a specimen that has been kept in
storage without ever being used. The same
more or less applies to the entire gunboat. It
gives us a chance to have an archaeological
view at the events in 1864 that have been
thoroughly researched by the use of other
historical sources ever since the last shot
was fired.
This kind of ‘historical’ archaeology has
not been undertaken at any significant scale
in Denmark. In this case, it relates to a very
 Maritime Archaeology

specific part of the conflict that is consist-

ently cited as the end of Denmark as a multi-
Newsletter
ethnic state. At a time when the country is No. 21 • Autumn 2006 from Denmark
adapting to a new kind of multi-ethnicity,
this opportunity offers some immediate and
concrete evidence that might invoke a link-
age with this past. The site offers a great ISSN 09087885
potential in terms of public interest. First
and foremost, displaying objects from the
site offers visitors a very direct link with the EDITORS:
events. This is not to mention the wreck Thijs J. Maarleveld & Helle Kildebæk Raun
itself if it turns out to be well preserved. Lay-out: Jens Lorentzen & Ewa Britt Nielsen
Addressing that would of course mean going DTP: Helle Kildebæk Raun
through a process of raising funds for the
necessary conservation. That process might
actually prove to be different in this case PRINT:
than in relationship to finds from earlier peri- Athene Grafisk Aps., Albertslund
ods. The immediate appeal of warfare and © Centre for Maritime and Regional Studies
ties with a not too distant past create other and authors 2006
possibilities. In a synergetic approach other
kinds of resources may be brought to bear.

References:
Dreyer, V. Kanonbåde og Alsfjord. Nordborg
Maritime Archaeology Newsletter from
1989
Denmark is a continuation of Maritime
Schultz, J. H. : Den Danske Marine 1814-
Archaeology Newsletter from Roskilde,
1848 vol. 1, Copenhagen 1950
Denmark and is published twice a year by:
www.navalhistory.dk
Otto Christian Uldum
The Maritime Archaeology Programme,
University of Southern Denmark
at the Centre for Maritime and Regional Studies
Niels Bohrs Vej 9 • DK-6700 Esbjerg
Tel. +45 6550 4177 • Fax +45 6550 1091
e-mail: hkraun@hist.sdu.dk

The Newsletter is supported by:

University of Southern Denmark
Centre for Maritime and Regional Studies
Fiskeri- og Søfartsmuseet
The National Museum of Denmark
The Danish Institute in Athens
Langelands Museum
The Viking Ship Museum
Ringkøbing Museum
The Esbjerg campus of the University of Southern Denmark where the Maritime Archaeology Programme
starts in September 2006. Photo: CMRS