Significant Figures: Measurement = All reliable Digits + the first uncertain digit Exa : My home is 24.

567 m away from my school. Here reliable digits are = 2, 4, 5, 6 Here uncertain digit are = 7 Last digit is considered as Uncertain Digit. Your Weight is 45.3 kg. Here 2 Reliable Digits = 4,5 Here 1 Uncertain Digit = 3 Rules Defining Significant Figures: All non-Zero digits are significant. In 34567.67 , 7 Significant Digits All Zeroes between non Zero Digits are Significant. In 4.0987 , 5 Significant Digits Terminal zeroes without a decimal point are not significant. In 5600 , 2 Significant Digits. Terminal zeroes with a decimal point are significant. In 4.500 ,4 Significant Digits. For a number less than 1, zeroes on right of decimal point but left of first non-zero digit are not significant. In 0.0156 , 3 significant Digits.

Change of units doesnt change Significant figures

In 43.2cm , 3 Significant digits If we convert it to m then 0.432m also have 3 Significant Digits.

Ambiguities n Significant figures

Ambiguities with the terminal zeroes. Example: 4.700m 4 Significant Digits 470.0m 4 Significant Digits 4700mm 2 Significant Digits

Scientific Notation
Each Number is Denoted by a Where: Exponent b is an integer

Coefficient a is any real number called Significant. Exa: 4000 = 4 0.0045 = 4.5

- 1 Significant Digit - 2 Significant Digit

Overcome the ambiguities 4.5m = 4.5 cm - 2 Significant Figures = 4.5 km 2 Significant Digits

Rules for arithmetic operations with Significant figures

RuIe 1: In multiplication/division, final result should retain as many significant figures as are there in original number with the least significant figures. Example: 5.879 * 4.65 = 27.33735 =27.3 5.879 4 Significant Figures 4.65 3 Significant Figures 27.3 3 Significant Figures {Least Significant Digits} Rule 2: In addition subtraction, final result should retain as many decimal places as are there in the number with the least decimal places. Example: 6.121 +7.4 +8.123 = 21.644 written as 21.6 6.121 3 number after decimal 7.4 1 number after decimal 8.123 3 number after decimal 21.6 1 number after decimal { Least no. After Decimal}

Rounding off uncertain digits

Rounding Up: Increase the terminating digit by 1 and drop off the digits to the right (if the digit >5) Exa : 5.4757 = 5.476 Rounding down : Leave the last decimal place as it is given and discard all digits to its right (if the digit < 5) Exa: 5.4752 = 5.475 What if the terminating digit =5? Preceding digit is even, leave as it is. Preceding digit is odd, increase by 1. Exa: Round it off at 1 decimal place to 2.354 Here 3 is odd digit so it will be 2.4

Accuracy, precision of instruments and errors in measurement Accuracy is how close a measured value is to the actual value. Example: Actual weight = 2.25 kg We can measure it as 2.24 kg, 2.26 kg, 2.23 kg When we talk about accuracy then we compare how close the measured value to actual value. Precision is how close the measured values are to each other. Previously we take three values 2.24 kg, 2.26 kg, 2.23 kg How close these values are each other. Something like Resolution If we say resolution is very good of this instrument. Then we are saying actually repeated measurement from this instrument are very close.

Error Uncertainty in measurement of any physical quantity.

Not all measurements are uncertain. Example: 1. No. of people in a room You can easily calculate it without any uncertainty. 2. No. of atoms in a room Now this is the big question. To find out the atoms in the classroom you have to make some calculations. This wills you the approximate results. Now uncertainty will occur and you will find the errors.

Classifications of Errors
Classified in two types: 1. Systematic Errors
2. Personal Errors

3. Random Errors

Systematic Errors
These errors tend to shift the results in one direction. Causes of systematic errors: Instrumental Errors Example: meter scale worn off at end Imperfection in experimental technique/procedure

Example: Thermometer placed under the armpit measures lesser temp. Than the actual body temp.

Personal errors
Example: Reading a thermometer from below the horizontal line-of-site.

Random Errors
Irregular Errors random with respect to size and sign. No consistent effects across the entire sample. Example: Unexpected fluctuations due to fluctuations in voltage supply/temperatures. If you are performing the experiments then you dont say about fluctuation of temperatures due to rise or fall in voltage.

Least Count Error

The smallest value that can be measured by the measuring instrument is called its least count. All the readings or measured values are good only up to this value. The least count errors the error associated with the resolution of the instrument. For example, a vernier callipers has the least count as 0.01 mm; a spherometer may have a least count of 0.001 mm. Least count error belongs to the category of random errors but within a limited size; it occurs with both systematic and random errors. If we use a metre scale for measurement of length, it may have graduations at 1 mm division scale spacing or interval. Using instruments of higher precision, improving experimental techniques, etc., we can reduce the least count error. Repeating the observations several times and taking the arithmetic mean of all the observations, the mean value would be very close to the true value of the measured quantity.

Absolute error
Difference between individual measurement & true value of the quantity. Denoted by Always positive Example: Measured a quantity 10 times = {individual measurement Actual Value} = {individual measurement Actual Value} And so on..

Relative Error
Ratio of Mean absolute error to mean value of quantity measured.

Example: Measured a quantity 10 times = {individual measurement Actual Value} = {individual measurement Actual Value} = {individual measurement Actual Value} And so on.. Mean absolute Error ( )=

Now Relative Error =

Percentage Error
Relative error in terms of percentage. Percentage Error = ( ) 100 Denoted by a

Combinations of Errors:
Rule 1: When two quantities are added or subtracted, the absolute error in the final result is the sum of the absolute errors in the individual quantities. Exa: If two quantities X and Y add up to form another Z, then Z = + Y Absolute error in X = Absolute error in Y = If we calculate Z which is sum of X & Y involves the error Z, which is = + Y Prove : Z=X+Y Z + Z = (X + ) + (Y + Y) Z + Z = (X + Y) + ( + Y) Equate both side: We know that Z = X + Y So, Z = + Y Rule 2: When two quantities are multiplied or divided, the relative error in the result is the sum of the relative errors in the multipliers. Exa: Suppose Z = XY Z + Z = (X + ) (Y + Y) Z + Z = XY + X Y + Y + Y Y is very small and we can ignore it 1+ =1+ + {taking common Z from LHS and XY from RHS} = + proved

Rule 3: The relative error in a physical quantity raised to the power k is the k times the relative error in the individual quantity. Z= =k Exa Z=

Here Relative error in Z =4 + +2 +