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The Carreau viscosity equation
When there are significant deviations from the
power-law model at very high and very low
h t it i t d l shear rates , it is necessary to use a model
which takes account of the limiting values of
viscosities
0
and

{ }
( n 1) / 2
app
2
yx
0
1 ( )

= +


The Cross viscosity equation
Another four parameter model (Cross 1965),
which in simple shear, is written as:
app
n
0 yx
1
1 k( )

=
+

n (<1) and k are two fitting parameters whereas

0
and

are the limiting values of the apparent

viscosity at low and high shear rates, respectively.
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The Ellis fluid model
When the deviations from the power-law model
are significant only at low shear rates, it is
perhaps more appropriate to use the Ellis model.
0
app
1
yx 1/ 2
1 ( )
o

=
+ t t
Viscoplastic fluid behaviour
Common examples of visco-Plastic behavior:
Particulate suspensions Particulate suspensions
Emulsions
Food stuffs
Blood
Drilling mud
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Mathematical models for viscoplastic
behaviour
The Bingham plastic model g p
The Herschel- Bulkley fluid model
The Casson fluid model
The Bingham plastic model
The simplest equation describing the flow behaviour of a
fluid with a yield stress
In steady one-dimensional shear: In steady one dimensional shear:
B B
yx 0 B yx yx 0
( ) for t = t + t > t

B
yx yx 0
0 for = t < t

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The Herschel- Bulkley fluid model
A simple generalization of the Bingham plastic model to
embrace the non-linear flow Curve is the three constant
Herschel Bulkley fluid model.
In steady one-dimensional shear: y
H n H
yx 0 yx yx 0
m( ) for t = t + t > t

H
yx yx 0
0 for = t < t

The Casson fluid model

Many foodstuffs and biological materials, especially blood,
are well described by this two constant model as:
( ) ( ) ( )
1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2
C C
for t = t + t > t

( ) ( ) ( )
yx 0 c yx yx 0
for t = t + t > t
C
yx yx 0
0 for = t < t

This model has often been used for describing the steady
shear stressshear rate behaviour of blood, yoghurt, tomato , y g ,
pure, molten chocolate, etc.
The flow behaviour of some particulate suspensions also
closely approximates to this type of behaviour.
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Shear-thickening or dilatant fluid behaviour
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Typical examples of materials exhibiting
dilatant behaviour
Shear-thickening or dilatant fluid behaviour
Concentrated suspensions of
China clay in water
Titanium dioxide in water
Corn flour in water
Shearstressshearratebehaviourofpolyvinylchloride(PVC)in
dioctylphthalate(DOP)dispersionsat298Kshowingregionsofshear
thinningandshearthickening(Boersma etal.,1990)
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EXAMPLE 2-1
Thefollowingshearstressshearratedatawereobtainedforanaqueouspolymersolutionat
291K.
(a)Plottheflowcurveonloglog
coordinates
(b) Can the power law model fit this (b)Canthepowerlawmodelfitthis
dataovertheentirerange?Whatare
thevaluesofmandn?
(c)CantheEllisfluidmodelfitthisdata
betterthanthepowerlawmodel?
Evaluatethevaluesof
0
,
1/2
and?
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Apparent viscosities depend not only on the
rate of shear but also on the time for which
the fluid has been subjected to shearing
Time-dependent fluid behavior
the fluid has been subjected to shearing.
Bentonite-water suspensions
Red mud suspensions (waste stream from
aluminium industry)
Cement paste
Crude oils
Certain foodstuffs
Time-dependent fluid behaviour may be
further sub-divided into two categories:
Time-dependent fluid behavior
g
Thixotropy
Rheopexy (negative thixotropy)
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Time-dependent fluid behavior
Time-dependent fluid behavior
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Time-dependent fluid behavior
Representative data showing thixotropy in a 59% (by weight) red mud suspension
Time-dependent fluid behavior
Thixotropic behaviour of a cement paste (replotted from Struble and Ji, 2001)
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Time-dependent fluid behavior
Breakdown and re-formation of structure in a proprietary body lotion (replotted
from Schramm, 1994)
Broadly, most of the currently available
models are based on three distinct
approaches:
Time-dependent fluid behavior
approaches:
Continuum
Micro-structural
Structural kinetics
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A reasonable model in describing thixotropic behaviour
of fluids is due to Houska (1981) which is really a
generalization of the HerschelBulkley model. In simple
di i l h i fl it i itt
Time-dependent fluid behavior
one-dimensional shearing flow, it is written as:
fluids for which the apparent viscosity (or
the corresponding shear stress) increases
with time of shearing are said to display
Time-dependent fluid behavior
g p y
rheopexy or negative thixotropy:
Saturated polyester
Suspensions of ammonium oleate
Colloidal suspensions of vanadium
pentoxide at moderate shear rates
Coalwater slurries
Protein solutions
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Onset of rheopexy in a saturated polyester ( Steg and Katz, 1965 )
VISCOELASTIC
FLUIDS
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These materials exhibit both viscous and
elastic properties.
Visco-elastic fluids
elastic properties.
Viscoelastic fluids flow when subjected to
stress but part of their deformation is
gradually recovered upon removal of the g y p
stress.
Unstressed
t = 0
t = 1 s t = 50 s t = 100 s
Stressed
removed
Stressed applied
Elastic
Viscous Viscous
Visco-elastic
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Visco-elastic fluids
Examples of visco-elastic fluids:
Bitumens
Visco-elastic fluids
Flour dough
Napalm and similar jellies
Polymer and polymer melts such as nylon
Many polymer solutions
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Visco-elastic fluids
Rod-climbing
Visco-elastic fluids
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Visco-elastic fluids
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Non-Newtonian flow characteristics in most cases are
observed in the so-called structured fluids.
There is a direct and strong link between the type and There is a direct and strong link between the type and
extent of non-Newtonian flow behaviour on one hand
and the response of the structure to externally applied
shearing forces on the other.
It i ibl t th i t i l f d i d It is possible to synthesize a material of desired
rheological characteristics by manipulating its
structure using a range of additives.
Typical relationship between the viscosity and structure of a
chocolate (replotted from Windhab, 2006)
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The different types of micro-structures
encountered in rheologically complex
systems:
Visco-elastic fluids
y
Irregularly shaped particles with size
distribution
Droplets in the case of emulsions
B h d d/ hi hl t l d l h i Branched and/or highly entangled long chain
polymeric molecules in solutions and melts
Loosely formed aggregates of particles in
suspensions
Schematicsofstructures
in rheologically complex inrheologicallycomplex
systemsunderrestand
undershearingconditions
(fromBrummer,2006)
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Qualitative role of shearing in uncoiling and stretching of
an entwined macromolecule