november 2006

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Technical Guide

Timber Bridges
How to ensure their durability

The Technical Department for Transport, Roads and Bridges Engineering and Road Safety (Service d'tudes techniques des routes et autoroutes - Stra) is a technical department within the Ministry of Transport and Infrastructure. Its field of activities is the road, the transportation and the engineering structures.

The Stra supports the public owner

The Stra supplies State agencies and local communities (counties, large cities and urban communities) with informations, methodologies and tools suited to the specificities of the networks in order to: improve the projects quality; help with the asset management; define, apply and evaluate the public policies; guarantee the coherence of the road network and state of the art; put forward the public interests, in particular within the framework of European standardization; bring an expertise on complex projects.

The Stra, producer of the state of the art

Within a very large scale, beyond the road and engineering structures, in the field of transport, intermodality, sustainable development, the Stra: takes into account the needs of project owners and prime contractors, managers and operators; fosters the exchanges of experience; evaluates technical progress and the scientific results; develops knowledge and good practices through technical guides, softwares; contributes to the training and information of the technical community.

The Stra, a work in partnership

The Stra associates all the players of the French road community to its action: operational services; research organizations; Scientific and Technical Network (Rseau Scientifique et Technique de l'Equipement RST), in particular the Public Works Regional Engineering Offices (Centres d'tudes techniques de l'Equipement CETE), companies and professional organizations; motorway concessionary operators; other organizations such as French Rail Network Company (Rseau Ferr de France RFF) and French Waterways Network (Voies Navigables de France VNF); Departments like the department for Ecology and Sustainable Development The Stra regularly exchanges its experience and projects with its foreign counterparts, through bilateral co-operations, presentations in conferences and congresses, by welcoming delegations, through missions and expertises in other countries. It takes part in the European standardization commissions and many authorities and international working groups. The Stra is an organization for technical approval, as an EOTA member (European Organisation for Technical Approvals).

With the publics environmental concerns, building owners are rediscovering the warm appearance of wood. Moreover, timber bridges are light and easy to erect, something appreciable in light of the reduction of problems during work. But certain bridges, although built of preserved wood during the past decades, already show serious damage. When they must be demolished, the owners are responsible for the toxic wastes resulting from the treated wood. It was necessary to reaffirm that the durability of timber structures rests mainly on the quality of maintenance, and above all on the initial choice of good constructive provisions, to protect a sensitive material of organic origin. There should be no opposition to well-designed, treated wooden structures. It is in fact advisable to combine the two approaches. A well-designed, sheltered wooden structure represents a longlasting development, which may then be legitimately treated by fungicides and insecticides, which would have been less effective on a bad design. Further, for coverings and guard rails in contact with the public, exotic woods from forests managed with no compromise for the future, that remain durable, require no treatment and pose no health hazard, have no reason to be excluded. To point out these pitfalls, and to promote a material too long forgotten, Stra considered it useful to publish a guide book devoted to bridges, for the building owners who choose to build with wood. J. Berthellemy Technical Director at the Center for Structures of Stra (Technical Center for Highways and Motorways). This document was written by:

Vincent BARBIER, CETE Est (Technical Engineering Center for Infrastructure, East); Jacques BERTHELLEMY, Stra; Dominique CALVI; Stella JELDEN, CETE Est; Jean-Louis CHAZELAS, LCPC (Central Public Works Research Laboratory); Pierre CORFDIR, CETE Est; Jrome LAPLANE, architect representing the CNDB (National Committee for Timber); Robert LEROY, LCPC; in a work group led by Jacques BERTHELLEMY, from a first project drawn up by Vincent BARBIER, with the ENSTIB,
(National Teaching-Institute for the Techniques and Industries of Timber ) in pinal. We also thank, for their comments and observations: Hlne ABEL-MICHEL, Nathalie ODENT and Michel FRAGNET Stra; Thierry KRETZ, LCPC; Daniel POINEAU, retired engineer, Sandrine ROCARD, Emilie DERIVIRE and Frederic LERAY, Ministry for Ecology and Sustainable Development; Bernard REY, architect SNCF; Serge LENEV, CTBA; Tarek FAR, CETE the Mediterranean; Pierre TROUILLET, M.C.S.A.C.

Synopsis
1. - General Presentation..............................................................................................................................................8
1.1. - WOOD: A LITTLE KNOWN MATERIAL TODAY ............................................................................................... 8 1.2. - HISTORY OF TIMBER BRIDGES ................................................................................................................... 10 1.2.1. The first bridges .................................................................................................................................... 10 1.2.2. - Evolution of bridge construction and maintenance .......................................................................................... 11 1.2.3. - Durability, a forgotten design criterion ......................................................................................................... 12 1.2.4. - An exception: timber bridges of Switzerland................................................................................................. 16 1.2.5. Timber bridges of North America. ............................................................................................................ 17 1.2.6. - The return of wood.................................................................................................................................. 18

2. Wood - The material ...........................................................................................................................................21

2.1. - GENERAL .................................................................................................................................................. 21 2.1.1 Occurrence and availability ....................................................................................................................... 21
Metropolitan Woods (or indigenous Woods of Europe) .............................................................................................. 21 The particular case of French Guiana. ........................................................................................................................ 22 The Northern woods .................................................................................................................................................. 23 Tropical woods ........................................................................................................................................................... 23

2.1.2. Sawn and reconstituted products ............................................................................................................... 23

Sawing ........................................................................................................................................................................ 24 Glued-laminated wood ( Glulam or glue-lam ) ............................................................................................................. 24 Industrial products LVL, LSL and PSL .................................................................................................................... 27 Panels ......................................................................................................................................................................... 27

2.2. - ANATOMY OF WOOD ................................................................................................................................. 28 2.2.1. Untreated wood : a natural, living material ................................................................................................. 28 2.2.2. From the macroscopic to the microscopic ...................................................................................................... 29
Wood is strong in both compression and bending ....................................................................................................... 29

2.2.3. - Observation of the log .............................................................................................................................. 30 2.2.4. - The ligneous plan ................................................................................................................................... 32
The ligneous plan of the coniferous trees .................................................................................................................... 33 The ligneous plan of leafy trees ................................................................................................................................... 34 Ligneous plan and properties of wood......................................................................................................................... 34

2.2.5. - Cellular structure and chemical composition .................................................................................................. 36 2.3. - PHYSICAL PROPERTIES .............................................................................................................................. 37 2.3.1. - Wood and water..................................................................................................................................... 37
Wood moisture ........................................................................................................................................................... 37 Drying ........................................................................................................................................................................ 38 An anisotropic shrinkage ............................................................................................................................................. 40 Influence of water on mechanical properties ............................................................................................................... 44

2.3.2. - Behavior with respect to fire ...................................................................................................................... 44

Flammability, reaction to fire....................................................................................................................................... 44 Stability with fire ......................................................................................................................................................... 45

2.4. - MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD ........................................................................................................ 46 2.4.1. - Mechanical properties .............................................................................................................................. 46

Density ....................................................................................................................................................................... 46 Orthotropism ............................................................................................................................................................. 46 Rheology of wood....................................................................................................................................................... 48 Factors influencing performance ................................................................................................................................. 49

2.4.2. - Dynamic Damping ................................................................................................................................. 49 2.4.3. - Classification of solid wood ....................................................................................................................... 49

Methods ..................................................................................................................................................................... 49 Singularities of wood ................................................................................................................................................... 52

2.4.4. - Creep ................................................................................................................................................... 53 2.5. - DURABILITY .............................................................................................................................................. 53 2.5.1. - Aggressors ............................................................................................................................................ 53

Fungi .......................................................................................................................................................................... 53 Insects ........................................................................................................................................................................ 55

Marine borers ............................................................................................................................................................. 57 Sun and rain ................................................................................................................................................................ 57

2.5.2. - Preservation........................................................................................................................................... 57
General principle ........................................................................................................................................................ 57 Classes of employment (standard EN 335) .................................................................................................................. 60 Natural durability according to wood type ................................................................................................................... 60 Natural durability and class of employment ................................................................................................................. 61 Impregnability ............................................................................................................................................................. 62

2.5.3. Preservation treatments ........................................................................................................................... 63

Products ..................................................................................................................................................................... 63 Implementation .......................................................................................................................................................... 64 Requirements of penetration and retention .................................................................................................................. 65 Guarantees.................................................................................................................................................................. 66

2.5.4. - Finishes................................................................................................................................................ 67
Protective coatings ...................................................................................................................................................... 67 Varnishes and paint .............................................................................................................................................. 67 Other finishes ............................................................................................................................................................. 68

3. - Use of chemical preservatives: regulations and management at end of life................................................69

3.1. - RESPECT OF CONSTRAINTS RELATED TO HEALTH AND THE ENVIRONMENT .............................................. 69 3.2. PRESERVATION TREATMENTS FOR CLASS OF EMPLOYMENT 2 ................................................................... 69 3.3. PRESERVATION TREATMENTS FOR CLASSES OF EMPLOYMENT 3, 4 AND 5 ................................................. 69 3.4. - REGULATIONS APPLICABLE TO TREATED WOOD, CONCERNING THE USE OF TOXIC PRODUCTS ................. 70 3.4.1. - General regulation context ........................................................................................................................ 70 3.4.2. Regulation situation of traditional chemical treatments ................................................................................... 71
Arsenic salts (CCA) ..................................................................................................................................................... 71 Pentachlorophenol (PCP)............................................................................................................................................ 71 Creosote ..................................................................................................................................................................... 72

3.4.3. - Alternative treatments ............................................................................................................................. 72

Woods treated at high temperature .............................................................................................................................. 72 Substitutes for CCA .................................................................................................................................................... 73

3.5. - REGULATIONS CONCERNING TREATED WOOD WASTE: .............................................................................. 73 3.5.1. - Demolition of old structures ...................................................................................................................... 73 3.5.2. - Treated wood waste: classification and nomenclature ....................................................................................... 73
Wood treated with CCA or creosote: a waste classified as dangerous ......................................................................... 73

3.5.3. Channels of waste treatment: .................................................................................................................... 74

Particular case of wood waste contaminated by xylophagous insects (Article 10 of the decree of October 2, 1992) ............... 75

3.5.4. - Obligation of the building owner, producer of waste ........................................................................................ 75 3.6. - CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................................ 77

4. - Design of engineering structures in wood ..................................................................................78 4.1 - Types of structures adapted to wood..........................................................................................78
4.1.1. - Principles of use of wood in bridges ................................................................................................ 78
Timber bridges and heavy vehicle traffic................................................................................................................... 78 General design principles ............................................................................................................................................ 78 Importance of association of wood and other materials .............................................................................................. 79

4.1.2. - Various structures .................................................................................................................................. 81

Arch bridges ............................................................................................................................................................... 81 The composite timber-concrete bridges ....................................................................................................................... 83 Farm bridges ............................................................................................................................................................... 86 Lattice beam bridges ................................................................................................................................................... 87 Strut frame bridges...................................................................................................................................................... 89 Suspension bridges or stayed ...................................................................................................................................... 92 Composite timber- steel bridges ................................................................................................................................. 93

4.1.3. - Examples of footbridges ........................................................................................................................... 94

Vaires footbridge ........................................................................................................................................................ 94 Ajoux footbridge......................................................................................................................................................... 94 Footbridge at Saint-Jorioz ........................................................................................................................................... 95 Footbridge in Grigny .................................................................................................................................................. 95 Bridges with full side beams ........................................................................................................................................ 97

4.2. DISEASES AND CAUSES OF DAMAGE........................................................................................................ 100 4.2.1. Lack of drainage and ventilation ............................................................................................................ 100

Sealing ...................................................................................................................................................................... 100 Wood badly ventilated............................................................................................................................................... 100 Assembly trapping water ........................................................................................................................................... 101 Flat surface ............................................................................................................................................................... 102

4.2.2. - Solar Aggression and humidity gradient .................................................................................................... 102 4.2.3. - Other causes ........................................................................................................................................ 103 4.2.4. - Maintenance........................................................................................................................................ 104 4.3. - CONSTRUCTIVE PROVISIONS ................................................................................................................... 105 4.3.1. - General Rules...................................................................................................................................... 105 4.3.2. - Covered bridges .................................................................................................................................... 105 4.3.3. - Boarding............................................................................................................................................. 106
Boarding arrangements ............................................................................................................................................. 107 Protective hoods ....................................................................................................................................................... 108 Protection of the end wood ............................................................................................................................. 110 Handrail .................................................................................................................................................................... 111

4.3.4. - Joints ................................................................................................................................................. 113

Some rules about joints ............................................................................................................................................. 113 Ventilation of wood .................................................................................................................................................. 116 Joining using supports ............................................................................................................................................... 118 Water traps ............................................................................................................................................................... 119

4.3.5. - Flooring decks ..................................................................................................................................... 119

Wood flooring .......................................................................................................................................................... 120 Bituminous flooring .................................................................................................................................................. 120

4.4. - CHOICE OF WOODS ................................................................................................................................. 122 4.4.1. - Wood in class of employment 2 ................................................................................................................ 122
Parts concerned ........................................................................................................................................................ 122 Woods usable ........................................................................................................................................................... 122 Treatments................................................................................................................................................................ 122

4.4.2. - Wood in class of employment 3 ................................................................................................................ 122

Introductory remark.................................................................................................................................................. 122 Parts of structure concerned...................................................................................................................................... 122 Woods usable ........................................................................................................................................................... 122

4.4.3. Special case of boarding ......................................................................................................................... 123

Generalities ............................................................................................................................................................... 123 Woods with sufficient natural durability .................................................................................................................... 123 Durability conferred by treatment ............................................................................................................................. 123

4.4.4. - Wood in class of employment 4 and 5 ....................................................................................................... 124

Parts concerned ........................................................................................................................................................ 124 Types of wood usable ............................................................................................................................................... 124

4.4.5. Summary table of choice of woods ............................................................................................................ 125

5. Help for writing order...................................................................................................................................... 126

5.1. - DEFINITION OF THE ORDER .................................................................................................................... 126 5.1.1. - The program of the structure ................................................................................................................... 126 5.1.2. - Qualification of the company ................................................................................................................... 127 5.1.3. Project Management ............................................................................................................................. 127 5.1.4. - External Control ................................................................................................................................. 127 5.2.1. - Documents to be supplied by the contractor ................................................................................................. 128 5.2.2. - Plan of quality assurance (PAQ) ............................................................................................................ 128 5.2.3. Execution procedures............................................................................................................................ 130 5.2.4. - Constructive Provisions .......................................................................................................................... 130 5.2.5. Regulation texts and calculations ............................................................................................................ 131 5.2.6. - Forces, stresses, justifications ................................................................................................................... 131 5.3. - SOURCE, QUALITY AND PREPARATION OF MATERIALS ............................................................................. 131 5.3.1. Wood material .................................................................................................................................... 131
Types of wood .......................................................................................................................................................... 131 Wood humidity ......................................................................................................................................................... 132 Mechanical classification ........................................................................................................................................... 132 Section of woods and tolerances ............................................................................................................................... 132 Adhesive ................................................................................................................................................................... 133 Tropical woods ......................................................................................................................................................... 133 Chemical interaction with metal ................................................................................................................................ 133 Receiving .................................................................................................................................................................. 133 Requirements, implementation .................................................................................................................................. 134

Certificates, attestations............................................................................................................................................. 134 Finish ....................................................................................................................................................................... 134

5.4. EXECUTION OF THE WORK ..................................................................................................................... 135 5.4.1. - Execution and assembly of the wooden structure .......................................................................................... 135 5.4.2. - Tests of the structure ............................................................................................................................. 135 5.4.3. - Internal control .................................................................................................................................... 135 5.4.4. - External control................................................................................................................................... 135 5.5. - THE UNIT AND CONTRACT PRICE SCHEDULE (CPS) ................................................................................. 135 5.5.1. - Price of framework................................................................................................................................ 136 5.5.2. - Price of boarding .................................................................................................................................. 136 5.5.3. - Price of pedestrian flooring ...................................................................................................................... 136 5.5.4. - Price of on-site assembly ......................................................................................................................... 136 5.5.5. - Steel Price for assemblies ........................................................................................................................ 137 5.5.6. - Price of protective coating ........................................................................................................................ 137 5.5.7. - Price of tests ........................................................................................................................................ 137 5.6. - FOLLOW-UP OF THE STRUCTURE ............................................................................................................. 137 5.7. - SUMMARY: WHO DOES WHAT? ................................................................................................................. 139

6. - Appendices ......................................................................................................................................................... 140

6.1. - LEXICON ................................................................................................................................................. 140 6.2. - CLASSIFICATION PROCEDURE OF THE AUTHORIZED SUBSTANCES ........................................................... 143 6.3. - EUROPEAN AND FRENCH REGULATIONS: HEALTH, ENVIRONMENT AND BIOCIDES DIRECTIVE ............. 144 6.4. - PRINCIPAL PRODUCTS USED FOR WOOD PRESERVATION IN FRANCE, AND REGULATIONS ........................ 147 6.5. WASTE CLASSIFICATION PROCEDURE ..................................................................................................... 148
Structure of the classification of waste ....................................................................................................................... 148

6.6. - DANGEROUS WASTE ............................................................................................................................... 151 Components which make waste dangerous ................................................................................................ 151 Properties that make waste dangerous....................................................................................................... 152 6.7. - HOW TO FILL IN AN INDUSTRIAL WASTE FOLLOW-UP FORM (BSDI) ......................................................... 154 6.8. - REGULATION RELATING TO WASTE ......................................................................................................... 156 6.9 STANDARD SECTIONS .............................................................................................................................. 157 6.10 - BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES ............................................................................................................. 158 PRINCIPAL STANDARDS .................................................................................................................................... 158 Vocabulary .................................................................................................................................................... 158 Safeguarding of wood ........................................................................................................................................ 158 Classification .................................................................................................................................................. 160 Manufacture and tolerances................................................................................................................................ 161 Joints ............................................................................................................................................................ 161 Adhesives ...................................................................................................................................................... 162 Tests and measurements .................................................................................................................................... 162 Surface coatings ............................................................................................................................................... 163 Panels ........................................................................................................................................................... 163 DTU............................................................................................................................................................ 164 Waste regulations ............................................................................................................................................ 164 6.11 - GUIDES AND OTHER TECHNICAL DOCUMENTS ....................................................................................... 165 6.12. - TABLES OF THE FIGURES AND TABLES ................................................................................................... 167 6.13. - TABLE OF THE PHOTOGRAPHS............................................................................................................... 169 6.14. - USEFUL ADDRESSES OTHER THAN STRA .............................................................................................. 172

1. - General Presentation
1.1. - Wood: a little known material today
Wood is a material that we are rediscovering, because of technical progress in the wood trades, its warm appearance, and the publics concerns with the environment. Wood contributes to the renewal of the architectural quality of structures, in both urban and rural areas. In addition timber structures are light and easy to erect, a not unappreciable fact when the hindrances to existing roads must be reduced as much as possible. The footbridge at Vaires-sur-Marne, erected in a few hours, at night, in one piece, is a shining example of this. Wooden engineering structures, particularly footbridges, thus have a large development potential.

Photograph 1: Erection of the railway-station bridge at Vaires-sur-Marne. However the initial color of a new wooden structure changes in fact to grey after a few years exposure to weather, and only regular application of preservative will prevent this. Further, certain woods from temperate forests that are used for outdoor construction, were treated with insecticides and fungicides that may be harmful to health. Treated woods require precautions during use where the health of the workers who have to machine, bore or cut a contaminated material is concerned. Moreover, with respect to the environment, the treatments limit the possibilities of timber recycling at the structures end-of-life. European directive 2003/2/EC of January 6, forbids the use of some of these toxic products, in particular those based on arsenic salts. Exotic woods generally do not show such disadvantages but are likely on the other hand to come from countries where the exploitation of forests does not meet the current requirements of durable management, implemented in French forests since the Rio agreements of June 1992. It is true that timber construction makes it possible to trap carbon dioxide during the structures lifetime. Carbon dioxide is the major cause of the greenhouse effect after water vapor, and a long-lasting wooden structure thus fixes carbon. On this subject, the application in France of the 1997 Kyoto agreements resulted in a charter aimed at increasing timbers share of the construction industry.

The 2004 Climate Plan envisaged for example actions on this topic with the inventory and display of the amount of wood used in the construction industry, the evaluation by lEquipement des engagements des signataires de laccord cadre Wood construction - environment of March 28, 2001, and the exemplarity of the State which committed to using wood in public projects. However, no mechanism is in place to compensate a client who builds in wood for this carbon sink, either as part of an emissions permit contract or by another system. At the European level, in 2005 a two-phase quota system was set up, but it concerns only the producers of energy and the industrialists emitting large quantities of carbon dioxide. It is only at the international level that each State will be accountable for its carbon wells and may benefit from them since that will give rise to international credits exchangeable between States. But timber constructions do not involve sufficient quantities of carbon and the Kyoto protocol applies only to arable lands, pastures and forests under the term of carbon wells. *** Certain structures completed in the past twenty years show problems of premature damage. The lifespan of recent structures is too often less than twenty years, whereas certain very old structures are still in good condition. The bridge at Lucerne, in Switzerland, that endured more than six centuries before an accidental fire in 1993, is a well-known example. This important discrepancy in the lifespan of wooden structures may be explained by a loss of competence in the use of the material. Since the 14th century, the use of wood has declined in France, giving way to the use of stone, a more expensive material but requiring less maintenance than wood. Maintenance was considered too constraining by the building owners. In the 20th century, with the development of concrete and metal, this phenomenon was further accentuated. In France, the important ideas about the behavior of wood and construction regulations were even forgotten with time. However, the durability of the structures rested essentially on the choice of good constructive provisions and on the quality of maintenance. *** This guide is intended for building owners and project managers who wish to have a wooden structure built. Its objective is to show how to obtain a good lifespan. Taking into account the lack of references available in France on the subject, the guide initially draws up a history of wooden bridges : this chapter shows to what extent the care taken in design represents the best method of wood preservation and determines its lifespan. Then, the guide gives essential ideas on the anatomy and the mechanical and physical properties of this material. It also shows the aggressors and the methods of wood preservation, by underlining the disadvantages of certain chemical preservation methods. The guide then shows the major constructive dispositions to adopt to ensure the wood is kept dry and well ventilated. Finally, the last part helps the project manager to formalize good wood choices, preservation treatments and constructive provision requirements. Obviously, the good lifespan of a wooden structure also implies for the client regular monitoring and maintenance to ensure the woods good healthy condition.

1.2. - History of timber bridges

1.2.1. The first bridges
Wood was used as far back as the Neolithic era to cross rivers. It is estimated that 17,000 years ago, covered logs laid flat made up the first wooden bridges, but with spans limited to about ten meters. Herodotus described structures with increased spans to cross the Euphrates or certain tributaries of the Nile 2,000 to 3,000 years ago. Most detail is found on a bridge completed in Babylon some 2790 years ago. Generally speaking, during antiquity, technical progress in wood structures should be credited to shipbuilding, in particular by the Egyptians, the Phoenicians, the Greeks and the Celts.

Figure 1: Egyptian ships

Figure 2: bridge made of boats

The soldiers of the continental empires used floating barges as intermediate piers. One can quote as examples the bridge of Darius over the Bosphorus in the 6th century B.C. and that of his son Xerxs over the Dardanelles Straits, where 674 boats crossed an obstacle of about 1500 meters. The Romans started by borrowing construction techniques from the Celts, as was the case with Caesar's bridge over the Rhine that was built to carry a Roman army into Germany. The bridge was built with simple, ready-made units, and was easy to erect and then to dismantle after the passage of the army. At 5 to 6 meters wide, it was built in only 10 days, near Neuwied, where the width of the river was 140 meters.

Figure 3: Caesars bridge over the Rhine according to the reconstruction by Andrea Palladio Then the Romans developed new more complex structures with joints, in particular bridges with beams, strut frames and arches. Among this last type, one can quote as an example the bridge at Trajan on the Danube, dating back to 103 and crossing 1,100 meters in 35 meter spans.

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In Asia, one found boat bridges and various types of beam, strut or portal frame or arch bridges, as well as crossings achieved with vine suspension bridges. On the island of Java, the suspension bridge goes way back in time. The outside cantilevering abutment was also developed in Asia to increase the spans. Figure 4: outside cantilevering abutment according to a drawing of Viollet-le-Duc

1.2.2. - Evolution of bridge construction and maintenance

During medieval times, constructors became aware that rot was woods major enemy and that it could be avoided by keeping the material dry. In Europe, timber bridges were then very common. Charlemagne, for example, had a very large structure built around 800 on the Rhine at Mainz, that was unfortunately burnt in 813. During the following centuries, the bridges crossing the Seine in Paris were among the most renowned and contributed to the citys historical role. The same type of structure was also found in Cologne. The timber deck bridges were then generally built with stone piers on timber pile foundations. They were generally surmounted by houses, with the aim of protecting the structure from bad weather. This was particularly the case in Paris. The tolls collected by the City paid for the work and ensured the subsistence of a corporation responsible for bridge maintenance. The techniques used were rather advanced, and both labor and raw materials were abundant: support measures were taken at each period of low water level, parts were changed, and preservation treatments using boiling oil were also probably implemented.

Figure 5: collapse of the bridge at Petit-Chtelet in Paris during the winter of 1407 This old engraving is in a way testimony to this expertise, but it represents the collapse of a Parisian built bridge, that of Petit-Chtelet, in January 1407, during a flood on the Seine carrying ices : the Great Plague of 1349 and the war, by causing terrible damage to the demography and the economy, had probably led to the progressive abandonment of good maintenance practices on engineering structures.

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Another structure, the Notre-Dame Bridge, built out of wood from 1413 to 1420, collapsed in 1499 with its 60 houses, through lack of maintenance. The provost of the merchants and the municipal magistrates paid for this negligence with their freedom. For precautions sake and by royal decision, no more timber bridges were built. In Italy, Andr Palladio published an architectural treatise recommending that if timber bridges were built they should at least be covered. In spite of the advantages of the guidelines proposed by Palladio, it seems that not much use was made of them in France, where timber bridges were rather badly looked upon by the bourgeoisie because of the rigorous maintenance requirements.

Figure 6: project for the "Pont des Arts" in Paris drawn according to the ideas of Andrea Palladio. Note the masonry piers, on timber pile foundations The Tournelle bridge , linking Isle Saint-Louis to Pariss left bank , may be taken as characteristic of the history of timber bridges in France from the 14th century : built in 1369, it collapsed under a flood on the Seine. Rebuilt in 1620, it was again carried away by an exceptional ice break up in 1637. A temporary bridge built in 1640 was carried away by the Seine in 1651. It was then replaced by a stone bridge, completed in 1655, and long considered final. But the large width of its 5 piers in the river aggravated the seriousness of the Seine 1910 flood, causing its partial collapse. It was demolished after the hostilities in 1919.

Figure 7: Pont-Rouge in Paris The above engraving represents the center of Paris seen from the left bank of the Seine, around 1680. The bridge between lIle de la Cit and lIle Saint-Louis is a timber bridge, neither covered nor built, called Pont-Rouge. The Tournelle bridge, built of stone in 1655, is located at the extreme right of the picture.

1.2.3. - Durability, a forgotten design criterion

During the 18th century, the non-temporary bridges were built in masonry. With regard to timber structures, Perronet noted from experience, in particular with the Saint-Cloud bridge, that the lifespan of a wooden beam left uncovered in the Paris area was limited to 25 years. This is why he recommended the complete covering of wooden frames by lead sheets to prevent them from rotting.

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Perronet hastened to add in his report, after an economic justification calculation: In spite of the longer lifespan we may give to timber bridges, it will always be preferable to make them entirely in masonry, when the materials are not too distant and expensive. For financial reasons, temporary timber bridges were built in France. Thus, in 1719 in Lyon, economic conditions forced the engineer Garrin to give up the initial plan of a metallic arc, approved before 1685 by Colbert, and then during construction, to not take alone the financial risks linked to the innovation: the construction on the Rhone was finally built out of wood. Similarly, several construction engineers, Goiffon, Calippe and de Montpetit, proposed in vain on several occasions, for financing reasons, metal arches in Lyon between 1755 and 1779 to compete with stone. A first iron arch of 25 m span was put up in 1755 on a three-arch structure. The following arches were put up in timber for economic reasons, and the short lifespan of the structure did not allow it to become as renowned as that of Coalbrookdale, a metal bridge completed in England in 1779 and still in service. In the case of the bridges in Lyon, the choice of wood, as a substitute for iron, is recommended by Perronet, who has mastered the arch technique. These structures, structurally excellent, are constructed as arches, but unfortunately without considering Palladios recommendations to ensure their durability, i.e. with no covering except that of a few lead sheets. Further, the timber bridges at la Salptrire and la Mulatire have only timber piling, not stone. The Tournus bridge (figure 8), built of wood on the Saone in 1801, has masonry supports and represented, with spans of approximately 30 meters, Frances most successfully completed arch bridge.. Its mechanical and aesthetic design was extremely neat, with small, radiant posts. But its designers continued, wrongly and perhaps without knowing, to respect the narrow interpretation of the Parliaments concerning old French laws prohibiting building on a wooden bridge and thus did not envisage a covering. All these structures thus unfortunately disappeared rather quickly, because the building owners neglected to provide the necessary maintenance resources, since wood for construction was rare and expensive at the end of the 18th century.

Figure 8: partial elevation of the Tournus bridge . This bridge is not very different from the Roman bridge of Cologne built in 310 In Bavaria, the bridges built by Wiebeking in the 19th century were arches on the same model as the bridge at Tournus, but with much wider spans going up to 45 meters at Freyssingen in 1807 and 72 meters at Bamberg in 1809. La Planche 1 dates back to 1810, where Wiebeking, General manager of the Road Directorate of Bavaria, plans a bridge in Munich. But twenty years later, these bridges rotted and finally had to be replaced and Wiebeking was subjected to the Kings mocking remarks : You are a genius of the static, but your bridges do not have the required durability .

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Board 1: Project of crossing of Isar in only one arch (Wiebeking, Munich 1810).

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Between 1823 and 1850, the calculations of Navier and the engineering genius of the Seguin brothers relaunched the use of wood for the decks of the first generation of suspension bridges. These bridges of the national road network were then often granted to companies. Wood was selected for its lightness. Among this kind of bridge, we can mention the two bridges of the Seguin brothers on the Rhone between Tain and Tournon. The first suspension bridge, built in 1825, had two 85-meter spans. The structure was made up of two lots of six cables of one hundred twelve strands of wire 3 mms in diameter, on which were suspended oak beams 30 cm by 16 cm. Following the development of steam travel , this bridge was raised and transformed into a footbridge before being destroyed, contrary to the opinion of the town council, in 1965. But another suspension bridge of the same type as the first, built in 1847, remains today a testimonial to the period.

Photographs 2: Tournon bridge of 1847 However wood in general conferred insufficient strength to the structure, and the principles of Palladio were still often ignored. The accident at the Basse Chaine bridge built in 1834 at Angers caused 226 deaths in 1848. There were other accidents, particularly in 1852 at the Roche-Bernard on the structure of 198 meter span built in 1836, then on the large bridge at Cubzac. Consequently suspension bridges with wooden decks are used only on minor roads. Such works continued nevertheless to be built as this crossing of the Marne testifies, still in service in the 1960s.(photo 3) The beam and the first timber deck of the Grosle bridge built in 1912, were kept in service until 1973 with an 8-ton limit. They were replaced in 1977 by an aluminum girder linked to a light-concrete slab.

Photograph 3: bridge on the Marne The Montmerle bridge had already profited from a reinforcement of the same type, after a serious accident occurred because of non-respect, by a heavy truck, of the traffic signals. ( photo 4)

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Photograph 4: bridge of Montmerle (Ain)

In the 20th century we find the Tournelle bridge

that will serve as a reference point. The temporary timber bridge (figure 9), built in 1920, did not as envisaged allow traffic: it was prone to annoying dynamic phenomena. In addition, the current bridge was only completed in 1928 for lack of credit. During these eight years, the Parisian press opened up and gave a last look at the prestige already started up of the wooden structures in our country, not missing out on the Bridges, Roads and Shipping departments.

Figure 9: press article

1.2.4. - An exception: timber bridges of Switzerland

The bridge of the chapel of Lucerne (photo 5) dates from 1333. It is a striking example of longevity. For centuries, certain parts were rebuilt, and in 1993 most of the structure was destroyed by fire. It was rebuilt to the original in 1994.

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Photographs 5: bridge of the chapel of Lucerne and bridge in the area of Davos, probably built in the 18th century Many other very old covered structures are still in service in Switzerland, even if they support today reduced traffic only. The Swiss carpenters Hans Ulrich and Jean Grubenmann were the project managers of the Schaffhouse bridges (figure 10), with two spans of 60 meters in 1758, and Wettingen in 1778 whose span was 110 meters. These two structures were covered. Both were unfortunately burnt in 1799 by vandalism, so that one is unaware of how long the Schaffhouse bridge would have lasted : it had already more than 40 years of service at the time of its destruction.

Figure 10: Schaffhouse bridge (Switzerland)

1.2.5. Timber bridges of North America.

In the United States, it is estimated that around 10,000 covered bridges were built between 1805 and 1885. The wooden structures succeed today in still keeping an honorable share of the market, particularly on minor roads, since 7 % of bridges are still wood. This may be explained by a preserved know-how, and the always abundant presence of forests which still cover, for example, 89 % of the surface of the State of Maine. Among these covered bridges are many that have lasted more than a hundred years even though at the time no chemical preservation treatment was given. Creosote was the subject of a US patent in 1831. To obtain this product, certain toxic wastes from the chemical and iron and steel industries were added to carbon oils or petrol. Impregnation with arsenic, chromium and copper salts (CCA), appeared in the USA in 1933, and pentachlorophenol in 1935.

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Thanks to protection treatments against the bad weather, in particular coatings based on petroleum products, the cover of the covered bridges was gradually abandoned. In the United States, in Canada and in Australia, timber bridges with lattice structures were developed in the middle of the 19th century, as were composite timber-steel structures. The bridge known as Sioux - Narrows is located on highway 71 just north of Kenora in Ontario. Built in 1936, it has a 64 meter isostatic span. It is a Warren bridge without cover which constitutes the largest timber bridge of this type in North America and which was recently quoted in an OECD report as the example of a correctly designed, built and maintained timber bridge whose lifespan might prove to be comparable to that of a steel bridge. However the structure was closed to traffic in 2003 for safety reasons and doubled by a Bailey bridge. In spite of its great interest for local tourism, it has not yet been decided if it will be rebuilt as original. Further, a design of decks from pre-stressed wood was developed in Canada in the Seventies and imitated in the United States. That consists of compressing joists using metal bars.

1.2.6. - The return of wood

For the past twenty years, there has been a renewed interest in wood in Europe. Thus in the Germanic countries, it is used for footbridges and low-load bridges. Glued-laminated wood was invented by the Swiss Otto Hetzer, who patented his discoveries between 1891 and 1910 in Germany. Some of these discoveries were inspired by ideas published in 1561 by Philibert de l'Orme, a contemporary of Andrea Palladio. Many technical developments were made in the 20th century, mainly in North America. Glue-lam allowed construction of arch bridges where protection against the rain is ensured by the roadway or long-length, large-section beam bridges

. Photograph 6: Keystone-Wye bridge in SouthDakota. Glue-lam arch sheltered under a flagstone (1968) Photograph 7: Cocteau footbridge built in Nimes. Glue-lam arch without protection against shocks and rain (1975)

Nevertheless, bad habits are hard to break: in France many bridges, like the footbridge at Montigny-lesCormeilles had to be quickly demolished and rebuilt. In Nmes, the Cocteau footbridge, which was subjected to the shock of an oversize vehicle in the Eighties had to be rebuilt. Moreover, the climate in the area and water stagnations cause first localized rotting, then the arrival of Capricorn beetles. These insects dig tunnels filled with sawdust that retain moisture inside the wood. So various opportunist fungi were recently observed there. At the end of the 20th century, there was finally a tendency in Germany and France to design sheltered bridges which take account of the Swiss and North-American experience of the 19th century.

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The Thalkirchen bridge built in Munich in 1991 is very original, consisting of a wooden framework particularly well protected, sheltered by an orthotropic steel slab.

Photograph 8: Thalkirchen bridge in Munich (Germany) In France, some bridges without load limitation were made from wood, like the covered bridge on the Dore at Saint-Gervais-sous-Meymont, built for the Local Authority of Puy de Dme.

Photograph 9: bridge over the river Dore (Puy de Dme) In Blagnac, the footbridge at Pinot, whose local Agency of the French Road Directorate of HauteGaronne assured project management, constitutes with a methyl polymethacrylate plastic protection another original structure that combines wood with other materials to reconcile functionality, architectural aspect and durability.

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Photograph 10: Pinot footbridge in Blagnac (Haute-Garonne)

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2. Wood - The material

2.1. - General
2.1.1 Occurrence and availability
Metropolitan Woods (or indigenous Woods of Europe)
In France, forests cover approximately 30 % of the metropolitan area. It has been in constant progression since the beginning of the 19th century: in 2002, it produced 85 million m3 of wood., of which 50 million m3 only are exploited. These 50 million m3 break down into 15 million m3 of firewood, 18 million m3 in sawing, 10 million m3 in pulp and paper and 7 million m3 for panels and veneers. Chart 1: rate of afforestation of each French region

0 - 15% 15 - 30% 30 - 45% 45 - 60% 60 - 83%

On the covered area, broad-leafed trees are in the majority and represent 60 % of the wooded surface. On the other hand, exploitation of coniferous trees is the most important: the volume of sawing of coniferous tree represents 70 % of the total volume of sawing. Because of prices lower than those of the broad-leafed trees, the coniferous trees are used in the construction industry. Moreover, the leafy trees are generally rather sensitive, making their use more delicate because of wood shrinkage.

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Among the principal types of coniferous tree, are the fir tree, the spruce, the maritime and Scots pines, the Douglas and to a lesser extent the larch. It will be noted that the mountain types generally have better properties than those of the plain thanks to a lower speed of growth, which favors a greater wood density. The more common leafy types are the oak, the beech, the poplar and the chestnut. These types are readily available. Lastly, certain types naturally very durable , such as the locust tree (false acacia) are not very available and exist only in very small diameters. Some of the indigenous French woods are certified by the PEFC (pan European forest council), which attests to the source of a durably managed forest, without overexploitation. The types most used for civil engineering structures are the Douglas, the larch and the treated pine.

The summary table, giving choices of types, gives more detail in Part 4 - chapter 4.4.5.

The particular case of French Guiana.

Since the Rio agreements in June 1992, France committed itself with the international community to ensuring a durable and exemplary management of the forest belts exploited in Guiana. A time limit was set for the preceding formula of exploitation permits. The development of the Guiana production forests set up by the ONF from 1993 represents an essential projection towards durable management. As for Metropolitan France, such good management could result in certification by the PEFC. The Guianese forest represents 96,7 % of the surface of the territory, or approximately eight million hectares. The surface area of the forests developed for exploitation represents 410.000 hectares, or only 5 % of the total forest area, and production is approximately 65.000 tons of logs per annum. Production is mostly of leafy tropical types, of average to high density , intended for a small part (approximately 10%) for export, mainly towards the Antilles. Chart 2: French Guiana

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The Northern woods

By Northern wood we refer to those that grow beyond 57 degrees of Northern latitude, in Finland, in the Scandinavian Countries, in Russia and in Canada. The majority of Northern woods are certified by the PEFC or by the Dutch organization KEURHOUT. These forests are essentially made up of coniferous tree (approximately 90%). Two types are abundant: the silver fir (spruce) and the red fir (Scots pine). These types grow rather slowly and have good mechanical and durability properties. The Northern woods are widely used in construction (low cost and good availability), particularly in the glued-laminated wood industry.

Tropical woods
The tropical forest accounts for 50% of worlds wooded area , but produces only 15% of the wood used in France for construction. Very many types exist, particularly leafy trees. The most common in construction are the iroko, ip, the plantation teak, the doussi, the bilinga, azob, the moabi, the movingui and the tauari. For other types, reference should be made to the atlas of tropical woods: it is particularly necessary to check the mechanical properties (density, strength) and physical properties (shrinkage). Useful information (availability, special instructions) may be obtained from CIRAD (Center for International co-operation in Agronomic Research for Development, contact: boistrop@cirad.fr). There are currently several certification bodies that attest to good forest management as applied to the fight against deforestation. No French regulation requires the client to demand such certification. On the other hand, a customs import document must be supplied to him by the company. There are several forest certification systems in tropical areas: KEURHOUT, FSC (Forest Stewardship Council) and a PAFC project (Pan African Forest Council). Only three million hectares of tropical forest are certified by the FSC and the PAFC: it is an insignificant part that corresponds to 0.2 % of the total area. However, many tropical operators have taken eco-certification steps involving the installation of plans to lead little by little to the production in significant quantities of wood from certified forests. But in the current state of the things, to require this type of certification would be excessive and would even exclude Guiana arbitrarily for example. Moreover, the situations of the producing countries are in constant evolution. Malaysia was thus in 1970 the worlds most important exotic wood exporter, with exploitation conditions very far away from the present criteria of durable management. On the other hand, this country started, in 1972, towards policies encouraging durable exploitation of forests and the production of wood of culture, particularly in the case of teak, and even set up its own system of certification recognized by KEURHOUT. It is primarily advisable to be sure of the source of woods used to avoid the use of wood of dubious origins. If the case arises, customs can indicate to the building owner the types of wood that might be at risk in this respect, and alone are able to draw up the customs import document. CIRAD can also provide information on the types, their availability, the impact of their use within the framework of the process of durable development.

2.1.2. Sawn and reconstituted products

There is solid wood, generally sawn in standardized sections, and reconstituted products. The reconstituted products are manufactured with wood that is ground up or unrolled, then glued. These products are more homogeneous, because the knots, in particular, can be taken out before gluing.

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Sawing
The logs are cut into rectangular sections in the sawmills. The sections obtained are baulks, battens, rafters, slats, etc. These terms are clarified in the appended lexicon (part 6) in chapter 6.1. There are a certain number of standard sections supplied by most sawmills. The standard sections are detailed in the appendix (part 6) in chapter 6.9. For the different sections, the cutting is done by list : the section is specially cut for the customer, thus increasing the cost. The lengths start at 2 meters and increase by increments of 0.5 meters up to ten meters.

Photograph 11: sawing on slab off-cut

Sawing is almost always done as a slab : all the boards are sawn parallel as shown in Figure 11. When the sawing is close to the core of the trunk the boards are said to be on quarter, then further away, they are said to be on false quarter and considered as slabs. Rarer are cuttings on quarter where one seeks to optimize the number of pieces obtained on quarter because they become less deformed with drying.

Figure 11: definition of sawing on slabs and quarters

Glued-laminated wood ( Glulam or glue-lam )

Origin
Glue-lam was invented about one century ago. The Swiss Otto HETZER had the idea to join wood boards with casein glue

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Technique
Boards (called strips) up to 5m long are dried (15 % maximum moisture because of joining), and are purged of their peculiarities (knots, depressions, etc). The depressions are parts of the round part of the tree that appear during cutting. The strips are then abutted and glued to make continuous strips. Since the end piece cannot be stuck due to glue absorption , gluing is completed under a minimal pressure of 2 MPa on the inclined faces that are called splice-joints.

Figure 12: detail of a butt joint ( vertical finger joint )

Figure 13: effect of a diagonal grain orientation or of a shake

The plates are planed then superposed one on the other to obtain the desired section. Gluing is carried out no more than 24 hours after planning with a thermo-hardening adhesive ( mechanically strong) that is water-resistant The adhesive resorcinol (resorcinol phenol formalin) is most usually used outside. Then the whole is generally pressed between 0.4 and 1.2 MPa, for a minimum of 6 hours.

Usable types
The most common types are fir , spruce, Scots pine and Douglas . Other types may also be used: larch, maritime pine in particular, and certain leafy types (like the iroko).

Photograph 12: beam in Glue-lam spruce

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Advantages
Glue-lam has several advantages compared to solid wood, particularly the following: manufacture of beams of large section and long length (up to approximately 40 m); possibility of manufacturing curved beams; increased resistance and rigidity; purging of peculiarities.

Strength classifications
The strength classifications of Glue-lam go from GL 20 to GL 36 (the number giving the characteristic value of the bending strength). There is homogeneous Glue-lam wood(GL36h) which consists of plates having the same mechanical characteristics, and the mixed Glue-lam timber (GL36c) which consists of plates having higher mechanical characteristics at the ends. GL24h for example consists of strips classified in C24 and GL24c consists of plates in C18 inside the section and C24 outside. The mechanical classification of the woods is explained in part 2 in chapter 2.4.3 Classification of solid wood.

Standard dimensions
The Glue-lam timber beams are available in standard sections and to order. Standard dimensions are:

width: from 6 to 24 cm; height: from 10 to 60 cm; length: up to 40 meters.

The standard strip thicknesses vary from 33 to 45 mm For exterior structures, it is recommended that the best quality strips be used to better control wood shrinkage, and of course to design an effective protection.

Examples of realization

Photograph 13: Judo Institute (Paris)

Photograph 14: Pinot footbridge

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Marking and certification

Glue-lam timber is marked EC in compliance with standard EN 14080 (Construction wood - Glue-lam products - Requirements), that guarantees a minimal manufacturing inspection by the company and by qualified body. It is anticipated that the EC marking will be mandatory in January 2007. There is also a quality certification ACERBOIS GLULAM, to guarantee classification of the strips, the characteristics of the abutments in bending, the characteristics of joining and the classification of the Glue-lam timber.

Industrial products LVL, LSL and PSL

These industrial products are obtained after taking pieces of wood then slicing (LVL and PSL) or from long shavings (LSL). Slices of veneer or shavings are piled up (sometimes with changes of orientation) and are stuck together. The Lamibois or LVL (laminated veneer lumber) and the LSL (laminated strand lumber) are generally seen as thick plate, while the PSL (parallel strand lumber) makes up beams (up to 48 cm high by 28 cm wide). These products show better mechanical characteristics than solid wood, and have a better dimensional stability (thanks to the orientation of the veneers). The most used type is spruce, but some applications use pine. In the field of engineering structures, these products can be used to make struts, support for flooring for example.

Photograph 15: LVL

Photograph 16: LSL

Photograph 17: PSL

Panels
plywood is obtained from wood slabs: veneers are crossed and glued (similarities with the LVL with cross folds); the OSB (oriented strand board) is obtained by the joining of strips, obtained after grinding up wood, according to a favored direction; particle boards are obtained by the joining of shavings and sawdust; the hard fiber boards (HDF) and fairly hard (MDF) are especially used inside.

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Photograph 18: OSB

Photograph 19: plywood

2.2. - Anatomy of wood

2.2.1. Untreated wood : a natural, living material
Wood is not a material manufactured for use in civil engineering. In the tree trunk it has many functions: it is the way in which nature fulfilled these functions which gives wood its properties. The tree trunk functions normally when it is alive: it is saturated with water and protected mainly by its bark. In civil engineering it is used dry a word to be defined more precisely - and not protected by its bark. It is from this point of view that the material wood will be presented here. Wood is a living material. This must be understood in two different ways: wood is the material of a living organism. To know the way of life of this plant makes it possible to discover some of these properties; wood adapts permanently to its environment. One of its principal components is absorbent: cellulose. In the dry state, this cellulose is permanently balanced with moisture in the air and inflates to some extent.: wood works. It reacts too, because of the surface activity of UV on its organic components. These properties must be taken into account in the use of a material, in a manner similar to that for other civil engineering materials: the dimensional sensitivity of wood to moisture is similar to the dimensional sensitivity of steel or concrete to temperature, the layer of wood damaged by light on its surface is similar to the layer of burnt lime that protects limestone.

Wood, stemming from living matter, is mainly made up of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, and a whole series of minerals (metal silica, calcium, potassium in particular and traces of metallic salts ). These elements are organized in organic compounds of three principal families: cellulose which, in wood, is organized in elementary microfibrils, themselves agglomerated in fibers. These microfibrils comprise crystalline parts and amorphous parts. The cellulose molecule is very absorbent because of the hydroxyl groupings it contains. Cellulose represents 50 % of final material; hemicelluloses that belong to the sugar family , make up half the matrix of composite cellulose fiber material hemicellulose lignin matrix. It is the hemicelluloses which attract the majority of insects, only termites being able to digest cellulose; lignin, another family of polymers specific to the wood, that constitutes the other half of the matrix. 28

Trees belong to the plant world, reproducing by flowers and seeds (phanerogams). There are two junctions there including: gymnosperms, plants with opened fruits, among which are conifers thus called because their seeds are stored in cones formed of protective scales. The wood of conifers is called resinous because the tree stores resins in special vesicles; angiosperms, plants with seed included in a fruit, among which one finds the trees called leafy.

The gymnosperms which supply coniferous timber, are further back in evolution because their more simple structure is made up of non-specialized cells. The angiosperms that supply leafy woods are much more complex.

2.2.2. From the macroscopic to the microscopic

Wood is strong in both compression and bending
Mechanically, a tree trunk is a post embedded by its foot and carrying a vertical load at its head: the crown. It thus has naturally a good compressive strength. It also ensures the resistance of the plant to horizontal loads: the crown catching the wind is very important and the trunk thus transmits a bending moment and not inconsiderable shear force to the ground. Thus the trunk also has a high bending strength , regardless of the direction of the wind.

Figure 14: role of the trunk in the transmission of stresses applied to the tree The symmetry of revolution of a tree trunk can be seen as a response to the fact that the wind can blow in all directions. The symmetry of revolution is no longer true for trees subjected to prevailing winds (wood at edges, isolated wood) shown at the right of figure 14: the plant reinforces its structures to offer a greater resistance in the most stressed direction. Leafy trees generate additional wood at the side in tension (tension wood) and the coniferous trees on the compressed side (compression wood). These zones have defects in their microstructure. Also this type of reaction wood is to be avoided in engineering structures.

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2.2.3. - Observation of the log

Figure 15: natural reference mark LRT identifiable on block (CNDB) By sawing a section of the trunk one obtains a block (see figure 15). One highlights its cylindrical geometry that leads to the fact that the tree grows by adding each year an additional layer of wood, this layer being that located between the wood itself and the bark. This structure induces a natural geometrical reference frame to which we will refer constantly: we will distinguish the longitudinal direction L from the axis of the trunk, the radial direction R, corresponding to the radii of the annual growth circles , and, locally, the direction T, tangential to the circles. In the local plane these three directions form two by two symmetry planes that correspond to a particular mechanical behavior. The observation of the transverse section below of the tree trunk, in plan TR (figure 16) (Figure 16) shows from the interior towards the exterior (from the past to the present):

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Figure 16: transverse section (plan RT) of a trunk of oak (CNDB) a zone of quasi-circles rings of annual increase - each one made up of a clear zone and a dark zone. It is perfect wood. The clear zone of the ring is the wood of spring, a wet period when vegetation. Awakens. Here the wood is a little more tender. The dark zone corresponds to the wood that has grown in the summer, a period of dryness: the wood here is less porous, harder. This perfect wood is still called heartwood when it can be visually distinguished from sapwood; a zone which has the same structure of changeover but much clearer in certain cases. It is sapwood. They are the recent layers of wood; just after the last layer of sapwood is the cambium, the layer which divides itself to manufacture the wood of the annual layer, sapwood towards the interior, the inner bark towards outside; a layer of wood a little thicker, very porous, the inner bark, which constitutes the base of the bark; a last external layer, the outer bark, made up of inner bark cells which specialized themselves to ensure peripheral protection of the trunk.

On the section of oak of figure 16 Figure 16, these various layers are characterized rather well by their color and their more or less porous structure.

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These differences are explained by the functions of these various layers. It is then necessary to reconsider the operation of the plant: to ensure its growth, the tree takes water and mineral salts (crude sap) in the ground using its root system and transports them to the leaves. This rise of the crude sap is ensured by the vessels (in the leafy trees) and the tracheids (in the coniferous trees) of sapwood. In the leaves photosynthesis ensures the transformation of this water, mineral salts and CO2 taken in the air as phloem sap, a mixture of sugars and water which goes down to the roots. This phloem sap is used all along this path to feed the plant and to manufacture tissue. The re-descent of the phloem sap is ensured by the inner bark.

Figure 17: photosynthesis and circulation of the saps

As we will see further while going down to a microscopic scale, these vertical movements are ensured by the vertical organization of the majority of the wood cells. Horizontal and radial cells allow the horizontal movement of the phloem sap and storage. In the case of the oak shown in figure 16 Figure 16, perfect wood appears as dark in the center of the figure. The movement paths of the sap were blocked by mineral and metallic salts tannins which give it its color. It thus plays no further role in the vertical movement of the saps. It does however retain a reserve function. One speaks about heartwood only when perfect wood is differentiated by its specific coloring compared to that of sapwood. It is the case with oak, chestnut or Scots and maritime pines. On the other hand fir or spruce have no differentiated sapwood, i.e. it is not possible to distinguish sapwood from perfect wood. The metallic salts that color the heartwood give it resistance to the insects called xylophagous larvae most common in our areas: the traditional insecticide treatments are nothing more than chemical metal salts which are forced to penetrate the wood to protect it from insects (except termites which are not just xylophagous larvae insects, but xylophagous themselves). This natural resistance of wood to differentiated sapwood explains why a structure in oak or chestnut, if it is well protected from water stagnation, thus from rot, has nothing to fear from insects, without any treatment. It will be the case of well-protected parts of bridges, even if they get wet occasionally. Care must be taken to reject parts containing too much sapwood or to demand its removal if sawing has not totally eliminated it.

2.2.4. - The ligneous plan

On a microscopic scale there is another level of organization of wood, called the ligneous plan. The ligneous plan is the representation of the organization of the various types of wood cells. This ligneous plan is specific to each type of wood; that of coniferous trees is basically different from that of leafy trees. Microscopic examination is necessary to definitely identify the types, even if an initial examination with the naked eye gives an almost certain answer.

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The ligneous plan of the coniferous trees

The drawing below represents a small cube of wood of approximately 1 cm per side cut from a coniferous wood, the sections being respectively LR, LT and RT. Examination under the electron microscope of the ligneous plan is typical of a coniferous tree.

Figure 18: on the left, drawing of the ligneous plan of a coniferous tree; on the right microphotography of a coniferous tree (X 50) The majority of the cells are vertical. They are named tracheids. Their diameter is about 30 to 40 m, longest are 7 mm Their function is both mechanical and transport of the saps. The spring wood is the zone with large-diameter cells, the summer wood is the zone of cells with smaller diameter and thicker walls. Another detail : the tracheids are equipped with communication points the areole punctuations which are like pressure buttons between tracheids. The sap moves by capillarity while going from one cell to another by punctuations. The duraminization, or hardening, corresponds to the obstruction of these punctuations and hence to the end of this movement. Other types of cell or structure are visible on the ligneous plan; ligneous honeycombs resiniferous channels, which are also storage areas for cicatrisation material for the plant. Generally, in coniferous trees, the ligneous honeycombs are very small and not very visible to the naked eye. These structures are detailed .below.

Figure 19: details of a ligneous plan of a coniferous tree

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Figure 19Figure 19 shows on the left microphotography of the aerole punctuations and on the right microphotography of a section RT of a coniferous tree with resin pockets in the summer wood part.

The ligneous plan of leafy trees

Figure 20: on the left a drawing of the ligneous plan of leafy trees and on the right microphotography of the oak The ligneous plan of leafy trees, above in graph and microphotography for oak, is definitely more complex because their cells are more specialized (distinction between the functions of support of the tree and conduction of the sap in particular). On the structural level one finds however: a majority of vertical cells, fibers (support) and parenchyma (filling, storage), vessels (transport of the saps), and radial cells, the ligneous honeycombs that can be definitely bulkier than in the case of coniferous trees. It should be noted that there are two large families of leafy trees: leafy trees with an initial porous zone (ZIP) and leafy trees with a homogeneous zone. Among the leafy trees with ZIP, are the oak and the chestnut in particular. In spring, the vessels are of a very large section, then they narrow in summer. On the other hand, the leafy trees with homogeneous zone such as the beech have identical vessel sizes throughout the vegetation season. Tropical (and equatorial) woods do not always show differences visible to the naked eye between spring wood and summer wood, because of the climate. However, a careful analysis of the ligneous plan generally shows that there is nevertheless an annual vegetative cycle.

Ligneous plan and properties of wood

Two factors are essential for the quality of wood:

regularity of the width of the annual growth rings, which results from the regularity of the climate; the proportion of spring compared to summer wood . It is preferable that the summer wood, more resistant, is in greater proportion, which is evidenced for coniferous trees by the smoothness of the annual growth rings.

So the culture zones for timber are preferentially the plains for leafy trees, because the seasons are balanced there, the mountains and the Nordic regions for coniferous trees because springs are short there and the climate regular. Irregular growth rings produce internal stresses during drying and deformations during sawing (wood is said to be sensitive).

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Knowledge of the ligneous plan also explains woods mechanical behavior. Both in compression and traction, it is obvious that the properties in the longitudinal direction are significantly higher than those in the tangential and radial directions. In the tangential radial direction compression crushes the cells, tension stresses the joint between the cells, and the wall tears. On the contrary, in the longitudinal direction, the vertical organization of the cells, like juxtaposed tubes, favors a good resistance in compression and tension. This anisotropy is as true for the modulus of elasticity as for the breaking strength as table 4 shows Table 4 , which provides some average characteristic values. The properties of symmetry of these natural axes make it possible this to classify wood in orthotropic materials. Values of average mechanical properties are provided to chapter 2.4. The mechanisms of ruptures in wood are multiple as shown in the following figures (Figure 21, Figure 22, Figure 23) for wood free from singularities.

Figure 21: various modes of rupture in compression. From left to right, splitting in corner, shear, by splitting, crushing and splitting, cellular buckling

Figure 22: various modes of rupture in tension. From left to right, brittle fracture in tension, shear, combination tension/ shear, splitting in tension

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Figure 23: various modes of rupture under bending of a wood sample free from singularities. (A) in simple transverse tension, (b) in tension of transverse wire, (c) in tension/ splitting, (D) pure tension of fibers, (E) in compression, (F) horizontal shear The various types of rupture bring into play various mechanisms: rupture in compression of the individual cellular walls, rupture of the whole of the vertical building by lateral buckling of the cells in compression, rupture in tension or shear of the call joint plans , rupture in tension of the cellular walls. As such the results of the mechanical characterization tests of wood are always very dispersed, much more than in civil engineering manufactured materials, such as concrete and steel. The average results from the calculations are thus always statistical characteristic values including large safety margins. As for construction wood, it is not conceivable to eliminate knots, pockets of resins and other singularities of wood, the multiplicity of the forms of rupture shown before (Figure 21, Figure 22, Figure 23) becomes more and more complex.

2.2.5. - Cellular structure and chemical composition

The living cell of a tree comprises a core, a cytoplasm, a membrane and a primary wall (P). During differentiation, it stretches, deposits a secondary wall (S) and then lignifies its wall, which seals it from the exterior. This last phase results in the death of the cell, with disappearance of the core and the cytoplasm, leaving room for a blank cell.

Figure 24 shows the various layers of the wall of the lignified cell. The fibers (or more exactly microfibrils) of cellulose are stuck by a mixture of sugars (hemicelluloses) and lignin-like glass fibers or carbon fibers in the epoxy resin of the composite materials. The wall of the tracheds is made up of several layers: in the thickest S2 the cellulose fibers are arranged almost vertically.

Figure 24: model of the layers of the cellular wall of the

36

tracheids This provision optimizes the longitudinal compressive and tensile strengths, and the bending flexibility. This layer is framed by two S1 layers in which the cellulose fibers are almost horizontal and hoop the S2 layer. In the external layer P the fibers do not show preferential direction. Lastly, the intercellular layer M, consisting essentially of lignin, sticks the cells together.

2.3. - Physical properties

2.3.1. - Wood and water
Water is also one of the principal components of wood. In the living tree, it fills the whole inside of the cell (free water), it impregnates the wall tissues (combined water) and it constitutes one of the chemical components of the cellulose chain, hemicelluloses and lignin (makeup water).

Wood moisture
In cut wood, there are three forms of water presence : makeup water, which is an integral part of the material; combined water, which is combined with the cellulose hydroxyl groupings; free water, which circulates in the cellular vacuums (vessels or tracheids in particular)

37

Moisture in wood is defined as the ratio of the water mass to the dry mass according to the following :
H= ( mh mdry ) / mdry
with mh mass of wet wood and mdry mass of anhydrous wood

Just after being cut down, wood is green, i.e. its moisture content is very high, that is to say 80 % on average for the leafy trees.

Drying
Drying of wood is the progressive elimination of the various forms of water. During drying, the free water is evacuated quickly. Wood is called surface-dry from 60 % moisture. The moisture decreases to approximately 30 %, the rate which represents the point of saturation of fibers (PSF, to see Figure 25). Up to this stage, there is no dimensional variation of the material. By continuing drying, once the interior of the cell is emptied of its free water, combined water is released gradually and the wood shrinks (see figure 15)Figure 25). According to standard NF B 51.002, wood is known as commercially dry with moisture at 22 % (see table 1) Table 1). It should be noted that the sections of wood are given for a wood moisture of 20 %. The calculation sections according to Eurocode 5 (moisture at 12 %) are thus to be reduced. According to the standards, for a rough section b x h a reduced calculated section will be adopted according to the following :

b12 % =0.98 b20 % h12 % =0.98 h20 %

Where the section and the wood moisture are guaranteed by the supplier, it is advisable to adapt the calculated sections.

Figure 25: stages of drying

38

Moisture Beyond the point of saturation of fibers PSF to 23 % Of 22 % to 18 % From 13 to 18 % In lower part of 13 % 0%

Qualification Green

Mid- dryness Commercially dry Dryness with the air Dryness (or desiccated) Anhydrous

Table 1: qualification of wood according to its moisture (NF B 51.002) Due to the cellular organization, the balances between the moisture in the air and the cellulose are slow to establish by natural drying (in the air); a few months for a coniferous tree plank, one year per centimeter of thickness approximately for an oak plank. In the climates of Western Europe, the relative humidity values depend on storage conditions :
100

in France, the surface water content of a wood, outside and sheltered, ranges annually from 10% to 22% according to the area and season (see chart 3); 12% for a wood kept in a well ventilated room, without heating; 5 to 7% for a wood kept in a heated building ( furniture, parquet floor). This balance is a function of the temperature and the relative humidity of the air. Normally the outside relative humidity is that of the air. The curves represent the zones of Iso-moisture, i.e. equal moistures of wood.

90

80

70

60

30% 28% 26% 24% 22% 20% 18% 16% 15% 14% 13% 12% 11% 10% 9% 8% 7%

50

40

6% 5%

Figure 26: hygroscopic balance of wood in outside in X-coordinate the temperature of the air, in Y ordinate the external relative humidity, in curves : the balanced humidity of wood.
2%

30

4%
20

3%

10

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

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LILLE 14-23

BREST 18-20

ROUEN 17-20 CAEN 16-20 RENNES 14-22 NANTES 14-22 PARIS 13-20 TOURS 12-20

REIMS 15-22

STRASBOURG 13-20

BOURGES 12-20

BELFORT 14-21

ANGOULEME 12-20 CLERMONTFERRAND 13-18

LYON 11-20

BORDEAUX 14-21

AVIGNON 10-15 NICE 15-17

TOULOUSE 12-21

MARSEILLE 11-16 PERPIGNAN 11-16

Chart 3: hygroscopic balance of wood according to CTBA'S During artificial drying, the process is speeded up and moisture can be reduced to reach the desired service humidity. The cellular organization explains that a wood stored outside remains overall at a moisture content lower than 20 % on condition it is not soaked in water: if it rains, only the outside cellular walls of the piece of wood will swell with water. The transfer of this water to the interior must then be done by molecular exchange, a phenomenon much slower than the effect of drying by evaporation after the rain stops. This explains the attention which must be paid to the constructive provisions: no water trap (like grooves or mortises turned upwards), no pieces of wood in continuous contact with a sealed surface causing water retention by capillarity. Another characteristic of these exchanges of water between cellulose and the air should be considered : - a permanent property of cellulose, whether the wood has been dry for a long time or not - these exchanges are not completely reversible, which induces a shrinkage deformation .

An anisotropic shrinkage
Shrinkage, a consequence of hygroscopic balances
During periods of high humidity, the cell walls swell and the wood expands in radial and tangential directions, very little in the longitudinal direction. In periods when the humidity in the air falls, the walls lose part of their combined water and dry up a little. The wood shrinks, especially in the radial and tangential directions. During changes in humidity and drying, the walls undergo a residual shrinkage. The phenomenon is stabilized provided that the extreme rates are not too far apart and that the piece of wood remains in a

40

stable environment. On the other hand, as soon as the thermo-hygroscopic conditions are modified, the swelling-shrinkage phenomenon starts again. This shrinkage phenomenon should be considered as inexorable and, like the thermal expansion of steel, managed by constructive provisions. It is useless and dangerous to want to block shrinkage : it will happen anyhow, possibly by cracking in the width of one of the planks, perhaps all of them. The realization of very wide panels, such as noise-insulation panels, by juxtaposition of parallel boards must thus take into account this phenomenon, for example, by envisaging sufficient overlap of the joints boards. The drawings of Figure 27 represent solutions used to manage this shrinkage whilst avoiding cracking. Figure 27: solutions allowing the free shrinkage of wood

Anisotropy of shrinkage
The shrinkage caused by the removal of combined water is not isotropic. Indeed, the cellulose fibrils are mainly longitudinal, leaving their hydroxyl groupings in the plan perpendicular to the axis of the log. This is why shrinkage in the longitudinal direction is less (but not null). Radial shrinkage is lower than tangential shrinkage due to the presence of ligneous honeycombs. On average, tangential shrinkage is double radial shrinkage, itself 20 to 50 times higher than longitudinal shrinkage.

Retractability
Shrinkage is proportional to the decrease in humidity : the coefficient linking the two parameters is called retractability (coefficient r, see figure 28)Figure 28).

Figure 28: shrinkage of wood Each type of wood has a total shrinkage and a specific retractability for each of the three directions. Table 2 Table 2 gives values of retractability in % per % of variation of humidity. For example, an oak board drying from 20 % to 15 % loses 5 % moisture, inducing a radial shrinkage of 1 %.

41

retractability (%/%) Wood Azob Oak Douglas Doussi Spruce Iroko Larch Maritime pine Scots pine radial 0,31 0,20 0,17 0,12 0,17 0,16 0,17 0,15 0,17 tangential 0,40 0,32 0,27 0,20 0,31 0,27 0,30 0,30 0,31

Table 2: coefficients of retractability of some types of wood Retractability is an important parameter, more often taken into account than the total shrinkage, in particular in calculations of creep.

Consequences of shrinkage
Shrinking and swelling of wood are thus phenomena not to be forgotten in the design of structures. The parts will be free to deform (it is the wood working) and the joints will take up the play. These phenomena are much more serious than humidity during construction and a long way from it in service. The consequences of the anisotropy of drying are that the cut pieces deform differently according to their origin in relation to the initial log (figure 29, figure 30) (Figure 29, Figure 30). Thus a plank from a slab (D) will tend to warp, while the quarter planks (Q) will deform more uniformly. This is why to make up large panels without anisotropic dimensional variations, composite panels were created: strips, plywood, long wood-chip boards. By sticking together layers of thin wood, either crossed or disordered, transverse shrinkage-swelling of each layer is blocked by the absence of shrinkage-swelling in the longitudinal direction of the layer against which it is stuck.

42

Figure 29: deformations from drying

Figure 30: deformations due to shrinkage or swelling

43

The working humidity

As a consequence of the phenomena of shrinkage and swelling, the wood must be worked , to avoid as much as possible the risks of splitting, so that it can again take up moisture. The working humidity and the construction season are thus two control factors. It may be considered that the working humidity is the woods average service humidity less one point. If the average moisture in service is 16 %, it is thus advisable then to put the log at a humidity of 15 %.

Influence of water on mechanical properties

When the wood moisture varies, the mechanical properties change too. Overall, the more water in the wood, the lower its mechanical strength and deformation modulus. The deformation modulus decreases according to the woods humidity and the stress under permanent loads. As soon as the moisture exceeds the fiber saturation point, the properties remain about constant, except the density which increases linearly. The coefficient of Eurocode 5 that takes account of the woods humidity is the coefficient Kmod. The strength of the wood is to be modulated by this coefficient according to the class of service of the structure, which is directly related to the humidity of the wood in service (class 1 if humidity H is less than 12%, class 2 if H < 20% and class 3 in other cases).

2.3.2. - Behavior with respect to fire

It is necessary to distinguish the reaction to fire (flammability and combustibility) from stability with fire. The reaction to fire defines the aptitude of the material to ignite and propagate a fire, while stability with fire qualifies the ability of the material to preserve its mechanical properties during a fire.

Flammability, reaction to fire

All building materials are classified with respect to their reaction to fire, on a scale going of M0 (fireproof) including concrete and steel, to M5 (combustible, very easily flammable). Wood is a combustible material, which decomposes under the effect of heat, classified m3 in general and M4 for thicknesses lower than 14 mm for leafy trees and 18 mm for coniferous trees. Fireproofing treatments make it possible to reach an M1 classification. The flammability of wood is reduced with density. The exotic woods, generally denser, are thus better adapted to footbridge coverings. This classification is modified by European standard NF EN 13238 Fire reaction tests of construction products. Procedure for conditioning and general rules for substrate selection which defines seven euro classes A1, A2, B, C, D, E, F.

44

This classification harmonizes fire tests in the European Union. The euro classes are A1, which corresponds to a completely fireproof material; A2, which applies to the old M0 class and certain materials classified M1; B to the other materials classified M1. Euro class C corresponds to M2. Euro classes D, E and F correspond to the most inflammable construction materials previously classified M3 and M4, hence to wood. The span of the structure in the photograph opposite was burnt and had to be rebuilt. Since then it is strictly forbidden to camp under the structure and only under surveillance. Thus no structures too exposed to the public will be built, particularly in urban areas. Photographs 20: span of end of bridge at Isar in Munich

Stability with fire

Wood is an insulating material, also the very high surface temperature (1000 C) decreases quickly with thickness: the carbonized zone is thin and protects wood inside. The temperature falls rapidly as soon as there is penetration in the wood (figure 31) (Figure 31). On average, the speed of progression of the carbonized zone is of 0,7 mm/min. Wood keeps good mechanical characteristics in fire, and undergoes only one reduction in section corresponding to the carbonized zone. To ensure the stability of the structure, it is possible to dimension it accordingly by regarding fire as accidental. With respect to stability with fire, the weakest elements are the joints made with metal interfaces. To increase stability, it is necessary to use joints with metal elements anchored deeply in the wood. An austenitic stainless steel has the double advantage of better corrosion resistance and of retaining good mechanical properties up to approximately 1000 C.

Figure 31: carbonization of wood

It should be noted that for bridges, the stress of stability with fire is in fact less than for buildings. In effect, the free evacuation of smoke ensures good heat dissipation, which explains the good behavior in fire of certain metal bridges.

45

2.4. - Mechanical properties of wood

2.4.1. - Mechanical properties
Wood is distinguished from other civil engineering materials by its manifest orthotropism which increases considerably the number of mechanical characteristics to take into account.

Density
The density of wood varies from one type to the other, from one tree to the other in the same forest and even inside the same tree. In general the density is given for an average humidity of 15%. For woods overall, densities can vary from approx. 100 kg/m3 to 1300 kg/m3 . However for the most common logs the following indicative values may be considered:
Wood Fir tree, Spruce Maritime pine, Scots Pine, Larch Oak Chestnut Iroko Bubinga Average density at 12 % humidity 400 kg/m3 450 kg/m3 650 kg/m3 650 kg/m3 700 kg/m3 850 kg/m3

Table 3: density of the various wood types For more precise details, reference is made to standard NF EN 338: Timber structures - strength Classes. Knowledge of the ligneous plan makes it possible to understand that these average values hide a great heterogeneity inside the material: summer wood final wood - is denser than spring wood initial wood; the presence of knots increases the density locally; for small sections and wood at a very strong annual growth rate (for example the Douglas ) the ratio of spring and summer wood in the part can change its strength and make a batch very heterogeneous in strength.

There is a very strong correlation between average density and mechanical properties. The control of the density of a batch of wood is thus an important quality control tool.

Orthotropism
Wood is an orthotropic material, which means that it does not have the same properties along the 3 principal axes. In other words: the matrix relating to the linear elastic behavior brings into play 9 independent coefficients: 3 moduli of elasticity ER, ET and EL, three Poissons ratios RT, TL and LR and three shear moduli GRT, GLR and GTL;

46

behavior with regard to rupture results in different compression and tension strength values, and in each orthotropic direction : RCR, RCT, RCL, RTR, RTT, RTL. Moreover these values show an unquestionable dispersion linked to the multiplicity of rupture modes, as shown in chapter 2.2.4. The relation between mechanical properties and density was established in spite of inherent dispersion in the material.

The cylindrical reference point is best adapted to the structure of wood, because it highlights the various sections of wood (see figure 32) Figure 3232).

Figure 3232: various sections of wood In the part concerning the anatomy of wood (chapter 2.2), it will be recalled that cellulose fibrils were mainly oriented in the longitudinal direction (L), still called axial. This gives to this favored direction better properties that in the transverse plan. In the radial direction (R), the properties are improved by the presence of ligneous honeycombs. In general, the mechanical properties are organized the following direction: L>>R>T. In practice one speaks only about characteristics in the axial and transverse direction. Thus the axial compressive strength is approximately 5 to 10 times higher than the transverse compressive strength. For tension, the ratio is generally between 20 and 50. It is thus necessary to consider the effects of tension perpendicular to the longitudinal axis in wood.

47

Woods Spruce, Fir tree Pines, Douglas Chestnut, Beech, Iroko Oak, Doussi

Average breaking strength in MPa Compression Tension axial transverse axial transverse 35 to 45 6 to 8 90 to 100 1,2 40 to 50 7 to 8 100 to 120 1,8 40 to 60 12 to 15 100 to 120 3 50 to 80 18 to 20 120 to 150 4

Bending 50 to 70 80 to 90 75 to 130 100 to 170

Table 4: examples of average strengths of some wood types

Rheology of wood
Wood is a material with elastic, plastic and viscous components. The viscous aspect is dealt with part on creep. Behavior in compression resembles that of steel: there is an elastic range (up to approx. half the breaking load) followed by an elastoplastic range. Plasticity in compression is explained by micro-buckling of cellulose fibrils. In tension, there is brittle fracture, i.e. there is no plastic range.

Figure 33: typical laws of behavior of wood In bending and compression, breakage is ductile. The general behavior of material is thus ductile, which is adapted to civil engineering uses. Various modes of breakage are shown in chapter 2.2.

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Factors influencing performance

Density
Density is a factor very representative of mechanical performance. The more the density increases, the better are the mechanical characteristics of the material. For example, for spruce, the longitudinal tensile strength increases approximately 2% per % of density.

Humidity of wood
As already mentioned in chapter 2.3.1, moisture is an influential factor: the more humid the wood , the lower the mechanical performance , and this up to the saturation point of the fibers.

Heterogeneity
The density of wood varies according to its porosity and its humidity. The ligneous material has a density of 1.53. In general, the density is given for a humidity of 15%. Thus, according to the type of wood, the density of wood varies from 100 kg/m3 (balsa) to 1300 kg/m3 (amourette). If the density partly conditions the mechanical properties of wood (increase in resistant ligneous matter with density), the wood is far from homogeneous in density for several reasons: the final wood is denser than the initial wood; the presence of knots increases the density locally; cutting in rectangular section modifies the distribution of density. Moreover the presence of other singularities, such as cracks, makes wood heterogeneous. Knots considerably weaken the tensile properties particularly. For example, the tensile strength can fall 50 % in the presence of a few knots.

2.4.2. - Dynamic Damping

As regards dynamic damping of timber structures, not much data is available at present. Overall, dynamic damping of a timber structure is at least as good as another structure. For the design assumptions reference should be made to Eurocode 5, part on bridges (part two).

2.4.3. - Classification of solid wood

Methods
The mechanical properties of wood depend on the type of wood, the speed of growth, and the presence of defects and singularities. Consequently, there are several strength classifications. Two methods of classification are possible: visual classification, by observing the defects, according to standard NFB 52-001 or standard EN 518. This classification is rather subjective, but simple;

49

 classification by machines (standard EN 519), which measure the modulus of elasticity of wood (by bending, vibration, ultrasounds). The various strength values are deduced by correlation. Classification by machine is very rare, and is used only in the high-output Scandinavian sawmills.

Figure 34: example of distribution of compressive strength of wood (stress in MPa in X-coordinate, density of probability in ordinate) The strength classifications (EN338) go from C18 to C40 for coniferous trees and from D30 to D70 for leafy trees. The number shown after the letter represents the characteristic value of the compressive strength in MPa. This characteristic value (fC,K) is established, in regard to weighted coefficients(1), so that 95 % of the breaking stresses measured are higher than this value. Figure 34 shows for example the distribution modeled in log-normal law the compressive breaking strengths of a sample population. The first 5 percent of the population is colored in blue. In this case, the characteristic value (fC, 0,05) is approximately 52 MPa. (1) According to NF EN 384, fC, k
=

fC 0.05 . ks . kv

where

ks depends on the number of sample (ks 1) kv=1 for the visual classification and 1.12 for the classification by machine.

This characteristic value is employed in the justification of the structures within the meaning of Eurocode 5. Some characteristic values are shown in the two following tables:

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Wood type
Fir tree, Spruce Maritime pine, Scots Pine, Larch Oak Chestnut Iroko Bubinga
*

Average density at 12 % humidity

400 kg/m3 450 kg/m3 650 kg/m3 650 kg/m3 700 kg/m3 850 kg/m3

Mechanical classification easily available in France

C18-C24 C18-C24 D30-D40 D30 D40 D60

Table 5: usual classifications according to type of wood (EN 338) * For larch, it is possible to find in Switzerland and Germany at least C30, and even more. Bending Axial Tension Transverse tension. Axial compression Transverse compression. Shear Average longtdnl modulus Shear modulus C18 18 11 0,5 18 2,2 2 9 000 6 000 560 C24 24 14 0,5 21 2,5 2,5 11 000 7 400 690 C30 30 18 0,6 23 2,7 3 12 000 8 000 750 D40 40 24 0,6 26 8,8 3,8 11 000 9 400 700

Table 6: characteristic values of strengths and moduli in MPa (EN 338) For more precise details, refer to standard NF EN 338: Timber structures - Strength classifications. The longitudinal modulus taken into account in the calculations is in general the average modulus, except for the justifications with respect to instabilities (buckling, discharge) where it is the characteristic modulus which is taken into account. This characteristic modulus is worth approximately 0.84 times the average modulus for leafy trees and approximately 0.67 times the average modulus for coniferous trees. It will be observed that the characteristic values of axial compression are higher than those in axial tension, although it is the reverse for the breakage values (see table 4) Table 4). This is explained by the fact that breakage in compression is ductile whereas breakage in tension is brittle. Safety coefficients are thus already included in these values. It should be noted that the values are given for a humidity of 12 %. Beyond this, it is necessary to correct these values according to Eurocode 5.

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Singularities of wood
The expression singularities of wood was preferred with the expression defects of wood because, in addition to the pejorative character, many singularities are exploited for their decorative character: burr walnut and elm are the best known cases. The list of the singularities of wood is very long. We will evoke here only the most common and those that have who have a significant effect on the quality of the log and on the structures built with this wood. Knots are the most common singularity. They correspond to the branches that grew from the core of the tree, when it was still young. Each year, the additional layer of wood the annual growth ring is formed in continuity on the trunk and the branch. There is thus creation of a cellular structure with a general direction different from that of the trunk, whence the singularity. The knot will appear different according to whether the cut is radial or tangential (see photos 21) Photographs 21). Moreover, if during the life of the tree, the branch is broken or cut, the continuity of the growth ring from the trunk to the branch is interrupted. The knot corresponding to a living branch at the time of the felling of the tree is a healthy knot in continuity with perfect wood. On the other hand, the knots corresponding to the dead branches are known as dead knots, vicious knots or black knots owing to the fact that the continuity of tissue is no longer assured and that the knot has a tendency to come off the piece of wood. Knots are generally rejected where appearance is important (furniture, certain cladding) but are unavoidable in structures. Their presence generally weakens the piece of wood, and their presence and their number determine the visual classification of the wood.

Photographs 21: various forms of knot (A) normal healthy knot, (b) normal dead knot, (c) healthy knot sawn in the radial plan, (D) dead knot sawn in the radial plan The resin pockets are also a singularity of coniferous timber. Their only disadvantage is that they make it difficult to fix the finish on the wood preservative and especially painting. Cracks between annual growth rings are due to drying shrinkage having started on a log that was not sawn quickly enough.

52

Rolled edges are defects of a similar nature separation of the annual growth rings but which are due either to a lower tree disease or to a wound. It is an ideal refuge for fungi and insects which makes for reductions in the woods mechanical performance . Frost-shakes are longitudinal slits in the bark due to periods of extreme cold. The slit never closes again completely inside the trunk and constitutes a weakness in the pieces of wood.

2.4.4. - Creep
As wood has a viscous component (creep), the mechanical properties and in particular the modulus of elasticity are a function of several parameters: length of application of loads, service humidity (Eurocode 5 defines 3 classes), type of wood (solid or reconstituted). For example a plank from a coniferous tree (density equal to 500 kg/m3, modulus of elasticity equal to 11000 MPa, of 5 meters length section of 75 X 225 mm and, laid flat on two supports (isostatic beam in the direction of the lowest inertia) will become deformed under its own weight. The instant arrow is Finst=7,9 mm In the long run (more than 10 yrs), considering to be in service class 2 (humidity less than 20 %), the coefficient to be applied is kdef=0,8 for solid wood, or Ffinal=Finst (1+kdef) = 14.2 mm. The arrow will increase with time to go from approximately 8mm to 14 mm, or a 6 mm increase. Note: For solid wood worked at a humidity close to the fibers point of saturation (or nearly 25 % for coniferous trees or in a more general way 5/6 of the PSF), the coefficient of creep kdef must be increased by 1 (kdef wood humid=kdef EC5 +1).

2.5. - Durability
To ensure the durability of wood is initially to avoid moisture, and to manage its sources. The major risk of deterioration of wood is damage from fungi which leads to rot. Insects are a more moderate risk, particularly for outside structures.

2.5.1. - Aggressors
Wood is an organic material (contains carbon) and thus a source of food for living species with the enzymes necessary to digest it. The predators of wood are certain fungi, insects, molluscs and shellfish. The aggressors presented here are those commonly found in Metropolitan France. In the DOM TOM, some specificities are to be taken into account, in particular concerning termites.

Fungi
Fungi make up an entire kingdom in the natural world. They are in the plant family, but they are not autotrophic. They thus need an external source of carbon for nourishment (for example wood). They are known as saprophytes when they are nourished by a dead organism (like wood). A characteristic of fungi is their digestion, which is extracellular. Thus, to ensure hydrolysis of cellulose to give glucose, the fungi must find a wet substrate. Fungi is made of a vegetative material called mycelium, and of a sporiferous material to reproduce. The spores are released in the air and give birth to a new mycelium in contact with a wet medium in the presence of oxygen. In the air, there are thus millions of spores looking for a welcoming place to settle. If a wood shows adequate characteristics, it will be automatically and systematically invaded by fungi.

53

The development of fungi is only possible with a wood humidity between 20 % and 80 %, therefore practically only when wood has been in contact with liquid water for a good length of time. Among xylophagous fungi, there are lignicolous fungi and lignivorous fungi.

Lignicolous fungi
These fungi nourish themselves exclusively on wood reserves, stored mainly in the parenchyma of sapwoods (for example starch). The generated damage is purely aesthetic and does not compromise the mechanical performance of the wood (except the impact resistance). Wood becomes blue to gray in the case of fungi that turn blue and act in depth. The color can be different (white, black, green) in the case of mould which acts superficially. The wood humidity necessary for the development of these fungi is higher than 30 %. Anti-blueing treatments can be applied in sawmills where the risks are great.

Lignivorous fungi
The lignivorous fungi nourish themselves on ligneous material, and allow rotting to appear. According to the degraded compound, it will be fibrous, soft or cubic rot. In all cases, these fungi cause considerable damage and a great loss of mechanical characteristics. The various treatment methods are shown in chapter 2.5.3. White fibrous rot In this case, the fungi nourish themselves on both lignin and cellulose. Wood is then a whitish color and is very light. The wood humidity must be at least 40 % for these fungi to develop. The fungi Coriolus versicolor is an example of a fibrous rotting agent acting externally. Brown cubic rot and soft rot These fungi damage wood cellulose, leaving lignin. The wood is then a brownish color and looks like burnt wood. (see photo 12). The soft rot develops on very humid wood (optimum at 60 % of moisture). A formidable fungus of the cubic rot type inside the buildings (but absent outside and a fortiori on the OA) is the house fungus, which develops on wood starting from 22 % humidity and at temperatures between 7 and 26C. Present in confined and obscure places, it is able to move and go through masonry while transporting its necessary water.

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Photograph 22: cubic example of rot Outside, the lenzites attacks particularly coniferous trees, from the sapwood to the heartwood.

Insects
Moths and beetles with timber boring larvae
The adult insects live only a few weeks, time to reproduce. They deposit their eggs in the rough and the slits of wood. Throughout a cycle, the larvae life is the longest: it can vary according to species from approximately 1 to 10 years. After hatching, the larvae nourish themselves on cellulose and lignin from surrounding wood, i.e. the sapwood that contains sugars. These larvae do not attack the heartwood and seldom undifferentiated perfect wood. After several moults, the new adult insect (which is not xylophagous) leaves the wood, leaving behind a tunnel. Among these insects we find the capricorn beetle on coniferous trees (see photos 23 and 24), the lyctus (on leafy trees except their heartwood), the small vrillette and the large vrillette (on rotted zones).

Photograph 23: adult Capricorn (scale x4 approximately)

Photograph 24: damage due to the Capricorn

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To fight against these aggressors, there are treatments with three types of action: ovicide: the eggs cannot hatch (preventive); repulsive: the female does not deposit its eggs (preventive); biocide by ingestion: poisoning of the larvae (preventive and curative).

Termites
In Metropolitan France, the only two species of underground termites are the Saintonge termites (Reticulitermes santonensis) and the lucifugous termites (Reticulitermes lucifugus). They fear the light and need water (present in the ground) and heat to develop. Moreover, around the Mediterranean basin, there are seasoned wood termites, Kalotermes flavicollis, which are satisfied with the wood moisture as a water supply.

Photograph 25: damage due to termites Interior cavities in the longitudinal direction of fibers, often presenting a laminated aspect. The termites (Isopter order) are social insects. They live in colonies, and can be classified in several castes: larvae and nymphs; soldiers; swarming or secondary sexuals; workers. The workmen dig the wood from the interior by tunnels and nourish themselves with cellulose contained in the wood: by trophallaxis, they distribute food to the other members of the colony. Propagation is carried out either by swarming, or by propagation : workers too far away from the sexuals undergo a special moult to become secondary sexuals and then found a new colony . Propagation is the origin of fast propagation of termites in France, particularly because of transport of ground, wood, etc Practically no type of wood is safe from termites (Heartwood included), except some very dense tropical woods. Preventive methods to fight termites consist of either creation of a continuous chemical or physicochemical barrier around the structure, or in-depth treatment with an anti-termite product. In curative, the treatments by chemical barrier are possible. There are also treatments by toxic bait, where the workers are poisoned and contaminate the whole colony (by trophallaxis).

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In the DOM TOM, particular species of termites are able to live in arboricolous nests. This complicates curative and preventive measures in particular by neutralizing the chemical barriers.

Marine borers
They are molluscs (like ship worms) and shellfish (of which the limnoria) which dig wood in marine environments. The majority of these borers find their food directly in wood. Only some tropical type woods are resistant, like the greenheart and the angelica.

Sun and rain

The sun attacks wood in two ways: the ultraviolet radiation damages lignin and slightly erodes the wood surface . In the case of an unfinished wood, the surface color becomes gray (graying): this can be not very aesthetic in certain cases, but never leads to a reduction in mechanical performance. Photograph 26 Photo 16 shows that wood became gray on the faces exposed to the rain and sun, but remained brown on the unexposed face;

Photograph 26: greyish aspect of timber left outside infra-red radiation heats the surface of wood and locally modifies the woods humidity : this leads to the formation of very small slits, which can trap water and contribute to the development of fungi. As for the rain, it is responsible for the appearance of fungi and it causes dimensional variations in wood.

2.5.2. - Preservation
General principle
To avoid the aggressions previously quoted, it is necessary to choose a type of wood and a treatment adapted to the desired end use. The major principles of preservation are :

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to design the structure so as to limit the biological risks of attack; to use the natural durability of the wood selected; to protect wood wherever damage is likely.

The goal of preservation is to ensure a lifespan acceptable to all parts of the structure. Concerning bridges, Eurocode 5 fixes the minimum lifespan at 100 years for non-replaceable parts, and at 25 years for replaceable elements. The flow chart of figure 35 shows the various questions that should be asked when choosing a type of wood and a preservation treatment. The various stages are detailed in the following chapters. On the diagram of figure 35, the green path is that which we recommend to ensure good durability of a structure. It can lead for example to the use of exotic woods for railings in contact with the public. The red boxes pose two types of problems: for the health of the workers and the public on the one hand and for the environment at the end of the structures lifespan on the other hand. These questions are treated in Part 3: Use of chemical preservatives. The red path is not formally prohibited by current regulations, but must be avoided for floorings decks and railings. In certain exposed situations, it allows improvement of the durability of locally available wood types, with a view to making up structures not directly in contact with the public.

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Figure 35: stages of the choice of preservation

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Classes of employment (standard EN 335)

The risks of biological attack differ according to conditions of use of the wood. Five classes of employment allow characterization of the hydrous environment of wood in service. Within a given structure, the risks may differ according to the exposure of the parts to the weather. Each element will be classified according to table 7 Table 7. The class of employment then determines the choice of wood and the possible preservation treatment. Classes
1

Situation in service
Dry wood, moisture always lower than 20 % Dry wood , whose moisture can occasionally exceed 20 %

Examples
Interior wood products

Significant zone
2 mm of depth

Biological risks insects termites insects termites surface fungi rot insects termites rot insects termites rot insects marine borers

Frame

2 mm of depth

Wood whose moisture is frequently higher than 20 %

Vertical external constructions: boardings, windows

All the humidifiable part of the nondurable zone naturally

Wood whose moisture is always higher than 20 %

Wood external horizontal All the nondurable zone (balconies) and in contact naturally with the ground

Wood in permanent contact with sea pontoon water

All the zone naturally non-durable

Table 7: definition of the classes of employment For the bridges and footbridges, we will consider the three following classes particularly: employment class 2 for elements sheltered from bad weather (covered bridges); employment class 3 for the vertical and inclined elements which allows easy water evacuation (boarding, vertical exposed wood) ; employment class 4 for horizontal elements that favor water stagnation (flooring) and elements in direct contact with the ground.

Note: Employment class 3 is sometimes separated into two: 3.1 weak exposure, 3.2 strong exposure

Natural durability according to wood type

Each type of wood has different properties, which make it more or less sensitive to biological aggression. For example, the woods of leafy trees, whose heartwood vessels are blocked by tylosis, are naturally resistant to fungi attacks.
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The natural durability of the woods is classified in the standard EN 350 according to the type of aggression. These classifications stem from field tests and laboratory tests (governed by standards EN 252, 113, 46, 49-1, 20-1, 118 and 275). The durability of the heartwoods in relation to fungi includes 5 classes from class 1 (very durable wood) to class 5 (non-durable wood). All sapwoods are classified non-durable. As regards xylophagous larvae insects, the woods are either sensitive, or durable. Moreover, only sapwoods (S) and perfect wood not duraminized (SH) are sensitive. The heartwoods are classified durable. Lastly, as regards termites and ship worms, a type of wood is either durable (D), fairly durable (M), or not durable (S). Table 8Table 8 gives examples of natural durability of woods with respect to 3 particular aggressors.
Wood
Azob Oak Douglas Doussi Spruce Iroko Larch Pines Fir tree

Fungi
2 2 3 1 4 1 to 2 3 to 4 3 to 4 4

Capricorn
D D S D HS D S S HS

Termites
D M S D S D S S S

Table 8: natural durability of some woods

Natural durability and class of employment

Natural durability is specific to a wood, whereas the class of employment is linked to its use. These two parameters may however be linked: the better the natural durability of the wood, the wider its field of application.

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Standard EN 460 links natural durability with respect to fungi and the classes of employment according to
the following table:

Class of employment 1 2 3 4 5
ABCDESufficient natural durability

1 A A A A A

Class of durability 2 3 4 A A A B D A A B D D A B C E E

5 A B C E E

Natural durability normally sufficient, but for certain employment a preservation treatment is recommended Natural durability can be sufficient, but a preservation treatment may be necessary according to final employment and the permeability of the wood Preservation treatment recommended, but for certain employment natural durability can be sufficient Preservation treatment necessary Table 9: relation between natural durability and class of employment

For the very durable woods, the field of application is very wide, but for less durable woods, a preservation treatment may be necessary in high-risk class cases. Some examples: a preservation treatment is necessary for beech, fir , spruce and all sapwoods from class of employment 1 (risk of attack by insects); the natural durability of the heartwoods of Douglas and larch may be sufficient up to class of employment 3; The heartwood of the oak, the iroko, the doussi, the bilinga and the azob may be used up to class of employment 4 without preservation treatment .

Impregnability
Certain woods require a preservation treatment for certain uses. However, not all woods are suited to receive an anti-fungus or insecticide product. The ease with which a wood can be penetrated by a liquid is called impregnability. It qualifies the aptitude of a wood to absorb preservation treatments.

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The standard EN 350-2 defines 4 classes of impregnability and gives the associated lateral penetration depths:
Class of impregnability
1 2

Name
Impregnable Fairly impregnable

Description
Easy to treat (penetration complete) Easy enough to treat (penetration >6 mm) Difficult to treat (penetration 3 to 6 mm) Almost impossible to treat

Not very impregnable

Non-impregnable

Table 10: classes of impregnability The axial penetration depth is greater (5 to 10 cm), because the preservative can be introduced into the vessels or the tracheids. Note: A wood naturally slightly durable but easy to treat, like the beech, can be used for exposures corresponding to classes of employment 4 and 5. On the other hand, a wood naturally rather durable but not very impregnable, like the Douglas , could not be used under these same conditions of exposure.

2.5.3. Preservation treatments

Products
Composition
The preservatives contain: active matter (insecticide, fungicide); a solvent (to convey the active matter); fixers (to fix the active matter to the wood).

The active matter makes it possible to fight against one or more types of aggressors. Sometimes it is necessary to associate several types of active matter, for example copper as a fungicide and arsenic as an insecticide, for acceptable efficiency. The solvent can be either water ( particularly used to dissolve mineral salts), or a petroleum product (such as white spirit) Lastly, fixers can act either by chemical reaction (creation of contacts on wood, as with chromium which fixes copper and arsenic), or by gluing (resins that fix synthetic substances).

Large families
There are three large families of products: water-soluble products, such as the arsenic CCA salt described in Part 3, Use of chemical preservatives; synthetic products ; creosote.
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These types of products and their impact on health and the environment are detailed in Part 3. Use of chemical preservatives

Implementation
Short immersion Wood is immersed in a vat filled with product. By capillarity, the product penetrates the wood. During the first minute, a large quantity of product is absorbed, then absorption slows down: the product homogenizes while penetrating in the slowest zones to be impregnated. The CTBA recommends three minutes minimum to obtain a suitable treatment. The products used for this process are products using petroleum or emulsion solvents. Short immersion makes it possible to treat wood exposed in classes of employment 1 or 2.

Painting and spraying

Painting and spraying involve spreading a product on the wood surface, with a brush or by a spraying method. These processes resemble short immersion since the products used are the same, transmission is still natural and the treatment is relatively superficial. With correct application the results are similar. These solutions are particularly to be used as a preservative for on-site application or for very long elements such as Glue-lam.

The autoclave
There are several autoclave processes. The objective is to treat wood in-depth, by filling the cells to the maximum with preservative, in general metal salts (CCA, CCB, chemical preservation products described in part 3). This technique is used to preserve the most exposed woods. The process known as vacuum pressure is most usually used. The wood, dried beforehand to 25 % humidity maximum, is introduced into a closed enclosure (autoclave). Then the vacuum is developed to displace the air occluded in the ligneous cells (30 minutes to 1h at least). The preservative is then introduced, and a pressure of ten bars is applied, to speed up absorption. The duration of this phase varies according to the desired performance (from 30 minutes to 3h and more). The product is then drained and a new vacuum is applied to rebalance the internal pressures and to evacuate the surplus product contained in the surface layers. An alternative is the process known as doubles vacuum where the pressure phase is replaced by an immersion at atmospheric pressure to allow the product to breathe. There is less penetration, but the dimensional variations are more limited and allow the use of petroleum products.

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Requirements of penetration and retention

Definitions
the requirement of penetration indicates the minimum depth the preservative must reach; the requirement of retention is the quantity of preservative prescribed in the analysis zone . It is in general equal to the critical value; the critical value defines the minimum quantity of preservative required to be effective with respect to a class of employment. This critical value varies according to the product and the class of employment considered.

It is given in kg/m3 for autoclave treatments and gms/m2 for surface treatments.

Classification
The standard EN 351 defines 9 levels of penetration, which are correlated with the risk classifications. Only 6 levels are really recommended (see table 11) Table 11).
Classification of penetration
P1 P4 P5 None At least 6 mm in lateral in sapwood

Requirements of penetration

Zone of analysis with respect to the retention

3 mm under lateral faces 6 m in lateral in sapwood

At least 6 mm in lateral and 50mm in axial in 6 mm in lateral in sapwood sapwood Round wood only: at least 20 mm in 20 mm in sapwood sapwood All sapwood All sapwood

P7

P8 P9

All sapwood and at least 6 mm in exposed All sapwood and 6 mm in exposed perfect wood perfect wood

Table 11: levels of penetration The quantity of preservative must be adapted to the class of employment. For example for coniferous trees, a treatment with CCA salt is between 5 and 8 kg/m3 of wood to obtain the critical value of class of employment 2 (level of retention R2), and between 15 and 20 kg/m3 to obtain the critical value of class 4 (level of retention R4).

Refractory and impregnable woods

A distinction is made between woods considered to be impregnable (sapwood in class of impregnability 1) and refractory woods. A treated refractory wood has a better durability, because humidification is more difficult. It will thus need to be treated less deeply to reach the same performance. Impregnability characterizes the capacity to absorb a liquid rather quickly (for a few hours) and determines the protectable zone. The zone to be protected can on the other hand be larger according to the class of employment. If humidification is permanent (class of employment 4), the woods humidified zone will be deep and may cover the whole volume of the wood, but the zone that might be treated in a few hours will be generally more restricted.
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Requirements according to classes of employment

Standard NF B 50-105-3 proposes minimum requirements according to classes of risk considered (see table 12) Table 12).
Requirements of penetration and retention
R1P1 R2P1 Null Very weak or temporary Weak Strong Strong Strong

Exposure to weather

Class of employment
1 2

R3P4 or P1 R3P8 or P5 R4P8 or P7 R5P9

31 32 4 5

Table 12: minimum requirements For the class of employment 3, sub class 3.1 corresponds to weak exposures for small sections, sub class 3.2 includes the remainder of class 3. Note: Although no requirement appears in connection with the heartwoods (except for the class of employment 5), these should not be machined after treatment or be naturally sufficiently durable with respect to the class of employment considered. Moreover traces of preservative must be applied in these zones.

Guarantees
Control of conformity
This control is not obligatory. It may be carried out at the request of the building owner for example by the CTBA. After treatment, samples are taken according to the EN standard 351-2. Penetration is generally checked by the use of chemical reagents, whilst control of retention is carried out in a laboratory by chemical analysis (extraction of biocide matter).

The certificate of preventive treatment

This certificate is not obligatory, but may be demanded by the building owner. It is supplied the company which carried out the wood treatment. To conform to standards EN 351-1 and NF B 50-105-3, the class of retention and the class of penetration must appear, as well as the name of the product and the treatment process.

CTBA certifications
The CTBA manages two quality certifications : CTB P+ for the preservatives (according to EN 599); CTB B+ for treated wood (according to EN 351).
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Certification CTB B+ on treated wood guarantees a field of application (in the form of a class of employment): the level of penetration and the level of retention are guaranteed, and the certificate of treatment is provided. Certification CTB P+ specifies the critical values of the accessible classes of employment as well as the implementation method. The mention all faces treated ensures that the parts out of duraminized perfect wood contain traces of the preservative.

2.5.4. - Finishes
The role of a finish is to protect wood against humidity and to provide an aesthetic function. In particular a finish makes it possible for water to be more quickly evacuated by decreasing surface adherence. Among the common products, we find particularly preservatives, varnishes and paintings, creosote and thick plastic coatings. In no case can finishes play the role of preservative, but the protection conferred against moisture makes possible an indirect fight against fungus attacks. Lastly, it is necessary to be conscious that finishes require a consequent and regular maintenance.

Protective coatings
According to standard NF T 36-001, this is a product of protection and decoration of the surface of wood, transparent, pigmented or not and which makes it possible to carry out maintenance work easily. They dont leave a film, and degrade by chalking (erosion), which facilitates removal prior to maintenance. Then it is necessary only to clean the wood and apply another protective coat. The protective coatings may be colored or not, and may contain biocides against blueing in service. The protective coatings are either solvent-based, and polymerisation intervenes by oxidation, or waterbased which forms the finish evaporation and coalescence. The protective coatings may be of the impregnation type (used as an undercoat) or finishing. The finishing types have a service life that varies, according to the exposure, between 4 and 6 years The possible shades are colorless, clear (colorless with clear brown ), intermediaries (medium brown to red) and dark (dark brown to black). Varnishes and paint Varnish is a transparent and film-forming product that degrades by flaking. The disadvantage of a filmforming finish that is impermeable is that once cracked, water can penetrate but has difficulty escaping. The external use of varnish is prohibited , since it degrades very quickly with the sun. Paint is a varnish to which pigments are added. Painting has a certain porosity, but this porosity decreases as the number of coats increases. Paints known as micro-porous are used outside to allow vapor exchanges. On the other hand, gloss paints (of glycerophthalic type) are film forming, more durable but there is a risk of water retention (as with varnish). The flaking of paint and varnish is due to a weakening of their adhesion to the wood, due to the surface erosion of the wood, a victim of ultraviolet rays. To limit this action, dark pigments are a solution, but this has the disadvantage of overheating the wood with a risk of surface cracking.
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Paint has a lifespan of 4 to 8 years. Re-painting is however more difficult than applying a protective coating. The possible colors for paint are clear (white to yellow), intermediaries (orange to medium blue) and dark (dark blue to black).

Other finishes
Creosote from distillation of coal has been widely used particularly for railway sleepers and telephone poles. It acts effectively against water, but softens under high temperature. Its use is no longer authorized (see Part 3 which follows). Thick plastic coatings (RPE) resemble paints with solid particles and larger pigments. They are used on the facades of wood-framed houses. DTU 31-2 recommends their use on non-structural elements.

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3. - Use of chemical preservatives: regulations and management at end of life

The realization of engineering structures must as far as possible favor untreated wood, which is obviously a good material with respect to health and the environment if it can be used. But untreated wood is easier to use in sheltered buildings than in engineering structures. Subjected directly to the climatic factors, like heat and moisture, untreated wood has in fact only a limited lifespan in unsuitable situations. To improve the lifespan of wood, the first step thus consists of studying the constructive provisions to avoid maximum risks: this is preservation by gray matter, obtained thanks to the general design, and the choice of constructive provisions of well-adapted details. As a substitute or more often in addition to these provisions, chemical preservation allows, thanks to the addition of biocide products to eradicate all the aggressors like fungi, mould and the insects which nourish themselves on wet wood.. However, this toxicity generates hazards to human health, and to the environment. Today many countries are adopting restrictive legislations concerning the use of treated wood. The European directives going in this direction are being translated into French legislation, which are currently in development.

3.1. - Respect of constraints related to health and the environment

Wood preservation uses chemical treatments that have a biocide action on insects and fungi. The dose must offer an effective level of toxicity for these organisms, but is limited by safety criteria (regulations in terms of human toxicity and eco-toxicity). Certain substances used are carcinogenic to humans, in particular arsenic, the aromatic poly-cyclical hydrocarbons (HAP) contained in creosote, which requires precautions in the workshop and on the building site, like wearing gloves when working or masks during machining. With respect to the environment, the danger of pollution of the ground and underground layers exists, in particular in treatment plants. During the lifespan of treated wood, the washing out of the product, in general, is very limited.

3.2. Preservation treatments for class of employment 2

These treatments are insecticides used superficially, generally with synthetic products. For this kind of products, there are no major risks of toxicity and eco-toxicity. Moreover, woods thus treated are generally not regarded as dangerous waste. It is advisable however to check for each treatment considered these criteria of toxicity, eco-toxicity and treatments of end of life.

3.3. Preservation treatments for classes of employment 3, 4 and 5

These treatments are necessary only for types of wood not naturally durable for these classes of employment. Large families of products used in Europe and France: Water-soluble products
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The solvent is water and chromium the fixer of the preservatives. The active matter are the salts (often metal), used alone or as mixtures . The most current combinations are: CCA: chromium, copper, arsenic; CCB: chromium , copper, boron. Boron is not fixed by chromium; CC: chromium , copper. This combination does not contain an insecticide; CCF: chromium, copper, fluorine. The fluorine is sensitive to evaporation.

In France, the CCA was up to present most used. It was already forbidden in Austria and Switzerland for reasons of toxicity. Boron, less toxic, is preferred. However, this salt resists not as well to washing out , which can pose other problems of local eco-toxicity. Today, taking into account the limitations of use of CCA treated woods, prohibited particularly in domestic use, substitute products containing copper compounds are being developed for classes 3 and 4. Lastly, as a localized treatment, boron may be used in the form of short sticks, placed at sensitive locations (high degree of humidity and risk of attack by fungi). Synthetic products The active matter are synthetic substances fixed by resins. The solvent can be of a petroleum type (case of organic products) or water (case of emulsions). PCP: pentachlorophenols, cadmium and compounds (fungicides, exterior wood , with varnish covering): this product has not been used at all in France for more than 10 years; creosote: creosote has no solvent. The active matter is a mix of a hundred or so molecules obtained by distillation of coal. Creosote was largely used for the treatment of railroad sleepers and telephone posts. Use is already prohibited for certain applications (like playgrounds) because of its high degree of toxicity in the event of very frequent contact.

3.4. - Regulations applicable to treated wood, concerning the use of toxic products
3.4.1. - General regulation context
The modified Directive 76/769 provides the list of the products prohibited for sale to the general public because of their carcinogenic character. This list integrates substances used in France for the treatment of wood such as the CCA (chromium and arsenic) or creosote. Since, Community and French texts came to complete the conditions of use, even their prohibition, of toxic products for the treatment of wood. (See the summary table of the regulation texts in appendix 6.3: European and French Regulations: health, environment and biocides directive). The Directive 98/8 of the 16/02/1998, commonly called Directive Biocides, aims to guarantee a high level of human and environmental protection, with respect to biocide products and to hitherto harmonize the European market for these very disparate products. The principle, copied on directive 91/414/EC relating to phytopharmaceutical products establishes that a biocide product cannot be put on the market if not authorized beforehand. A Community list of active substances whose inclusion in biocide products is allowed is being established according to a toxicological and eco-toxicological evaluation program of the existing substances (see procedure in appendix 6.2. - Procedure of classification of authorized substances). The goal is to know if a certain dosage of a toxic substance contained in wood presents a health risk to humans by cutaneous contact, or to the environment (leaching and pollution of the
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underground layers). One of the licensing requirements of a product is that the active substances that it contains be registered in appendix I, IA or IB of directive 98/8/EC.

3.4.2. Regulation situation of traditional chemical treatments

Arsenic salts (CCA)
CCA is a wood preservation agent used mainly for the elements intended for external installations, such as logs, construction beams, electric transmission posts, marine piles, noise-insulation walls, fences. CCA is a mixture of copper, chromium and arsenic, each component having its use: chromium (34% in a preparation) is the fixing agent , copper (13% in a preparation) is the fungicide, and arsenic (25% in a preparation) is the insecticide. Water (28% in a preparation) ensures the spreading out of the preparation. These woods have usually a light greenish color because of the copper content of the product. Until 2002 arsenic (CCA: copper-chromium-arsenic) introduced under pressure was the treatment most used in France against fungi and insects to prevent wood rot . In France the use of substances such as CCA is regulated (Decree n 92-1074 of October 2, 1992), and dispensations concerning the use of wood were allowed for the bridges and other engineering structures. In Switzerland and Austria, CCA is prohibited because of the carcinogenic character of arsenic and chromium. The European Commission adopted a directive prohibiting, at the latest on June 30, 2004, the use of arsenic in the treatment of the wood intended for certain uses. The substances contained in CCA appear in the list of notified substances to be evaluated in view of their registration in appendix I of the Biocide Directive 98/8 of 16/02/1998 (list of the substances authorized for sale and use after 2005). Two horizons are thus profiled in 2006 for the toxic compounds CCA, CCB and CCF: either they were taken off the market in 2006 following the risk evaluation carried out between March 2004 and 2005; this is the case, not defended, of CCA or they profit from a marketing and use authorization, valid for 10 years (2015). In which case, they will be registered in appendix I of the Biocides Directive .

In any event, this guide warns the building owner against the use of toxic products to carry out work likely to be in frequent contact with the skin, in particular railings and flooring decks on footbridges. The use of salts of type CCA must be used as a last resort for parts not accessible to the public, subjected to a class of employment 4 or 5. More detail will be found in part 4 of the chapter in 4.4.4:Wood in classes of employment 4 and 5.

Pentachlorophenol (PCP)
Wood treated with PCP is generally dark red to brown because of the oil-based solvent used as a vector. Since decree 94/647 of July 27, 1994, the authorized uses relate to wood structures or frameworks, on condition they are covered with a coat ( varnish type) if they are in areas inhabited by or receiving the public. In practice, taking into consideration the technical constraints related to the impossibility of painting, the CCA treatment was preferred to that of PCP. The draft Regulation 2003 related to the Biocides Directive puts PCP as a product to be withdrawn from the market from here to 2006, which is already the case in fact, since this product has not been used in France for more than 10 years.

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Creosote
The creosote is a complex mixture which includes more than one hundred chemical compounds, mainly of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, as well as phenolic and aromatic nitrogen and sulphur compounds. The principal properties of creosote are: a fungicidal action of great effectiveness; an insecticidal action of great effectiveness; a long-term effect; a resistance to washing and decomposition by bad weather.

This product is an excellent preservative but has also disadvantages from the toxicological point of view (carcinogenic substances) and from the practical point of view. This treatment is not employed for structures that must be painted. Woods treated with creosote emit a dark brown to black oily exude likely to ooze into the environment and to allow contact with humans. In France, a decree of 07/08/1997 by the Ministry of Health limited the use of the distillates of tar and creosote for certain uses. Directive 2001/90 of 26/10/2001 again took these elements and prohibited in particular the use of wood treated with creosote in playgrounds, parks, gardens and urban furniture because of the health risks related to a cutaneous contact. In the scope of the Biocides Directive , creosote appears in the list of notified substances to be evaluated in view of their registration in appendix I (appendix comprising the list of the substances authorized for sale and use post 2005). In theory two horizons are thus profiled at the beginning of 2005 for creosote: either it is withdrawn from the market in 2006 following the risk evaluation carried out between March 2004 and 2005; or it benefits from a marketing and use authorization , valid for 10 years (2015). In which case, creosote will be registered in appendix I of the Biocides Directive .

The use of creosote is to be avoided and its prohibition for all uses in accordance with the European directives is imminent.

3.4.3. - Alternative treatments

Woods treated at high temperature
For thin (<40mm as for planks) non-structural elements, it is possible, without recourse to chemical treatment, to improve the natural durability by a high-temperature treatment : this involves heating the wood to between 230 and 250C for a few hours. This allows chemical reactions, in particular of the hydroxyl groupings The mechanical characteristics of the wood decrease, but it becomes dimensionally more stable and better resists biological aggressions (except for termites). This kind of treatment is under development and wood treated at high temperature is not yet available in large quantities. For the moment, it is not planned to use such wood in structures. For footbridges, the high-temperature treatment may be used for the planks and handrails for example.

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Substitutes for CCA

There currently exists on the market substitute products for CCA within the framework of the treatment of wood to give it a high durability. These products are based on a strong copper concentration with additives such as boric acid. The toxicity of these products is much lower than that of CCA. They are classified as non-dangerous in relation to decree 2002-540. Certain additives in very restricted quantities (less than 1 % in general), like tebuconazole or propiconazole are however classified as harmful by ingestion. The fungic and insecticidal effectiveness of this type of treatment is recognized, since some of these products are certified CTB P+ by the CTBA (Tanalith E and Wolmanit CX10) for the classes of employment 3 and 4. Note: the oil-type wood treatment products for the classes of employment 1 to 3 are also not very toxic.

3.5. - Regulations concerning treated wood waste:

3.5.1. - Demolition of old structures
This chapter deals with existing structures approaching their end of life that were treated with products that today are outdated or prohibited.. The end of life of a wooden structure involves management of construction timber that becomes waste (Law of July 15, 1975 relating to the waste disposal and the recovery of materials, modified by the laws of July 13, 1992 and February 02, 1995). The disposal of waste produced by the demolition of the structure is the responsibility of the building Owner. It must characterize previously waste that the waste disposal company will deal with and must keep proof that the waste was disposed of in accordance with the regulation. Wood treated with CCA or creosote can be regarded as SAY dangerous (Special Industrial Waste), and the building owner must thus produce an industrial waste monitoring form(BSDI). The forms are not obligatory for untreated wood or that not regarded as dangerous. It should be noted that certain products formerly used like lindane or aldrin are prohibited today by decree (92-1074 for aldrin). The use of the pentachlorophenol (decree 94-647), creosote ( European directive EEC 94-60) and products containing arsenic (directive 2003/2/EC) is limited.

3.5.2. - Treated wood waste: classification and nomenclature

The classification of waste is not an exhaustive list, but is evolving. Decree n 2002-540 of April 18, 2002 draws up a single list of dangerous and non-dangerous waste in accordance with the European directive and preserves the concept of special Industrial Waste (DIS), registered in addition in the code of the environment. The concept of DIS is a purely French concept which makes it possible to ensure a continuity of texts. Indeed, the code of the environment and certain national texts refer to it, such as the texts relating to the planning of waste management ( special regional plans for special industrial waste disposal, to the generalized tax on polluting activities (TGAP) etc The DISs are defined in article 2 of the decree as being dangerous waste other than municipal packing waste. The classification of waste wood is shown in appendix 6.5: Waste classification procedure .

Wood treated with CCA or creosote: a waste classified as dangerous

Whatever the origin, wood treated with CCA or creosote can be regarded as a Special Industrial Waste (asterisk corresponding to dangerous waste), because of the toxicity of the products. Waste resulting from
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wood treated at high temperature or treated with products with lower toxicity could be classified like nondangerous. The dangerous substances are mainly creosote, chromium, arsenic if they are present in a certain proportion: more than 0,1 % of carcinogenic substances, more than 3 % of toxic substances. Thus treatment with CCA to obtain a class of employment 4 is generally proportioned at 15 kg/m3, or for coniferous tree 3 % in mass (which classifies this treated wood as dangerous waste). As an indication, waste is classified as dangerous if it comprises in particular more than 0.05 mg/liter of arsenic, more than 0.5mg chromium or copper. These limits led to a reclassification of certain wood wastes when treated with CCA and creosotes or if they contained biocides in a certain proportion (see appendices 6.5 and 6.6). Thus, the use of the CCA in the treatment of wood is called into question today because it contains arsenic and chromium, two substances which in sufficient amounts can induce the classification of wood treated with CCA as dangerous waste (DIS).

3.5.3. Channels of waste treatment:

Wood is a potentially biodegradable organic matter and a combustible material Untreated wood waste could naturally be the subject of: Valuation by re-use, either by recycling in the wood channel (for example in panels after crushing) or again by composting with other plants for an agronomic valuation; energy valuation as fuel in heating with wood.

The problem is very different as regards treated wood. The majority of treated wood contains biocides showing risks of toxicity for the environment and for humans. note: there is no PCP treated wood in civil engineering. The woods of old structures might contain lead, cadmium (old paint) and even in certain cases of mercury (very old and exceptional treatments); woods of recent manufacture might have been treated with CCA and contain arsenic, or with creosote and show risks of decomposition of polycyclic aromatic compounds.

The preferred for the end of life of treated wood is incineration in a specialized center equipped to collect gaseous fluxes. The incineration of waste is regulated (see appendix 6.8: Regulations relating to waste). It is also advisable to keep in mind that classification as dangerous waste does not completely exclude the re-use of these wastes. They remain potentially reusable for similar uses. For example, certain telegraph poles were re-used for a long time for agricultural parks (stakes) or vineyard supports . But this practice ceased, taking into account the biocide directive relating to arsenic. The residues treated with CCA should not be burned without precautions, the fume being highly toxic, nor reduced to sawdust for composting, to prevent the chemicals of the preservative from spreading in the environment or becoming involved in the food chain. Wood waste that is likely to contain organic halogen compounds or heavy metals following a treatment with preservatives should be treated in special facilities for the incineration of dangerous waste (DIS). The storage of waste is regulated at both the community and national levels. At the community level
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The Council Directive of April 26 99 concerning waste disposal, aims to set up strict standards for waste disposal and to encourage valuation. At the national level Underground storage facilities are subject to title III (a) of the law of 75. Special regulations regarding waste aimed at by the technical burying center (CET) of class I: DIS: The ministerial decree of December 30 2002 relating to the storage of dangerous waste, contains the technical specifications relating to the new and existing special industrial waste storage facilities ultimate and stabilized. This text poses: a prohibition to deposit this waste in storage facilities receiving other categories of waste (art. 2-1 of the law of July 15, 1975); an imperative condition of acceptance of waste on a storage site : the preliminary certificate of acceptance; a sample of waste is sent to the storage center for analysis which delivers the producer or holder of the waste the preliminary certificate of acceptance.

The regional plans of special waste disposal, drawn up under the control of the prefect under the terms of the law of July 13, 1992, state: objectives of treatment; the fluxes quantified by nature of waste; the threshold acceptance values in the treatment sites ; the list of the companies approved on the territory concerned.

These documents will be able to guide the building owner in the definition of the choices of treatment best adapted on their territory and to enable them to find the sites locally, under the terms of the principle of proximity.

Particular case of wood waste contaminated by xylophagous insects (Article 10 of the

decree of October 2, 1992)

In the event of demolition of constructions, the wood and materials reached by the termites and other xylophagous insects are burnt on the spot or treated before any transport, if their destruction by incineration appears impossible, so as to avoid the maintenance or the extension of the homes of termites or xylophagous insects This exemption is only proposed with the objective of avoiding external pollution at the building site by these insects. Since wood treated with CCA or creosote cannot be burnt on the spot, decontamination methods are being studied in order to comply with this lawful regulation without attack on the environment. However, if one is sure that this is the only waste treated with these products, their antitermite effectiveness can be regarded as a guarantee that these woods are not contaminated by termites.

3.5.4. - Obligation of the building owner, producer of waste

The producer of waste remains responsible for his waste until it becomes the responsibility of a suitable waste center. The building owner, the producer of the waste, must thus characterize the toxicity of the waste in order to define the suitable treatment or disposal.

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The DIS producer , like the other players in the disposal chain, must, when they give them to a third party, emit a follow-up form of industrial waste (BDSI) which must accompany the waste until its final disposal. [Decree of 4 January 1985 relating to control of disposal systems generating harmful waste OJ of February 16, 1985 (addition to decree n77-974 of August 19, 1977). This form is valid both for the companies generating DIS and for the groups producing the dangerous waste. This form (CERFA n07-0320 and n 07-0321) indicates the source, the characteristics, the destination and the methods planned for the intermediate operations of collection, transport and storage, as well as for waste disposal. It also specifies the identity of the companies authorized by prefectoral decree and concerned with these operations (Circular DPP/SEI n4311 of August 30, 1985 relating to the classified facilities for environmental protection emanating from the Service of Impact studies of the Management of the Prevention of Pollution: transit facilities, regrouping and pre-treatment of industrial waste OJ of December 17 1985). Appendix IV of the decree of January 4 1985 relating to inspection of disposal systems of harmful wastes effects indicates the contents of the declaration of disposal of industrial waste. Before proceeding with transfer of waste, the shipper must notify the proper authorities of destination, shipping and transit, according to the EEC Council Regulation n259/93 of February 1 1993 relating to the transfer of waste. The notification is done by means of a follow-up document. In French law, the form was registered under number CERFA 30-3546. This form must contain all the information necessary for the intermediate transfer stages. It must contain precise details such as the origin, the inventory of waste and the identity of the initial producers, as well as information relating to the identity of the recipient, of his location, methods and operations of processing waste, and value of the recycled matters, if necessary.

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3.6. - Conclusion
Treatment of wood: medical and environmental risks
At the place of treatment Construction of structure Wood in service Risks of leaching of the product and contamination of the natural environments (grounds, drinking water, accumulation by certain plants) Structure at end of life

Medical implications

Risks related to bad Risk of ingestion by the users or management of waste (wild Risks related to the exposure of the agents residents (note: extremely low deposit, burning without in service to toxic substances probability) filtration of the fumes) Risks related to cutaneous contact and ingestion of traces With risks of contamination of remaining on hands in the case the natural environments and populations of parts of structures accessible neighboring (inhalation, ingestion) to the children Risks of leaching of the product Risks related to emissions towards the and contamination of the natural natural environment environments (grounds, water) Industrial places of treatment concern installations classified for the environmental protection. These sites are protected from the point of view of the environment, and the safety of the workers (under the terms of the fair labor standards act) applicable, is subjected to prefectoral authorization and controlled by the DRIRE.

Environmental implications

To limit structures sensitive zones: These building sites must be protected from the point of view of the environment, and the safety of the workers (under the terms of the fair labor standards act) is applicable.

near

- collection points of drinking Selective Deconstruction water AND - adventure playgrounds and Re-use if possible vegetable gardens - cultures AOC or Bio OR The work completed within the Choice of the path of adapted framework of the Directive elimination Biocide will decline the treatments which will remain authorized post-2006 and will enact additional conditions of use.

Precautions

Low for the future structures Low if elimination in an (see conclusions of the biocides approved center or adapted directive ) re-use. Medical and environmental RISK Low Low

Medium for the old structures, in particular for the special cases of structures in contact with or near significant zones (see above)

Medium to high currently for the structures treated with CCA (problem of path).

TABLE 13
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4. - DESIGN OF ENGINEERING STRUCTURES IN WOOD 4.1 - TYPES OF STRUCTURES ADAPTED TO WOOD 4.1.1. - Principles of use of wood in bridges
In engineering structures, the materials are not adapted to all types of stress . Concrete is well adapted to parts working in compression, steel with parts working in tension. It is advisable to use for each structure or part of structure the material best adapted . Although the performance of healthy wood in bending and axial tension is very satisfactory, bending will be limited by the sliding forces on supports (longitudinal shear between fibers) and the axial tensile stresses are limited by the nature of the joints that produce localized shear stresses. The yield of the joints (i.e. fraction of the force of the rough wood section that can be transmitted by the joint) in tension is limited to the 70 % at best, whereas it reaches without problem 80 % for joints in compression. Moreover, even if the healthy wood has good performance in tension, wood with singularities such as knots, loses part of its characteristics in tension. For wood, the optimum is thus to make the material work in axial compression, preferably in full section. This brings in arch type load bearing systems, beams under braces or lattices for example. As only round or rectangular wood sections are available industrially, contrary to steel which allows the manufacture of I-sections with good bending properties, timber beams in general do not have optimized bending properties hence the need for supports, and the possible spans are rather modest.

Timber bridges and heavy vehicle traffic

For footbridges, the constructive solutions are very broad with in particular the possibility of creating structures based entirely on wood. On the other hand, during movement of heavy trucks, experience with emergency bridges shows that the timber deck flooring generates very heavy noise. Moreover, skid risks represent a danger in particular to two-wheeled vehicles because ovehicles, it is finally desirable, for the durability of the flooring, to favor concrete road surfaces with a load-bearing timber framework. For highway bridges supporting heavier traffic with more than 300 heavy trucks every 24 hours it is recommended that very particular attention be paid to joint design as regards fatigue, particularly when wood is used as a load-bearing structure. This aspect also concerns joints in the case of mixed wood-concrete structures. The joints are justified with respect to fatigue with Eurocode regulations or, in particular with regard to highway traffic loads, with those of the Stra guide of May 1996 Fatigue strength of metal and mixed bridges (appendix 6.11/31).

General design principles

When designing a wood structure, it is advisable to bear in mind a certain number of elements: one cannot make everything out of wood: the spans must be reasonable, in general less than about fifty meters. Beyond this, we are talking exceptional structures which must be studied, designed and built with great care; one cannot easily order beams in glued-laminated wood with an I-beam section as with metallic elements. Only massive rectangular sections are available industrially;

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any contact between wood and water or ground harms the durability of wood. For example, structures with Glue-lam lateral beams without boarding lead quickly to disease due to the development of fungi attacks; joint design differs a lot from that usually found in the construction of engineering structures in concrete or steel: wood joints are in general more ductile; in the case of an overpass , care must be taken, for any light structure, to guarantee sufficient headroom, or 60 cm of clearance over size.

Timber structures are sensitive to shocks and are regarded as light. A protection clearance of 0.50 m, as per the circular of October 17, 1986 of the Ministry for the Equipment is thus recommended. Added to this is a construction and maintenance clearance of 0.10 meters. Thus, over a highway or a heavily traveled road, the total headroom is 4,75 m + 0,60 m or 5,35 meters. This value constitutes a minimum, and it is necessary to increase the protection clearance further if the structure is particularly sensitive or not very redundant, and if the neighboring structures upstream do not hinder the extreme sizes.

In the case of structures with crutches, the swiveling of a heavy truck which would topple on its side near the heavy lateral (GBA) must be prevented from interfering with the structure. As in the vertical axis, a protection clearance is recommended. Eurocode 1 envisages shocks to be taken into account on the deck up to 6 meters above the pavement to justify the structures going through a road. The intensity of the shocks to be taken into account on piles up to 1.50 m high is defined in the absence of protection by BAEL or Eurocode 1. Further, it is recommended to justify the piles by calculation with respect to a shock of an intensity five times less than that required by BAEL or Eurocode 1 up to 4 m above the roadway, in addition.

Importance of association of wood and other materials

The association of materials having different and complementary properties makes it possible to improve operation of the structures, by using each material in its preferred field . One can thus associate wood with concrete or steel, even with both. Concrete has a good compressive strength , but a low tensile strength. It can be associated with wood as a collaborating compressed slab, which will allow removal of shear stresses harmful to bending in wood alone and can also ensure protection of the wood frame from bad weather. Steel has excellent tensile characteristics but is limited in compression because of the phenomena of buckling. The association of tensioned steel and compressed wood will make it possible to lengthen the spans. It will be necessary to give a light camber to the timber part to avoid any excessive deformation after creep. The wood-concrete joint must ensure a sufficiently rigid connection between the timber beams and the reinforced concrete slab in order to use these materials to their full capacity. There are several systems whose justification is approached in the Bridge Section of Eurocode 5. The connector shown below as an example, was the subject of a Stra opinion within the framework of the
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Innovation Charter. It is the result of successive developments in particular following fatigue tests, and gave way to a patent, like the majority of the devices of this type. It consists of a 10 mm thickness double angle connector in S355 steel stiffened on the wooden side by two 12 mm thick flats. The intermediate horizontal part of the connector is fixed to the timber by pins which complete the connection.

Photograph 27: example of timber concrete connector This connector is well adapted to the building of road bridges of narrow isostatic span in mixed woodconcrete framework with load-bearing beams under a slab. In addition to static tests, a dynamic test was carried out on a timber-connector-concrete sample for more than two million cycles.

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4.1.2. - Various structures

Arch bridges
These structures are interesting because the arch works mainly in compression and all the wood section is used mechanically. Steel is often used advantageously for the stiffening girders like for the ties. The span range of these structures is from 30-60m

Tied arch bridges (Bow string)

Below is detailed the example of the PINOT footbridge in BLAGNAC, built in 1998, with a span of 36 meters.

Photograph 28: Pinot footbridge This multi-material structure is composed of a principal structure in a tied arch in wood, of a reinforced concrete slab, of tie-beam, parts of bridge, as well as steel suspending rods, and of a cover in polymethyl methacrylate. The arches have a constant section of 324 mm X 627 mm, or a slenderness ratio of 1/57th. The noncombined slab is built from reinforced concrete prefabricated panels, 14 cm thick. In this example, the arched beams are protected from the bad weather by the roof in polymethyl methacrylate (Pmma) which ensures the durability of the load-bearing wood . The type of wood selected is Scots pine, treated for class of employment 4 at level R4P8. The classes of employment, as well as the retention levels and penetration of the treatment are defined in chapters 2.5.2 and 2.5.3 The Glue-lam used for the manufacture of the arches is classified GL24, which corresponds to a characteristic bending stress of 24MPa.

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Figure 36: detail of the connection between the arcs and the suspending rods

Intermediate arch
This road bridge built in 1993 is in the mountains, in Strada, in the Grison canton in Switzerland. The arch has a span of 39 m and the overall length of the structure is 48 meters. The deck has 3.5 meters of pavement and 15 m of sidewalk, or 5 m total.

Photograph 29: general views of the bridge between Strada and San Nicla The load-bearing structure is entirely wood, with beams in spruce Glue-lam, untreated, but protected by a larch boarding and a copper protective hood. The secondary structure is made up of wood spacers , which support a flooring of pre-stressed wood, i.e. a flooring made up of timber elements tightened together by steel bars.

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No finish was applied, which does not detract from the good durability of this structure. The boarding simply became gray with time, even blackened in the zones most exposed to the sun.

Photograph 30: sight from the roadway

Photograph 31: boarding of the arch and the spacers

The composite timber-concrete bridges

The principle is the same as for the mixed steel concrete bridges. The concrete slab contributes to taking up the stress, by compression. The span range of these structures is 20-80 meters. The long spans can be achieved with arch bridges whose deck rests on intermediate supports (small piles, suspending rods, etc) every 5 to 10 meters.

Among the rules to be considered for this type of structure:

the thickness of the concrete slab must be at least 22 cm for highway structures; joints may be made from angles, tubes or steel reinforcing bars; the section slenderness ratio (ratio of height to width) of the beams in Glue-lam should be limited to 5. For higher slenderness ratios, close study of humidity gradient phenomena is required; the slenderness ratio for the major beams borders on 1/30th; tests of fatigue behavior of joints, adapted to traffic, are required.

Bridge at Resgia
An example is the bridge on the Resgia at Inneferrera in Switzerland built in 1998. The 60 m long structure consists of 4 principal Glue-lam arches with a 45 meter span. The slab which carries only light traffic consists of pre-slabs 6 cm thick and concrete cast in place 16 cm thick.. The types of wood used are larch for the arches and spruce for the remainder. Below are a section and two photographs of the structure.

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Photograph 32: bridge at Innenferrera: 60 m of length, 3,50 m of road width

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Figure 37: bridge at Innenferrera

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Farm bridges
Farm bridges are made up of triangular structures. Historically, the first covered bridges were farm bridges to which roofs were added. An evolution of these farm bridges was bridges with lattice beams.

Bridge at Vihantasalmi
The bridge at Vihantasalmi in Finland was brought into service in 1999 to replace an old metal bridge. The length of the structure is 168 m, distributed on 5 spans of 21 and 42 meters. The width is 11 meters. The principal spans of 42m are supported by triangulated timber beams assembled like a roof truss, whose tension elements are steel bars. The load-carrying beams are in wood and are joined to a concrete slab, which contributes to the mechanical strength of the whole structure via connectors specially developed for this structure. To ensure good durability in the absence of a cover, all the wood is treated with creosote or metallic salts. The wood above the pavement is protected by boarding and the other wood is protected by the sealed roadway.

Photograph 33: bridge at Vihantasalmi

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Figure 38: longitudinal section of the bridge of Vihantasalmi

Lattice beam bridges

The important thing is to create very high beams that will cross rather wide spans while leaving a pleasant luminosity. The span range of these structures is from 20-50 meters. The general slenderness ratio should be limited to a maximum of 1/10th of the span. An example of this type of structure is the bridge over the river Dore at SaintGervais-sous-Meymont, built in 1994. It is the first timber bridge without a load limitation, of road class II in France. It profited from the IVOR seal (innovations validated on reference structures ) in 1996. The principal structure is made up of a lattice formed by beams of Scots pine Glue-lam. The oak flooring is suspended on the joints of the main frame.

Photograph 34: bridge over the river Dore (interior view)

The headroom 4.70 m and the width 6 meters. The span of the structure is 33,25 m with a low general slenderness ratio (approximately 1/7th) but the structure is very luminous. Each of the main beams is formed of two elements in Glue-lam, 185 x 528 mm. The diagonals are formed by two beams of glue-lam 185 x 363 mm. The posts are beams of glue-lam 200 x 363 mm. The joints are bolted, with threaded rods inserted and glues into the timber beams.

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Photograph 35: bridge over the river Dore (exterior view)

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Figure 39: transverse section of the bridge over the river Dore

Strut frame bridges

Strut frame bridges are well adapted to wood, because they allow a reduction of the effective spans and generate a compressive force in the piers. The span range of these structures is 20-40 meters.

Bridge at Merle
A recent example of a strut frame timber bridge is the bridge at Merle near Saint-Geniez-O-Merle in Corrze, built in 1999. This structure, 57 m long and 10 m wide overhangs the bottom of the valley to more than 30 m high at the highest.

Figure 40: bridge at Merle - longitudinal Section

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Photograph 36: bridge at Merle - general view The wood used for the strips in the manufacture of Glue-lam is the Douglas, purged of sapwood, of mechanical classification C30. The structure is isostatic thanks to two articulations.

Figure 41: bridge at Merle - transverse Section

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The longitudinal beams have a section of 160 X 16 cm Figure 42: bridge at Merle section of a strut frame The strut frames crutches have a T section in glue-lam : 90 X 16 cm + 80 X 16 cm, of 12 m to 25 m length. The reconstruction of the T-beams was carried out by gluing and by metal rings which ensure the transmission of the shear stresses.

A concrete slab 25 cm thick contributes nothing to the general functioning of the timber structure. Figure 43 Figure 42 shows detail of assembly. The slab is placed on neoprene supports and is supported via threaded rods sealed in the timber beams.

Figure 43: bridge at Merle - detail of assembly

Bridge at Crest

Photograph 37 a: bridge at Crest

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The bridge at Crest in Drme is currently longest of France. It is 92 m long and is divided into three spans. It has two traffic lanes of 2,75 m for a width of 8,50 meters. The principal structure is made up of four ribbed frames, spaced at 1.85 m, of variable height from Douglas Glue-lam purged of sapwood. These frames are supported by strut frames linked to the concrete supports. The flooring is in oak, supported on elastomer pots. Moreover, a seal was installed under this flooring to protect the secondary structure and the principal structure.

Photograph 37 b: bridge of Crest

Suspension bridges or stayed

Suspension bridges, or stayed, allow the design of very long spans. Wood can be used in particular for construction of the stiffening girders and for the flooring. The span range of these structures is from 30100 meters. There are two exceptional structures : the timber bridge at OJUELA in Mexico, built in 1892, with a 278 m span and in France, the bridge at Tournon dating back to 1845, consists of two spans of 97.50 meters. These two structures works have been limited to pedestrian traffic since the 1970s. Among recent structures, particular note should be made of the footbridge on the Doubs, offering a one meter wide passage. This footbridge, built in 1993, and located in the community of Oye and Pallet (25) is from solid fir and spruce. The length is approximately 52 m for 37 m of span.

Photograph 38: footbridge over the river Doubs - general view

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Photograph 39 footbridge over the river Doubs - view of lower part The structural parts of the structure are protected by the deck coating and by a roof for the tops of the stays. An insecticide treatment was applied superficially, but no finish was applied, which explains the gray color of the wood.

Composite timber- steel bridges

A combination of wood and steel is very common in structures, but also finds applications for the general design of structures, steel offering ties and beams that are particularly effective in bending, wood providing posts or arches working in compression. The example below shows a structure under tension with steel ties. It is 35 m long, 5 m wide, and allows passage of forestry equipment..

Photograph 40: composite timber-steel bridge at Sur-En (Switzerland)

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4.1.3. - Examples of footbridges

The design of footbridges differs basically from that of highway engineering structures. In particular fatigue problems are less severe, but wind and shocks are more serious. The small loads allow a greater design freedom, which is brought to the fore in the following examples. However, the dynamic behavior of these structures must be carefully studied.. Wood structures are lighter hence problems of dynamic behavior are a concern. Eurocode 5, dealing with timber structures, was most precise on these questions at the ENV pre-standard stage of voluntary application. To ensure the good dynamic behavior of a project, the guide Footbridges - Evaluation of vibratory behavior under the force of pedestrians, published by Stra. (appendix 6.11/33).

Vaires footbridge
The new footbridge covered at Vaires ( Seine et Marne) is today Frances biggest covered footbridge at 75 m long, 49 m of span, 9.40 m wide. The Owner is Rseau Ferr de France. This Glue-lam timber structure overhangs future TGV lines at 6 m high. The arches support a double passage each offering a clear width of 3 meters. The first passage corresponds to a public way while the second allows travelers to reach the platforms by escalators or elevators. A square goes to either end of town. The woods used are the Douglas for glue-lam, oak for the flooring and spruce for the ceiling.

Photograph 41: footbridge and railway station at Vaires-sur-Marne

Ajoux footbridge
Built in 2001 at Ajoux in Ardche, this footbridge has two arches under the flooring. The overall length of the footbridge is 20 meters. The whole of the footbridge is made from solid wood, with small sections that allow easy handling in a site. where .access is difficult.

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Photograph 42: footbridge at Ajoux The wood selected was the local chestnut which is naturally very durable for these condition of uses. No chemical preservation treatment was necessary.

Footbridge at Saint-Jorioz
This 1993 footbridge was built under the project supervision of the DDE of Haute Savoie and has required no intervention since its construction. The length is 20 m for 2.70 m of width of passage. The height under the roof is 3 meters. The principal structure is a triangular structure of solid Douglas untreated, except for the bottom Glue-lam timber member treated for of employment 2, given it is well protected from bad weather. The road surfacing is a bituminous mix, to allow the passage of light vehicles. The cover is of sheeting planks (split pieces of wood). Photograph 43: footbridge at Saint-Jorioz

Footbridge in Grigny
The Grigny footbridges ( Essonne) built in 2002 are a model for small-span footbridges, because of their design based on the natural durability of wood and protection of the structural elements. No chemical preservation treatment was necessary. They are made from two load-bearing arches in Douglas Glue95

lam covered with an open Douglas boarding and a protective oak hood , under which is a waterproof layer that improves the sealing of the load-bearing structure.

Photograph 44: footbridge in Grigny All wood is purged of sapwood so as to use only the durable part of the woods selected. The flooring consists of oak planks, 120 X 22 mm, arranged on their edge and spaced at approximately 5 mm which allows a good ventilation of the wood and ensures a good adherence for the pedestrian. The slenderness ratio of the arches is approximately 1/30th . The principal beams have dimensions of about 300 X 300 mm, which makes the arches compact and not very sensitive to variations in humidity. The metal elements are in stainless to guarantee good durability and to avoid harmful chemical reactions with oak in particular. All the wood was given a protective coating in the workshop to allow homogeneous ageing. Maintenance will thus be limited to the replacement of the flooring or cladding units when they are worn, insofar as one accepts graying of the wood. This type of footbridge is well adapted to spans less than 15 m, with a reasonable cost of approximately 1,500 per square meter in 2002. For longer spans, the transverse stability of the arches must be studied in detail. Photograph 45: detail of flooring with edge and open boarding

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Figure 44: detail of the open boarding

Bridges with full side beams

The span range of these structures is 5-20 m Structures with full side beams (of Glue-lam type), although simpler and often more economic, are less well adapted to wood, because rectangular sections have a low mechanical bending strength and loadbearing unprotected beams are not very durable. However this type of footbridge was essential in France in the years 1970-1980, with often a CCA preservation treatment . One regularly finds lateral beams with a very slim section of 20 x approximately
97

180

cm,

causing

deformation

problems

(see

chapter

98

4.2. Diseases and causes of damage "). This principle may be used however for short spans, provided that the side beams are protected to protect the load-bearing structure from heavy exposure and subsequent fungus attack, and a maximum surface slenderness ratio (relationship between the height and the width) of 5.

Photograph 46: footbridge at Danjoutin

Photograph 47: footbridge at Wald The footbridge at Feisterbach in Wald (Switzerland) dating back to 1984, is 56m long in three spans with a principal span of 28 meters. The beams are in fir treated with CCF and do not suffer from severe diseases. The design is well thought out because the sections at 1 200 x approximately 200 mm show a surface slenderness ratio (relationship between the height and the width) of 6 and of the vertical stays connected to the spacers ensure transverse stability of the beams. Some design errors remain like the absence of boarding and ventilation between the beam and the handrail in particular.

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4.2. Diseases and causes of damage

4.2.1. Lack of drainage and ventilation
Bad drainage and ventilation of wood lead to the development of fungi.

Sealing
On photo 48, Photograph 48, sealing is not continuous and water can stagnate in direct contact with the beam. This phenomenon is aggravated by non-ventilation of the wood: the beam is in direct contact with the access road and the sealing.

Photograph 48: connection beam apron and roadway of access

Wood badly ventilated

On photo 49 Photograph 49, the beam in Glue-lam is in contact with the roadway that is likely to be wet (no visible sealing). The fungi have begun their work

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Photograph 49: connection beam apron

Assembly trapping water

A cause of bad drainage of water is the design of assemblies trapping water. Wood on wood assemblies (mortise and tenon, joggle-joint, etc) which form sensitive areas that are badly ventilated and badly drained must be avoided. (see photo 50)

Photograph 50: Wood on wood assembly to avoid

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Flat surface
To obtain good drainage, flat surfaces should be avoided since water can infiltrate wood in possible surface cracks. But wood should not be inclined without forethought. On photo 52 Photograph 52, the handrail is well inclined , but the longitudinal joints are badly ventilated, leading to fungus attack. On photo Photograph 51, the fixing of the handrail is insufficient in view of the handrails heavy section.

Photograph 51: handrail badly fixed

Photograph 52: fungus attack on the handrail

4.2.2. - Solar Aggression and humidity gradient

Footbridges, particularly those facing south, undergo solar aggression, which creates slits and deteriorates the finish. Water can then accumulate there to form true fungi nests. Photo 53 Photograph 53 testifies to this reality

Photograph 53: degradation of protective coating and wood The footbridge represented in photo 54 Photograph 54 is made up of two glue-lam lateral beams.

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The beams curved towards the south side because of a humidity gradient, the sunny face having shrunk more than the other.

Photograph 54: poured side beams The deviation noted of approximately 80 mm is reached for a humidity gradient of approximately 4 %. Measurements showed that the humidity gradient varied between 3 and 7 %. A protection of the beams would have been an effective solution to avoid this kind of premature damage.

4.2.3. - Other causes

Among the other causes of damage are structural problems: bad adhesion of glue-lam : the joints open or the glue is not appropriate for the use (chemical attack,) ; bad design causing tension perpendicular to the wood fibers, either by an assembly stressing the Glue-lam laterally in tension , or by bending of a curved beam , an effect that causes a thrust on the glued strips when bending reduces the curvature of the beam;

Figure 45: Possible examples of causes of damage lack of specialized studies: assembly, unevenness of support; the wrong consideration of the phenomena of shrinking and swelling of wood as a function of its humidity.

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4.2.4. - Maintenance
A minimum standard maintenance is required to ensure correct operation of wood structures. Care should be taken not to allow accumulation of organic matter (topsoil for example) in contact with wood. On photo 56 Photograph 56, it is observed that this minimum maintenance was not carried out: the development of fungi is thus favored. On photo 55 Photograph 55, an external soil source puts the wood in danger.

Photograph 55: accumulation of soil in contact with wood

Photograph 56: increase in vegetation

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4.3. - Constructive Provisions

Constructive provisions are the first method of ensuring a structures good durability. They must thus be studied precisely in relation to the following rules.

4.3.1. - General Rules

In the preceding chapters, it was shown that the too high humidity in the wood led to the appearance of fungi, which are the causes of the most serious damage.. Damage due to insects remains minor in France in the field of engineering structures. The first objective of design is thus to prevent humidity in the wood.

The basic principle to obtain a reasonable durability is to keep the wood dry.
For that, it is necessary that: the minimum of water can come in contact with the wood, which urges its protection; water can be evacuated as soon as possible; the wood is well ventilated

To obtain a good durability, design of the details is the essential point. It comes into play before the choice of the chemical preservation treatments. The preservation treatments are to be studied later, to adjust if necessary the field of application of the wood. Following, several constructive provisions are examined.

4.3.2. - Covered bridges

Among the most durable bridges or footbridges, the great majority have a roof, which allows the loadbearing structure to be protected from bad weather (see photo 57).

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Photograph 57: example of the covered bridge crossing the Bouzanne river near Argenton sur Creuse: It was built in 1849. A covered bridge involves a higher initial investment but offers better guarantees of the structures lifespan. A beam is considered protected from bad weather if the roof overflow allows the beam to remain dry under a rain falling at an angle less than thirty degrees to the vertical. In this case, the beam can be considered in class of employment 2, except if there are risks of spray, in which case the class of employment is 3).

Figure 46: angle to envisage to protect the beam

Photograph 58: beams under roadway protected from the bad weather For beam bridges under the roadway, when this one is waterproof (reinforced concrete slab protected by a sealing), a good protection of the beams is assured. For the edge beams , a roadway overflow may also protect a beam (see photo 58) Photograph 58).

4.3.3. - Boarding
A solution to prevent water on the load-bearing beams is to cover the lateral faces with boarding and the horizontal surface with a protective hood (or handrail).

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Boarding arrangements
The boarding can be a coating made up of planks of wood generally 18 or 27 mm thick 80 to 200 mm wide. To prevent the distortion , the ratio width to thickness should not exceed 7 ( a slenderness ratio of 7 is accepted because the boarding is not structural. For structural elements , the slenderness ratio should be limited to 5). These planks may be arranged horizontally or vertically, ensuring good ventilation between the boarding and the protected wood. An example of ventilated boarding is given on photo 59 Photograph 59.

Photograph 59: ventilated horizontal boarding

Figure 47: vertical boarding with covering The vertical arrangement allows a faster water run-off. The simplest way is to use an overlapping boarding. The strip of overlapped boarding is fixed by two austenitic stainless steel pins (only one for a width less than 100 mm), and the interior strips of boarding are fixed by only one stainless steel pin. The length of the pins is 2.5 times the thickness of the boarding strip, without it penetrating less than 35 mm into the wood. Note: to facilitate the maintenance of the boarding, the pins may be replaced by screws.

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To ensure good ventilation, the boarding is spaced by a network of laths. The best solution is to use double laths (see figure 48 )Figures 48), which allows good air circulation. Diagonal laths may also be considered. The vertical strips should be shaped at the bottom in the form of a drip groove.

Figures 48: bad, good and very good lathing for a vertical boarding Boarding made up of horizontal planks may also be considered. Among the three types of arrangement of horizontal boarding represented very schematically in figure 49 Figure 49, the solution represented in (a) is the worst since the planks are in contact over a width of approximately 10 % of the width of the plank. In this zone the wood is badly ventilated. Moreover, the plank does not have the shape to form a drip groove : water can find its way to the badly ventilated zone and cause damage to the wood.

Figure 49: various boarding arrangements In cases (b) and (c), the planks are well ventilated and the drip groove may be formed. Solution (c) is preferable, because it has fixings well protected from the rain. The solution with strip, usually used in buildings, is also possible as well as open boarding, which leaves principal beam visible while protecting it from bad weather. The open boarding was used for the footbridge at Grigny (see chapter 4.1.3).

Protective hoods
To protect horizontal wood, as well as wood at the ends, protective hoods of stainless steel, copper or aluminum may be installed, as is the case for the Tharlkirchen bridge on the Isar in Munich. This 1991 bridge of spruce Glue-lam timber and solid larch measures 183 m per 13m span, and has 5.50 m of roadway and 7 m of sidewalk. The use of different metals for protection is to be avoided because of the risk of galvanic corrosion.

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Photograph 60: Protective hoods on the bridge at Thalkirchen Another example is the cover of the arches of the Europe-Bridge in the valley of the Mur in Austria near Saint-Georgen, (see photos 61), built in 1994, 128 m long with a 45 m principal span. On the other hand, the strut frames are only covered at the bottom foot to avoid water finding its way into the mechanical connection.

Photographs 61 a and b: Europe-Bridge at Saint-Georgen

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The same type of detail is found near the joint, and the bottom of the strut frames of the bridge at Merle (see photos 62).

Photographs 62 a and b: details of the bridge at Merle Protection of the end wood The end of the planks or the beams (called end wood) must be protected to avoid water infiltration in fibers of wood. There are various solutions : treatment with resin is to be avoided since sooner or later the resin will crack because of sun damage and shrinkage or swelling of the wood, and will no longer do its job; wood must be protected by a metallic protective hood or boarding (as on photo 63) Photograph 63).

Photograph 63: protected end wood Note: on photo 63 Photograph 63, the boarding of the end wood could have been better ventilated at the connection with the upper wood cover

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Handrail
Arrangement to protect a load-bearing beam
The handrail may in certain cases, in particular for structures with lateral beams, be used as protection against bad weather. In figure 50 Figure 50, the handrail protects the principal beam. The slope of 5 % in the transverse direction improves drainage. A slope in the longitudinal direction is also desirable. The handrail has notches to allow drip grooves to be made. Ventilation of the handrail and the principal beam must be assured. Lastly, the vertical boarding is ventilated thanks to a double lathing.

Figure 50: handrail As far as possible, the assemblies are protected from bad weather. In the case of Figure 50, metal squares may be installed between the handrail and the lathing (before placing the boarding).

Case of independent handrails

In this case the handrail does not protect the structure. The handrail represented in figure 51 Figure 51 is fixed on the angle overhanging the crash barrier posts by pins in the under faces. The risk of damage to the points is reduced and the upper face of the handrail has no singularities likely to trap water. Moreover, the angle is smaller than that of the handrail that forms a drip groove.

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Figure 51: protected assemblies

Photograph 64: example of fixing of handrail Special care must be taken with longitudinal joints. In effect, a minimum space (2cm) must be left to ensure ventilation of the wood. Moreover the end wood of the crash barrier post must be protected by a metal plate, as in photo 64 Photograph 64. Figure 52Figure 52 shows a good arrangement. A double protection system is set up.

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The joint allows an initial sealing, which will not be too durable. In the event of damage to the joint, the metal cap takes over: a drip groove is at the end of the handrail, and water is evacuated in a metal section.

Figure 52: longitudinal connection of the handrail Another possible solution is covering the joint by a ventilated metallic protective hood.

4.3.4. - Joints
Some rules about joints
Traditional joints or wood on wood
Traditional joints are those that utilize only wood. Among the many examples are mortise and tenon, the joggle-joints, splayed indent scarf, dovetails. These joints transmit primarily compressive forces. The performances of these joints are relatively limited and are to be studied carefully for external structures to avoid the risks of water traps (see photo 50) Photograph 50).

Figure 53: mortise and tenon joints Figure 54: slit-and-tongue joints

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Combination wood-metal joints Among this type of joint are nails, bolts, spike nails, and joints using notched rings. The pins (nails) can be smooth, be twisted or striated. They are small diameter and many are required to ensure a good joint. The spike nails are smooth, and are forced into a bore hole of a diameter slightly lower than that of the nail.

Figure 55: some examples of metal joint parts

Figure 56: gusset joint connection and spike nails

Figure 57: bolted assembly

The principle of operation is based on shear of the metallic parts. These joints are more or less rigid (see figure 58 Figure 58 which shows the stress-strain curves of the various joints), according to the type of part, of the number and the size of the metal parts.

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Figure 58: rigidity of the joints It should be noted that some of these joints have initial play: before transmitting stress the joint must take up the play that exists between the bolts for example and the timber. The layout of the parts has an influence on the joint strength (spacing of the nails in particular). When choosing a type of joint, it is advisable to consider the following points: a more rigid multi-part joint will be preferred to a mono-part one; the joint strength does not increase linearly with the number of parts: the increase in strength becomes gradually indistinct and may in certain cases become harmful; preservation treatments (CCA in particular) speed up corrosion of the metal parts; it is necessary to check chemical compatibility between the wood and the metal, and to avoid using different metals.

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Glued and mechanically-stuck joints

Glued joints are used particularly for making beams in glue-lam . Gluing may be used to complement mechanical joining by metal parts. There are thus glued/nailed joints with excellent mechanical performance (breakage through tension is in the metal, but the results strongly depend on the procedure for putting the joints in service and the loading period). The glued joints are very rigid and have no installation play. These joints are still being developed and for the moment it is advised to use them only under the guidance of experts recognized by the insurance companies, particularly where permanent tensile stresses are involved.

Justifications of joints
Calculations of joint justifications are to be carried out according to Eurocode EC5. It is a question of comparing the properties of wood in general with transverse stresses, as well as the performances of the joint parts.

Ventilation of wood
For wood to dry quickly after humidification, joining two pieces of wood over a long length should be avoided (see figure 59) Figure 59).

Figure 59: ventilation in joints The better solutions involve minimizing the surface of contact and spacing the pieces of wood sufficiently. For this it is possible to use large washers (or several superimposed washers) which have moreover the advantage of having a convex surface allowing easy evacuation of water .

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In photos 65 Photographs 65 and 66 Photograph 66, the contacts were minimized to allow good ventilation of wood.

Photographs 65: ventilation of wood on all faces

Photograph 66: minimization of surfaces of contact Note: in the place of square sections, round sections are preferable for the spacers, to ensure a better drainage. Another improvement consists of inclining the square sections, to have no horizontal surface.

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Joining using supports

Direct contact between wood and concrete is to be avoided because the concrete of the supports is a wet substrate or likely to be, which can lead to humidification of the wood. This will have more difficulty drying since it is not ventilated. The solution consists of separating the wood (from the concrete) using a metal part : humidification by the concrete is no longer possible if the wood is ventilated. The metal section supporting the post is smaller (at least 10 mm for each side) to avoid water traps by capillarity. The solution can be further improved by creating a drip groove under the rim of the wooden post (see photo 67 example 2 )Photographs 67 b).

Figure 60: joint with concrete support bad design of assembly (solution a) and good design of assembly (solution b)

Example 1

Example 2

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Photographs 67: two good examples of bottom of ventilated posts

Water traps
Water accumulation in joints is to be avoided. The use of metal shoes, which cause formation of water retention zones, is to be prohibited if they are not completely protected from bad weather.

Figure 61: bad joint design (solution a) and good joint design (solution b) Solution (b) is preferable because the risk of accumulation of water is reduced: washers space the nuts, allowing better water drainage and better wood ventilation ; washers welded to the metal plate space the wood from the braced metal part (i.e. sandwiched between the wood), to ensure ventilation; notches could be put in the foot of the post to allow formation of a drip groove and to avoid water penetration in the end wood.

4.3.5. - Flooring decks

Several types of flooring can be considered: timber flooring, particularly for footbridges; timber flooring covered with a bituminous working layer; Concrete may be used for the decking (composite timber-concrete bridge ) covered with a bituminous working layer.

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Wood flooring

Bituminous coating

Composite timber-concrete bridge

Photographs 68: various types of siding

Wood flooring
To avoid having too slippery a cladding, the wood may be grooved in the direction perpendicular to movement. An example of grooving is given in Figure 62. The dimensions are given in millimeters. Fixing may be carried out by screws inserted in certain grooves. Latticed flooring has 8 to 12 mm spaces between planks to compensate for shrinkage and swelling of the wood. Resin with corundum may be put in the grooves, but these products are expensive. Finally there are nonskid plastic mats, which then hide the wood.

Figure 62: Grooved wood for flooring To protect structural beams (bracers and principal) from possible water, a protective hood may be installed. To be effective, it must overhang at least 20 mm and finish for example vertically to form a drip groove (see the example given in figure 59) Figure 59). The wooden strips should be delivered in a state close to hygroscopic balance. Drainage slits could be put in the underside to control the slits during drying. To ensure a good connection between the flooring elements and the joists and to reduce the noise, rubber washers might be placed between the elements. The role of the rubber would be also to take up the deformations from drying, to avoid play. Another possible technique to make timber flooring decks is to put the boards on their edge, and to space them approximately 10 mm, as was done for the footbridge at Grigny (see chapter 4.1.3).

Bituminous flooring
The bituminous coatings ensure a good adherence and are to be favored for motor vehicle and cycle traffic. It is important to control the sealing to prevent damage to the structure. For this, it is necessary to avoid contact of bitumen with wood, particularly with the principal beams. Figure 63 proposes in a schematic the use of an aluminum section to ensure lateral closing of the pavement zone and to allow continuity of sealing.

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Figure 63: detail of sealing of roadway In Figure 63, the boarding of the principal beam does not go down to pavement level (10 cm height minimum). This space must allow easy cleaning of the dirt that might form there, but the initial protection role of the boarding must always remain. If the space left is too restricted , it becomes difficult -- even impossible -- to clean, which harms its durability. For the longitudinal pavement stop, a T section may also be used. Lastly, to improve the sealing, an anti-rain layer may be stretched across the first boarding lathing bed, to maintain good ventilation of the structural wood .

Photograph 69: metal section delimiting the bituminous zone

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4.4. - Choice of woods

4.4.1. - Wood in class of employment 2
Parts concerned
In a passage structure, the wood may be considered in class of employment 2 if it is protected from bad weather. This is the case for : covered bridges: the frame and all wood protected from the rain, except for the side beams of highway bridges exposed to the risk of spray during the passage of vehicles; woods protected by boarding.

Woods usable
Most types of wood are suitable, but in practice the woods commonly used are the Scots pine and the Douglas. These Woods are suitable for easy manufacture of Glue-lam (spruce is the wood most used for Glue-lam ).

Treatments
No fungicide treatment is necessary. Insecticide treatments are advisable, particularly against termites in infested zones. The application of the insecticide treatment is short immersion for small lengths and painting for long lengths (glue-lam ).

4.4.2. - Wood in class of employment 3

Introductory remark
Class of employment 3 is divided into two: the sub-class 3a corresponding to mild exposure and sub-class 3b to strong exposure. In practice, only the boarding may be really considered to be in class of employment 3a, this is why it is treated separately in chapter 4.4.3). Following, only the class of employment 3b is examined.

Parts of structure concerned

The parts concerned are the beams under the pavements of highway bridges, all non-protected wood but allowing good drainage because of their slope.

Woods usable
Without fungicide treatment
The sufficiently durable woods must be purged of their sapwood. The most common are: the Douglas ;

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the larch; the oak and the chestnut.

The coniferous woods quoted may be used for the construction of glue-lam .

With fungicide treatment

All woods (not purged of sapwood) sufficiently impregnable are suitable. The choice will be mostly for the Douglas, the larch, the pines, the fir and the spruce. Treatment is obligatorily done by metallic salts, creosote or petroleum products. In all the cases (with or without fungicide treatment) an insecticide treatment is preferable.

4.4.3. Special case of boarding

Generalities
Boarding wood is considered in the class of employment 3. For this non-structural element, the normal lifespan may be limited to 25 years, even less if its replacement within the framework of a regular maintenance is accepted. This makes it possible to use a large range of woods, without having to resort to heavy preservation treatments. The boarding planks are generally of a width ranging between 120 and 150 mm, for a thickness of 18 to 27 mm. There are various boarding principles, the simplest being an overlapping vertical type.(see figure 47) Figure 47). The fixing nails are of austenitic stainless steel (with exceptions) and must penetrate at least 35 mm into the batten.

Woods with sufficient natural durability

To be sufficiently durable, woods will have to be systematically purged of their sapwood. Among the sufficiently durable Woods, the choice can be established between: Douglas Larch Western Red Cedar

The oak and the chestnut can also be considered. In this case, the nails are obligatorily out of nongalvanized steel or stainless steel.

Durability conferred by treatment

For boarding, all the woods are suitable after treatment. For boarding in contact with the public treatments presenting a health risk are avoided. The most common treatment method is the autoclave. Short immersion is sufficient, particularly for a vertical boarding.
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High-temperature treatment is possible, but the start-holes have to be bored before driving in the nails (risk of bursting). The Woods can be used with their sapwood. The choice will be done mainly among the following Woods: Douglas, Larch, Pines, Spruce, Fir tree

4.4.4. - Wood in class of employment 4 and 5

Parts concerned
The class of employment 4 is for horizontal wood in contact with concrete, the ground or water. Class of employment 5 involves contact with sea water. The parts of a structure concerned are: any horizontal wood, non-protected, particularly flooring; joists for flooring wood, if it is not protected by a protective hood; piles and small piles (class of employment 4 or 5).

Types of wood usable

Without fungicide treatment
Among the indigenous European woods, only the oak and the chestnut are naturally sufficiently durable in class of employment 4. For class of employment 5 no European wood is suitable without treatment. Among tropical woods on the other hand, many types are naturally sufficiently durable in class of employment 4, and some in class of employment 5. The iroko can be used only for flooring decks, doussi covers all the class of employment 4. Azob, bilinga, ip cover the classes of employment 4 and 5. The bilinga, the iroko and doussi are able to be glued. It is possible to widen the range of woods by taking advice at the CIRAD forest. Note: to ask with little detail for an exotic wood does not guarantee the durability of wood: certain woods (like Kondroti, Koto, Bahia) are indeed not very durable.

With fungicide treatment

In practice pine is the only wood usable. Except for flooring, woods are not squared off, because the heartwood is almost not impregnable and is not sufficiently durable for such exposure. The treatment is based on metallic salts or creosote. It is obligatorily done in an autoclave. Dosage is a function of the class of employment.

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4.4.5. Summary table of choice of woods

Class of employment Zones of bridge concerned Possible woods Treatments Depth of the treatment Medical and environmental risks

Wood under roof 2 Wood coated and ventilated

Fir tree, Spruce

Insecticide None if purged of sapwood

Surface

low None

Douglas, Pines, Oak

3.a

Boarding

Chestnut, Larch, Douglas Fir tree, Spruce

None if purged of sapwood Insecticide + fungicide

Nothing Surface

None low

Wood under sealed roadway 3.b Wood not coated or covered, inclined minimum 30

Oak, Chestnut, Larch, Douglas Pines, Fir tree, Spruce

None if purged of sapwood Insecticide + fungicidal

Nothing

None High: toxicity of the products, and at the end of the lifetime

In-depth

Flooring 4 Wood under nonsealed roadway Wood horizontal or slightly tilted (<30)

Oak, Iroko, Azob, Bilinga

None if purged of sapwood

Nothing

None

Pines, Fir tree, Spruce

Insecticide + fungicide

In-depth

High: toxicity of the products, and at the end of the lifetime

Wood in contact with sea water Wood in contact with sea water

Azob, Bilinga

None if sapwood

purged of

None

None

Pines

Insecticide + fungicide

In-depth

High: toxicity of the products, and at the end of the lifetime

IN GREEN: solutions to be retained

IN LIGHT ORANGE : possible, but think well of the design IN RED: Precautions to be taken

BEIGE: possible, but to prefer other Woods

Table 14

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5. Help for writing order

5.1. - Definition of the order
5.1.1. - The program of the structure
It is recommended to first of all draw up a preliminary study that considers the various technical and architectural solutions possible. The adopted solution is then the subject of a detailed pre-project.. During these different phases, from the gestation of the project, the geotechnical studies, the hydraulics, the risk evaluation, or others that are launched to validate the various choices which particularly concern the foundations and supports and the structure itself. Only those elements specific to timber construction are dealt with in this part. For more general details reference is made to Stras other guides concerning the organization of studies, and the follow-up of the execution of the engineering structures, in particular: guide for the ordering and the control of the studies of engineering structures, Stra November 1997. (appendix 6.11/27); guide for a Quality Assurance program - Studies of design and execution of civil engineering structures : Stra SNCF, December 1997 (appendix 6.11/28); guide for the Project Manager of Engineering Structures, Stra January 1999 (appendix 6.11/29); Technical Bulletin n 8, of Stra, on the assembly of metal bridges, can give useful information in the study of the construction of a timber bridge. (appendix 6.11/30).

The consultant specifies in his order the nature of the work, by giving in particular the major geometrical and functional characteristics of the structure: length, width, loads (pedestrians, VL, PL). The pedestrian loads in Eurocode 1 are the most complete, and are adapted to justifications of structures carried out with Eurocode 5. Cases of transversely dissymmetrical loads are particularly to be considered for timber pedestrians bridges, because of the relative lightness of the frames. In the order the lifespan under consideration for the structure must be specified. In general, the lifespan of an engineering structure can be estimated at 50 years at least for a footbridge, and at 100 years for a highway bridge. The easily replaceable and clearly identified elements may have a lifespan reduced to 25 years (boarding, flooring). Additional instructions related to the environment and the end of life of the structure could be stipulated, by prohibiting for example the recourse to certain chemical preservation treatments. Sufficient headroom must be left under the structure that crosses a pavement open to road traffic. Timber structures are sensitive to shocks and are regarded as light. A minimal protection clearance of 0.60 m, within the meaning of the circular of October 17, 1986 of the Ministry for Equipment is thus recommended, as specified to the beginning of Part 4, design. Lastly, generally, the recommendations of this guide must be reformulated in the contract, and adapted to the particular case dealt with, in a manner to be thus made contractual, because there is no CCTG booklet (Book of the General Technical specifications) devoted specifically to timber construction.

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5.1.2. - Qualification of the company

Concerning glue-lam , there is a certification ACERBOIS GLULAM to guarantee a manufacture in the code of practice. This qualification and the EC marking may be required in the contract. Glue-lam timber has received EC certification since the end of 2004. EC European marking will be obligatory from 2007..

5.1.3. Project Management

The project manager defines, for each part of the structure : the durability expected; the class of employment; the type of wood; possible treatments; the class of service within the meaning of Eurocode 5; principles of protection of wood.

5.1.4. - External Control

Moreover, the building owner envisages a control outside the company and his engineering and design department. His engineering and design department monitors the studies on behalf of the project manager, and a laboratory controls in parallel the materials and the conditions of their use on the building site. These controls include at a minimum the following points : validation of the constructive provisions; validation of the choice of the woods and the treatments; the checking of the calculation notes; recognition of the woods (in particular in the case of tropical wood ); the control of the water content of wood; dimensional check of the various elements; the performing of mechanical tests on materials or the visual inspection of the delivered elements.

Some of these controls can be checked by outside sources, and in no case are a substitute for the companys own controls (internal or external). The major points from the companys control on the points previously mentioned are examined by outside sources. 5.2. Site preparation and organization

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5.2.1. - Documents to be supplied by the contractor

Before being allowed to bid, the company presents its references in terms of construction of engineering structures, or failing this shows its technicality in the realization of structures of spans corresponding to those of the project. The selected company provides a note of calculations according to Eurocode 5. It specifies the class of service retained (2: moisture lower than 20 % or 3: moisture higher than 20 %) as well as the assumptions selected, in particular concerning the mechanical properties of materials. The company gives a list of the plans and execution procedures and a time schedule. In particular the following plans are provided: overall plan (installation, plan view, elevation, location of the elements); longitudinal and transverse sections (on support and span); constructive details: joints, connections with the supports, connection with the pavement.

The company specifies how the durability of the structure is ensured and what maintenance should be envisaged. For each part of the structure , the company will recall the class of employment, the type of wood and the possible treatment (product and method of application). In addition, the company draws up a note in connection with the taking into account of the shrinkage and swelling phenomena of wood (generated stresses, solutions to the distortion phenomenon for sections with a high slenderness ratio,).

5.2.2. - Plan of quality assurance (PAQ)

The company proposes a plan of quality assurance (PAQ) in which the following points in particular are mentioned : resources of the company (personnel and material); possible sub-contractors; the origin of the products, wood and fasteners; certifications; realization methods of tasks adapted to the building site ; the organization of internal control; the internal control (moisture, recognition of type of wood, validity of gluing,); the management of waste in the factory and on the building site; provisions of hygiene and safety for the workers, in the factory and on the building site, while referring for example to the PPSPS (Special safety and health protection plan).

It is thus one of the objects of the PAQ to establish the traceability of wood, from being cut down to reception of the structure. Methods of realization, like the various provisions taken on the building site must be specifically adapted to the project and it is not a question, by regard for the forests, to systematically provide thick master documents.
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The points that follow require special attention. They are defined in the written parts of the invitation to bid and are made contractual. The RPAO (Regulations particular to Invitation to bid) is the part of the contract best adapted to this function. One distinguishes the critical points and the stopping points according to the importance which they have for the quality of construction. In order to avoid a drift towards a show of quality of bureaucratic character, the stopping points must be laid down in a limited number: not more than one a week on average for a company! If necessary, the contractor completes this list according to his organization. The critical points are the points where it becomes important that the executant checks the formal verification of compliance. The stopping points are points of passage where the executant must obtain the agreement of the control acting on behalf of the Project manager, because it is essential there be a conflicting report. It is the customer or his representative, often called in France Project manager, who signs the lifting of the point of stop. The principal stopping points to be considered in the contract during the construction of a timber bridge are enumerated and underlined below. They generally break up into controls and elementary verifications that are mostly critical points whose follow-up documents are examined and inspected. However some of these elementary controls, because of their importance, constitute also stopping points:

Reception of woods by the company ( stopping point)

- inspection of the delivery form showing in particular the name and the address of the sawer, the method of classification, the type of wood, the mechanical classification, the source of the wood ( stopping point); - inspection of dimensions (critical point); - inspection of the wood humidity (stopping point); - inspection of the wood by sample or according to delivery form (Critical point); - control of treatment (verification of the certification and possibly control of compliance) (critical point); - strength check (visual or tests) (critical point).

Controls before gluing ( stopping point)

- inspection of the wood humidity (critical point); - verification of adhesive certificate (critical point).

Controls after joining ( stopping point)

- inspection of dimensions (critical point); - test of de-lamination or shearing of the adhesive joint (critical point).

Finishing in workshop ( stopping point)

- inspection of the product (origin, type) and of the means of application (critical point).

Trial assembly in workshop: required ( stopping point)

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- verification of geometrical compatibilities (critical point); - verification (critical point). of fittings (origin, material, chemical and electrochemical compatibility)

During assembly ( stopping point)

- control of installation method ( critical point); - control of sealing installation (critical point); - control of finishing product and the means of application (critical point); - control of installation of secondary elements (critical point).

After assembly

- load test (stopping point); - control of humidity (stopping point).

5.2.3. Execution procedures

The company must communicate the various execution procedures necessary to manufacture of the structure. This, of course, should be specified in the contract.

For the workshop fabrication part:

description of the manufacturing process of the beams in glue-lam , with information on the assembly dimensions, of the tightening pressures, the temperatures of gluing, the tightening times, the type of gluing (single or double face), of the quantity of adhesive used, the preparation of the adhesives; description of the cutting method, with information on the dimensional check; description of drying, with information on humidity control; description of the treatment method, with information on control of penetration depth and of retention requirements; description of the trial assembly .

For the on-site assembly part :

article III.8 of booklet 66 of the CCTG (Book of the General Technical specifications applicable to public contracts) can be made contractual for the wood construction.

5.2.4. - Constructive Provisions

The consultant will insist on the importance of the design details. He will reiterate that the minimum of water must come into contact with wood and that there be efficient drainage of water and ventilation of wood. For this, it is advisable to respect the following principles as well as possible:

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to protect wood by a roof, a protective hood or a boarding; to avoid direct contact with ground or concrete; to avoid exposing directly to the bad weather the end grained timber by protecting it by a protective hood or a boarding; to avoid direct contact of two wood surfaces: metal parts are to be used to space wood and to allow good ventilation; to avoid laying out wood horizontally. If not, to envisage a transverse profile with a slope of 5 % to allow correct evacuation of rain; to envisage overflows and notches to form drip grooves; to avoid water traps, particularly in joints; to prefer assemblies not exposed to bad weather.

Among the other principles of good design, the following points are to be considered : beyond a slenderness ratio (ratio H/b) of the timber structural parts of 5, distortion phenomena are to be taken into account; to envisage abutments (for example in the form of sidewalks) on highway bridges to avoid direct shocks on the structure. Their height is at least 20 cm; not to forget to take into account the phenomena of shrinkage and swelling of wood.

5.2.5. Regulation texts and calculations

The technical clauses of the contract must specify the prevailing regulation texts. For calculations, Eurocode EC5 is applied. It is also advisable to make explicit reference to the various standards concerning the preservation of wood (NF EN 335 - 1 and 2, NF EN 350 - 1 and 2, NF EN 460 in particular), and all the standards specifying the criteria of geometrical acceptance. The list of the standards concerning wood is appended.

5.2.6. - Forces, stresses, justifications

The forces are defined in Eurocode EC1. For timber structure, it is advisable to take into account the effect of a variation of wood humidity. The stresses and the justifications are defined in Eurocode EC5. The company specifies and justifies the design assumptions used for materials according to tests.

5.3. - Source, quality and preparation of materials

5.3.1. Wood material
Types of wood
In general the woods most used are the coniferous types.

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The consultant defines precisely the type of wood or gives an equivalence criterion (durability with respect to fungi, density, hardness, retractability,) according to a precise reference (standards, tropical wood atlas,). For example, the consultant may ask: The Wood for the boarding is larch or Douglas, purged of sapwood, or failing this a wood of natural durability with respect to fungi of class 3-4 or better, according to European standard EN 350-2. The consultant is invited to select the type of wood among those shown in chapter 4.4 Choice of woods.).

Wood humidity
Wood must be used with an average service humidity, which depends on the geographic situation, reduced by at least one point. In any event the average humidity should not exceed 18 %. The consultant shows the maximum humidity of a fraction of the batch from which a batch of wood may be refused. He also indicates who (project manager or external control) checks the wood humidity and based on which sampling. For example, the consultant may ask: The batch is refused so at least 5 % of wood checked has a humidity higher than 20 % or if the average wood humidity is higher than average service humidity plus 2 %. During storage and transport, wood is protected so as to avoid taking up more moisture.

Mechanical classification
The consultant indicates the mechanical classification of the wood, according to standard EN 518 (visual classification) or 519 (mechanical classification). The classifications C18, C24 and C30 may be required for coniferous trees. However the choice of the C30 classification is not recommended because of the high cost . Its use is reserved for large structures. For example, the consultant may ask: The wood for structures is classified mechanically to at least C24. For Douglas the C30 classification is obligatorily realized by machine. This is also for all classifications higher than C30 whatever the wood type. For glue-lam , the choice is limited in practice to GL24 and GL28. The GL32 is not very available in France.

Section of woods and tolerances

For solid wood , the sections are preferably selected among standard sections defined in appendix 6.9. Dimensions are given at 20% humidity. For Glue-lam timber, beyond a slenderness ratio of 5, a justification is included to take account of the distortion phenomena : the beam is for example: either protected by boarding, or stiffened by metal parts. The consultant indicates the recommended tolerances or refers to a standard.

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On this subject, DTU 31.1 (NF P 21-203) wooden structures shows for example tolerances of + or 8 mm on lengths less than 6m, + 0 to 5 mm on transverse dimensions of more than 50 mm. Standard NF EN 1313-1 gives different tolerances: - 2 to +4 mm for transverse dimensions greater than 100 mm and 1 to + 3 mm for transverse dimensions lower than 100 mm.

Adhesive
The adhesive used to produce Glue-lam must have external approval (from the CTBA). The most common adhesives are resorcinol, formalin melamine urea and the polyurethane adhesives. Up to 2005 the strip is certified Acerbois Glulam, to guarantee the manufacturing process. We recommend that the consultant asks that the product be marked EC. For example, the consultant may ask: Glue-lam is marked EC, and the glue used is exclusively resorcinol.

Tropical woods
For tropical woods, the consultant must impose the woods traceability. He may ask that the wood come from a durably-managed forest, i.e. a PEFC certification or equivalent, without requiring however FSC or PAFC certifications, which would be excessive for the reasons detailed at the beginning of the structure in chapter 2.1.1. It is advisable to clearly define the type of wood or the equivalence criteria (density, hardness, retractability,) if the availability of the wood is low.

Chemical interaction with metal

Certain woods and treatments are not compatible with material of certain fittings. With oak and chestnut, only stainless steel and copper are used. With the fir and the spruce treated in class of employment 3, and with the pine treated in class of employment 4, aluminum and zinc are to be avoided. Generally, the company makes sure that there is no incompatibility between the wood and the metal selected or its possible protection, for example by galvanizing. External control acting for the consultant checks these compatibilities. Galvanizing is not very durable in corrosive condition, is avoided to ensure compatibility.

Receiving
The wood is new and rough sawn. The project manager, helped by his external inspector, validates receiving the wood after identification of the type, check of the humidity, and validation of the strength classification, either visually or by mechanical tests. The tests are carried out by survey or in a more systematic way according to the companys internal inspection system. The consultant may insist that for each different wood (various types, and treatments), a sample representing the average section of the batch be taken to carry out analyses: recognition of the type, control of compliance of treatment, mechanical strength tests.

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5.3.2. - Treatments
Requirements, implementation
The consultant defines the type of treatment, the method of application, the penetration depth and the retention requirement. The term treated to the core is to be avoided, because it is an incorrect, not very clear expression. For example, the consultant may ask: The flooring wood is maritime pine treated in accordance with NF B 50-105-3, in autoclave, R4P8, with a product certified CTB P+ containing metal salts in conformity with the requirements envisaged with respect to health and the environment.

Certificates, attestations
The consultant asks for a treatment attestation, in compliance with the model shown in standard NF B 50-105-3. Samples are taken by the contractor in additional woods envisaged to this end, according to the sampling standard EN 351-2. External control must be able to check the compliance of the treatment (penetration and retention). The consultant may ask that the wood be certified CTB B+, which ensures a certain quality of production. The seal CTB P+ guarantees the effectiveness of the product according to proportion for a given class of employment.

Finish
The consultant may require that wood be with or without a finish. Two layers of protective coating, or another type of protection or finishing product, applied in the workshop are recommended, even if the wood might become gray. The nature of the finish (protective coating, painting, etc) is indicated. The number of impregnating coats to be applied before installation, preferably in the workshop, and the number of finishing coats (after installation) are to be specified. Lastly, the finish must obligatorily be pigmented, of average color preferably (medium brown ). For the choice of the initial color, it is necessary to remember that stained wood has a natural tendency to darken. For example, the request may be: The boarding is covered with a protective coating containing insecticides and fungicides. Two layers of pigmented protective coating, of medium color, are applied in the workshop before installation, and a layer of pigmented protective coating of medium color is applied after installation. DTU 59-1 (NF P 74-201-1) concerning painting of buildings specifies the conditions of use.

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5.4. Execution of the work

5.4.1. - Execution and assembly of the wooden structure
Article III.8 concerning the assembly of manual 66 of the CCTG execution of civil engineering structures with steel frameworks can be made contractual for the assembly of timber structures. The whole of manual 66 can be made contractual for the execution of metal structures. The technical clauses of the contract must specify the reference standards concerning manufacture and dimensional tolerances (NF EN 386,387,390 for Glue-lam for example). It should be remembered that follow-up controls to be implemented by the company, whose detail was dealt with previously, must be specified by the technical clauses of the contract.

5.4.2. - Tests of the structure

The tests of the structures regulatorily defined in manual 61 title II are obsolete. It is desirable to refer to the recent Stra guide of March 2004: Footbridges : loading tests of road bridges and footbridges (appendix 6.11/32). The clauses extracted from this guide, which are relevant to the structure, must then be made contractual. If the frames are light, particular attention should be given to the detection of possible upheavals of supports. Cases of transversely dissymmetrical of load tests are also to be envisaged on footbridges.

5.4.3. - Internal control

Internal control must provide Execution follow-up documents to the project manager and to external control at the end of each critical point. A delivery date for these follow-up documents is to be fixed. A workshop and building site journal is kept, in which atmospheric conditions and particularly assembly incidents are noted.

5.4.4. - External control

The exercise of external control, carried out on behalf of the building owner and in connection with the project manager, is not a substitute for internal control or external control specific to the company. External control examines the follow-up documents of the internal control and spot checking the operations listed with the PAQ in the critical points and stopping points. For the stopping points, a time of notice and a deadline for reply are specified in the contract with the CCAP (Book of General Administrative Clauses).

5.5. - The unit and contract price schedule (CPS)

For the parts of wood structures, the CPS must be written by pointing out the principal characteristics of the material and the part of the structure. Below are some examples of the writing of the CPS to adapt according to the cases (the elements to be modified are in bold). Certain prices can be repeated several times, according to the type of wood selected for example.

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The price schedule concerns the major execution contract. External control is thus not evoked since it is not remunerated within the framework of this contract. As for the companys internal control, it is specific to the companys PAQ and is generally not paid for apart from in Civil Engineering: the price of each service thus includes then in this case the remuneration of the corresponding internal controls. However, internal control may also be the object, in the price schedule, of a price specific to that fixed price that pays for supply of a PAQ and the whole of the services that result from this (dimensional checks, humidity checks etc). This second organization is preferable for wooden structure contracts, and it makes it possible for example to remunerate special tests described by the technical clauses of the contract on control elements. In both cases, the minimum consistency of the PAQ is described in the technical clauses of the contract, and the CCAP specifies the method of remuneration of the internal control.

5.5.1. - Price of framework

This price pays for supply to site (delivery to the site included, installation excluded) of glued-laminated wood in spruce of class GL28 of section ranging between 200 x 400 mm and 200 x 900 mm. The price also remunerates cuttings, preservation treatments defined by the technical clauses of the contract, the setting of hydrous conditions (average service humidity minus one point), the whole of the machining operations, the final assemblies put together in the workshop. The price is paid for in installments: 20% at receipt of wood, 50% at the end of the operations in the workshop, 30% at delivery. The volume of wood paid for is that obtained after all initial cuttings.

The cubic meter of wood (after cutting and machining):

5.5.2. - Price of boarding

This price pays for supply and putting up of vertical shingles in Douglas purged of sapwood, of a section 18 X 120 mm, of choice * 2 according to NF EN 1611-1, including all connected constraints (supply and putting up of lathing and counter-lathing into Douglas purged of sapwood). the choice represents a classification of appearance (presence of knots, etc). In the case of nonstructural elements, this classification is to be favored because it better ensures aesthetic homogeneity better.
*:

The square meter of boarding:

5.5.3. - Price of pedestrian flooring

This price pays for the supply and laying of the flooring and tie bars in bilinga purged of sapwood, thickness 75 mm and mechanical classification D50, including the execution of the grooving filled with corundum, as well as all cutting constraints. The square meter of flooring (including spaces between the blades).

5.5.4. - Price of on-site assembly

This price remunerates that fixed for the whole of the operations necessary for the on-site assembly of the wooden structure defined in price 5.5.1. It includes the assembly studies, the studies and the execution of temporary structures, the assembly devices, handling and adjustment equipment, propping up, provisional

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wind-bracing and putting away of the assembling devices. All the assembly devices are approved by a control body recognized by the companys insurance company. The fixed price.

5.5.5. - Steel Price for assemblies

This price pays for the supply and installation of all the metal connection parts : kg of steel S355 K2G3 (NF EN 10025); kg of stainless steel X2CrNiMo 17-12-2 (NF EN 10088-1); kg of austenitic stainless steel A4-70 for screws etc.

5.5.6. - Price of protective coating

This price pays for the supply and the application of protective coating whose characteristics are defined in the technical clauses of the contract: the m2 applied in the workshop; the m2 applied on the building site.

5.5.7. - Price of tests

This price pays for the previous examination of the structure, the assumption and calculation notes, the development of the testing program , the supply, the carrying out and the setting of the testing loads , in compliance with the information defined in the technical clauses of the contract: the fixed price.

5.6. - Follow-up of the structure

A wise building owner maintains his structure. He can ask the company in the contract, the CCAP, to have taken out a ten-year responsibility assurance. The coordinator of safety and health protection (SPS) establishes the Bulletin of Later Interventions on Structures (DIUO) under the responsibility of the building owner who overlooks it directly. This file gathers all the technical plans and notes likely to facilitate the later intervention on the structure (Law n93-1418 Art L.235-15, Decree n94-1159 Art R.238-37 to 39). In the case of a timber bridge the DIUO must envisage: to clean periodically certain parts of the structure to avoid contact of the wood with wet bodies; to follow the condition of protective coatings; to follow the condition of the boarding; to carry out maintenance , defined from the design stage, which may include painting/protective coating of the boarding for example.

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To ensure correct follow-up of the structure, detailed inspections should be carried out regularly, particularly in the first years. The origins of damage are indeed generally quickly identifiable. There are Visits similar to IQOA visits every 3 years, and detailed inspections every 6 years. During a detailed inspection of the structure, the following points are examined with particular care: check of wood humidity at several points; statement of slits and cracks; consistency and humidity of wood in slits; condition of the finish (if there is one); general condition wood of structure, of protection; condition of fixings; condition of flooring; presence of stains.

The inspection report ends on the overall condition of the structure and proposes a schedule for the maintenance operations. In the event of proven damage, the project manager should recommend if necessary filling of the slits by suitable resins, or the taking of a sample for analysis of the residual proportion of treatments and to precisely determine the attackers. This makes it possible to proceed with a suitable treatment.

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5.7. - Summary: who does what?

This table recapitulates for each stage which interlocutor is concerned. These very diagrammatic recommendations are purely indicative.

BUILDING OWNER

PROJECT MANAGER

COMPANY Engages its responsability in the contract and with its PAQ

EXTERNAL CONTROL

Definition of the building program

Decides the orientations

Impose in the contract

Definition of the classes of employment, woods, treatments by part of structure

On a proposal from the Project manager, he decides on the woods or treatments authorized and prohibited

Imposes in the technical clauses of the contract

Notes the requirements in the plans of execution

The engineering and design department (BE) checks the plans

Certification of the products Technical references

Imposes qualities and checks

Provided his references at time of candidature. Provides certifications at time of bid. Provides, with if necessary the help of a specialized engineering and design department

The laboratory possibly gives an opinion

Calculation note (with assumptions) note on durability, plans and procedures, note on the shrinking of wood

Visa

The engineering and design department controls

PAQ

Controls himself and accepts

Writes

engineering/design department and laboratory give their opinion to the project manager engineering/design department and Laboratory. control

Definition of the critical points and the stopping points

Imposes in technical clauses of the contract

Note in PAQ proposes

Receipt of wood Treatment of wood Shop fabrication Trial Assembly Assembly on site

Final receipt

Removes stopping points

Internal control

Examines the documents of internal follow-up, spot checking, delivers an opinion on the removal of the stopping points.

Table 15: indicative roles of interlocutor External control generally consists of an engineering and design department specialized in bridges and wood, and of a laboratory of control. The external control agents act on behalf of the Building Owner who remunerates them directly.

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6. - APPENDICES
6.1. - Lexicon
Sapwood Spraying Autoclave White-washing Boarding/siding/cladding Batten Commercially dry wood End wood Perfect wood Green wood Spray Cambium CCA CCB CCF Ring Lignicolous fungi Lignivorous fungi Strip Class of employment Classification of structure Protective hood Creosote CTBA Natural durability Heartwood Functional part of the wood which ensures the conduction of the crude sap, corresponding to the external rings most recently formed Process of treatment by spraying of a product In-depth treatment of wood in a hermetic enclosure under pressure by saturation of the wood cells by a chemical preservative. Surface treatment of wood by brush application Metal or wood protection around an element Rectangular sizes ranging between 55mm x 155mm and 65mm x 185mm (e.g batten of 63x175) Wood whose moisture is lower than 22 %
End section of a wood element

Whole of cells of wood entirely lignified. Wood whose moisture is higher than that of the saturation point of fibers Saturation of the air in fine water drops Combination of undifferentiated cells, which generate wood or inner bark Acronym of Chromium Copper Arsenic: chemical preservation wood treatment product containing metal salts, based on chromium, copper and arsenic Acronym Chromium Copper Boron: chemical preservation wood treatment product containing metal salts, based on chromium, copper and boron Acronym Chromium Copper Fluorine: chemical preservation wood treatment product containing metal salts based on chromium, copper and fluorine Increase in quantity of wood in one year Fungi that nourish themselves on wood reserves, contained in sapwood. Fungi at the origin of rot which nourish themselves on wood components. Rectangular sawing (almost square) with dimensions ranging between 40mm and 120mm Biological risks of same seriousness corresponding to a field of employment of wood. Classification of woods according to their mechanical properties. Fine metal part of wood protection Preservative product resulting from the distillation of coal Acronym of Technical Center of Wood and Furnishing Aptitude of a wood to resist attackers naturally. Perfect wood which underwent a duraminisation.

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Duraminisation Free water Combined water Type (of wood) Leafy trees Fungicide Drip groove Graying

Mineral and metallic salt deposits in the cells ensuring a natural antiseptic protection of wood Water circulating freely inside wood, when the wood moisture exceeds the point of saturation of fibers Water trapped between the cellulose chains, whose variation of quantity is at the origin of the phenomena of shrinkage and swelling of wood. Ensemble of trees having the same ligneous plan, i.e. of the same anatomical structure Tree of the angiosperm family, like the oak, the beech, the majority of the tropical woods Quality of a substance to kill fungi Device allowing the concentration and drainage of water Gray coloring of wood due to damage to surface lignin of wood by UV.

High temperature (treatment) Treatment consisting of heating wood between 180 and 250C for a few hours in order to improve its durability. Wood humidity/ moisture Impregnability Impregnable Harmful insects Insecticide Glue-lam Lamellist Protective coating Lignification Batten Liber Plank Orthotropism Paint Penetration (requirement) Penetration (depth) Photosynthesis Plank Saturation point of fibers Ratio of the mass of water contained in wood to dry mass of wood. Capacity of wood to be penetrated by a liquid (see standard EN 350-2). Said of an easily impregnable wood, which corresponds to the class of impregnability 1. Xylophagous insects or with xylophagous larvae (termites, Capricorn beetles, lyctus, borers) Quality of a substance to kill insects Large-sized beams made from joined and glued boards Manufacturer of Glue-lam . Finishing product , transparent, pigmented or not, which limits hygroscopic exchanges and can contain fungicide and insecticide agents Sealing off the wood cells by lignin, chemical compound exclusive to wood Rectangular size ranging between 18mm x 35mm and 40mm x 40mm Functional part of the tree, located between the outer bark and the cambium, ensuring the circulation of the elaborate sap. Rectangular section of size ranging between 75mm x 205mm and 105mm x 225mm (e.g. plank of 75x225) Property of a material to have different physical and mechanical characteristics in three perpendicular plans. Finishing product, pigmented, which forms a tight film on the surface, not recommended for exterior wood, except micro-porous paints. Minimal penetration depth to obtain to satisfy a class of employment Depth to which the preservative penetrated Process fed by solar energy allowing the crude sap to transform itself into elaborate sap Rectangular sawn section whose ratio of sides is at least 4, and the thickness is higher than 22mm Wood moisture in lower part of which the free water was completely evacuated and which marks the

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beginning of the shrinkage of wood. Rot Modification of the chemical composition of wood resulting from the action of fungi and involving an important loss of the mechanical properties of wood Ensemble of chemical processes aimed at improving resistance of wood to deterioration by biological agents Ensemble of the actions of design and preservation aimed at preserving the wood healthy for a given employment Trees of the gymnosperm family, containing conifers like fir , spruce, larch, the pines, the Douglas. Said of a type of wood that is little or not at all impregnatable, which corresponds to the classes of impregnability 2,3 and 4 Minimum quantity of product to be found in a volume defined to satisfy the conditions of the class of employment considered. Dimensional variations of wood due to a modification of the hygroscopic conditions of the ambient air which involves a variation of the quantity of combined water in the wood Ensemble of water and mineral salts that the tree draws from the ground Sugars obtained after photosynthesis of the crude sap intended for the growth and the breathing of the tree Molluscs (like the ship worm) or shellfish (of which the limnoria) which destroy wood Relationship between the width of final wood (wood of summer) and the width of the growth ring . Familiar expression to define a wood treated in an autoclave Complete immersion of wood in a vat filled with preservative for at least 3 minutes. Film-forming, transparent finishing product, not for exterior use Minimum concentration of preservative required to be effective in relation to a given class of employment

Chemical preservation

Protection Coniferous tree Refractory Retention (requirement) Shrinkage/Swelling Crude sap Elaborate sap Marine borers Texture Treated to the core
Short immersion

Varnish Critical value

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6.2. - Classification procedure of the authorized substances

Biocides Directive N98/8 of February 16 1998 Completed by Regulation 1896/2000 of 07/09/00
The notification dossier of January 2002 contains a simplified study of risk to health and environment

List of substances existing * on the market (community inventory)

Cf regulation 1896/2000. inventory done by the member States and producers of substances, accompanied by an administrative dossier.

List of substances to notify proposed by the producers of substances

List of substances to notify proposed by member States The existing substances not notified should be taken off market in 2006

Compounds of CCA, CCB, CCF and creosote

List of substances notified proposed to European commission, with view to registration on list of authorized substances

Notification accepted: The producers submit a complete evaluation dossier of the health and environment risks to the Commission.

Notification rejected: The substances concerned are taken off the market in: 2006

The list of existing substances, notified is shown in a regulation (September 2003

March 2004

EC Statute

March 2005

ACCEPTANCE of dossiers / substances The substances concerned will be registered on the list of substances authorized, as Appendix to the Biocides Directive. Appendix IA: low-risk substances Appendix IB: basic substances

Authorization valid to 2015

Rejection of dossiers: The substances concerned are taken off the market in: 2006

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6.3. - European and French Regulations: health, environment and biocides directive
Topic Text Key idea

Directive 67/548/the EEC of the 27/06/1967 Provides the list of carcinogenic and mutagenic substances. MOD. (bringing together of the provisions relating to classification, the packing and the Any substance appearing in the appendix of this present directive cannot be labeling of dangerous substances). prevailed upon to appear in appendix 1A of the biocides directive (substances authorized for employment) Directive 76/769/the EEC modified Appendix 1: list of carcinogenic and/or mutagenic substances (*) such as (appendix 1) relating to the elimination of the (chromium trioxides, arsenic pentoxide, composed of CCA; coal tars, oils of marketing and the use of dangerous creosote, benzo (a) pyrene (*)) substances MOD. By directive 94/60/EC for the creosote, distillates of tar and similar, and preparations with Benzo-a-pyrene or phenols. (restriction of use of PCP, except for countries on the ocean) Since January .2003: prohibition of use of arsenic in the treatment of wood as from June 30, 2004 /risks (except for bridges and engineering structures). Directive EC n89/677 of the 21/12/1989, The mercury compounds are prohibited for the protection treatments for MOD. the directive n76/769 relating to the wood. Restrictions of use of compounds of arsenic elimination of the marketing and the use of dangerous substances Decree n92-1074 of October 2 1992 Prohibition of marketing (sale, free transfer), of use of wood protection relating to the marketing, the use and the products containing mercury or arsenic. Except: elimination of certain dangerous substances and preparations ICPE which uses vacuum processes or impregnation of the CCA Treatments of wood and products dangerous Directive 93/67/the EEC establishing the (Evaluation of incomplete risks/ Biocide Directive since does not take the risks principles of evaluation of the risks to related to the non-professional users and the general public) humans and the environment of the substances notified in accordance with directive 67/548/the EEC Regulation EC n 793/93 of the 23/03/1993 Enact the parameters to be studied for the potentially toxic products concerning the evaluation and the control of (evaluation of the risks to health, the environment) risks from the existing substances (biocides) Regulation EC n 1488/94 of the principle of evaluation of the risks to humans and the environment from the 28/06/1994 establishing the principle of existing substances evaluation of the risks for humans and the environment from existing substances in accordance with Regulation EC n 793/93 Decree of the 07/08/1997 of the ministry List prohibited substances (distillates of tar, creosotes, benzene) for health (MOD. in 98)

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Directive EEC 98/8 of the 16/02/1998 known as Directive of Biocides (concerning the marketing of biocide products )

2 letters of warning and notice were addressed by the EC to France in particular, for defect of transposition in the French law (14/05/00 and 19/02/01)

Development of positive lists (appendix IA and IB) of allowed products (according to ERS evaluation of health risks, VTR) over a 10 year period as from the date of adoption in the Member States. (products of protection of wood = biocides of group 2, type 8) Currently, a list of 84 active substances would be authorized until 2006 (see European draft Regulation September 2003) Appendix 1A: list of the active substances in biocides at low risk Appendix 1b: list of the basic substances

Regulation EC n 1896-2000 of the 07/09/2000 concerning the 1st phase of the program aimed at art 16 par. 2 of the Directive of Biocides

Law n 2001-1 of the 03/01/01 concerning the enabling of the government to transpose the Directives by Order (of which the Directive of biocides).
up to publication of the community list of the substances put on the market on May 14 2000, the proof of the presence of an active substance on the market at this date may be brought by any means.Delay of decree of application so that transposition of the Directive be effective (following definition of national structures that will evaluate the dossiers : AFSSE ?

Ruling n2001-321 of the 11/04/2001 for transposition and implementation of certain provisions of the Community legislation in the field of the environment (art 5 and 12 of Regulation EC n 1896-20) Treatments of wood and products dangerous Directive 1999/45/EC (bringing together of the legislative, administrative and regulation provisions of the Member States/classification, packing and labeling of the dangerous substances

Definitions dangerous substances, effects on health or environment and Criteria of classification Denomination of the substances in generic families (compounds of boron, copper, arsenic, fluorine, chromium)

Directive 1999/51/EC of 26/05/1999

Prohibition of the use of the PCP because toxic and eco-toxic

(/Decree 94-647 of 27/07/1994 relating to Exemption until 2008 for: the limitation of the marketing and the use of the PCP (pentachlorophenol), cadmium and Industrial facilities/ preservation of wood, outside and if covered with varnish. their compounds

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Directive EEC n 2001/59 of 06/08/2001 bearing on the 28th adaptation of technical progress of directive 67/548 of the Council. Directive 2001/90/EC. of 26/10/1990 Creosote is prohibited as treatment, in the play-grounds, parks, gardens, relating to appendix 1 of directive 76/769 open-air recreational areas, urban furniture because of the risk related to a cutaneous contact. Notice of the CSHF of June 13, 2000 Recommendation of limitation of the use of wood treated with CCA

Treatments of wood and products dangerous

Regulation EC n 1687/2002 of the 25/09/2002 foreseeing additional time to art. `of regulation n1896/2000 for the notification of certain active substances intended to be used in the biocide products , which are already on the market; Directive 2003/2/EC of January 6, 2003 on The use of CCA for the treatment of wood has health risks (children and playthe prohibition of the marketing and the use grounds). Prohibition of the use of arsenic in the treatment of wood as from of some compounds of arsenic June 30, 2004/risks (completes appendix 1 of Dir. 76/769) by exemption, CCA may be used for the timber bridges and structures () under certain conditions including professional and industrial usage and stabilized wood (point 20 of appendix 1 of dir 76/769 MOD.) Regulation EC n304/2003 of the 28/01/03 concerning export and import of dangerous chemicals Notice of the European Parliament of the To prohibit the marketing of substances classified carcinogenic, mutagenic or 27/03/2003 on the proposal for a Directive toxic for reproduction (CMR). The commission must draw up the list of the 76/7769/the EEC products in order to complete appendix 1 of Directive 76/769 (items 29,30 and 31). Notice of the CSHPF (project September Additional restrictions for the use of CCA in France 2003) European regulation concerning the 2nd Provide the list phase of the program of the Biocides Directive substances on the market at May 14, 2003 (project September 2003)

substances to withdraw from market in 2006 notified substances which will be evaluated for registration in appendix 1 of the directive of biocides (substances authorized by 10 year periods)

Risks and Environment

Law n76-663 of July 19, 1976 relating to facilities classified for environmental protection Law n 95-101 of February 2, 1995 known as the Barnier law relating to the reinforcement of environmental protection

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6.4. - Principal products used for wood preservation in France, and regulations
1976 1989 1992 1994 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2003 2004 2005 2006 2006 to 2015

Mercury

Dir. 89/677 of the 21/12/89 The compounds of mercury are prohibited Decree 92/1074 Prohibition mercury

European regulation

French regulation
of

Dir. 76/769 Appendix I Carcinogenic substances: Trioxides of chromium, arsenic Pentoxide (not for sale to general public

Dir. 89/677 of 21/12/89 Restrictions use compounds arsenic

the of of of

Biocides Directive 98/8 of the 16/02/1998 (see II.1.3.C)

Directive 2003/2 of the 06/01/2003 Medical CCA = risks. Prohibition of use as of the 30/06/2004 (exemptions for bridges and O.A.)

CCA
Decree 92/1074 Restrictions for arsenic (exemptions/C CA under controlled conditions Notice of the CSHF of the 13/06/2000 Limitation of the use of wood treated with CCA

Notice of the Parliament of the 27/03/2003 Prohibition of the marketing of carcinogenic or mutagenic substances (supplements appendix I to dir it. 76/769)

Regulation to dir.

EC Biocides

in project Sept. 2003

Notified substances: - Diarsenic pentaoxyde - Trioxyde of chromium plate

File of risks evaluated by the Commission between March 2004 and March 2005 Accepted file: authorization for 10 years If not, withdrawal of the market in 2006

Notice of the CSHPF with request for additional restrictions of use for France (09/2003) Payment
Opinion of Parliament of 27/03/2003

CCB

Biocides Directive 98/8 of the 16/02/1998 (see II.1.3.C)

EC

dir. biocides the to the in project Sept. 2003 Notified substance: boron trioxyde

File of risks evaluated by the Commission between March 2004 and March 2005 File of risks evaluated by the Commission between March 2004 and March 2005

Accepted file: authorization for 10 years If not, withdrawal of market in 2006

CCF

Directive of Biocides 98/8 of the 16/02/1998 (see II.1.3.C)

Dir. 76/769 Appendix I Carcinogenic substances: Phenols (dioxanes)

Opinion of Parliament of 27/03/2003

the dir. biocides the to in project Sept. 2003

Payment

EC

Notified substance: sulfuryl difluoride

Accepted file: authorization for 10 years If not, withdrawal of the market in 2006

Directive ofBiocides 98/8 of the 16/02/1998 (see II.1.3.C)

Directive 99/51 of the 26/05/99 (cf decree 94/647/limitation and condition of use

Opinion of Parliament of 27/03/2003

the Payment EC the to dir. biocides in project Sept. 2003

NOT notified substance PCP and Boron

PCP

Decree 94/647 Prohibition of use of the PCP (toxicityecotoxicity) Exemption until 2008 for industrialists of the preservation of wood, use in outside with varnish Dir. 76/769 Appendix I Carcinogenic substances: Coal tars, creosotes, benzo (A) pyrene (dioxanes)

Withdra wal of the market in 2006

Creosote

Directive ofBiocides 98/8 of the 16/02/1998 (see II.1.3.C)

Dir. 2001/90 of the 26/10/2001 Prohibition of use of wood in playgrounds, parks, gardens, urban furniture/cutaneous contact)

Opinion of Parliament of 27/03/2003

the Payment EC the to dir. biocides in project Sept. 2003

Notified substance: creosote

File of risks evaluated by the Commission between March 2004 and March 2005

Accepted file: authorization for 10 years If not, withdrawal of the market in 2006

Decree of the 07/08/97 of the ministry for Health Limitations of use of tar distillates, creosotes, benzene

6.5. Waste classification procedure

Waste classification serves to indicate the waste so that the various partners concerned with the production and the elimination of waste speak the same language within the European Community. It results in a single list grouping together dangerous and non-dangerous waste (it comes from Commission decision n 2000/532/EC of May 3 2000 which brought together in a single list the old European catalogue of waste and the list of dangerous waste.). The classification of waste is not exhaustive but evolutionary. This chapter thus presents the architecture of the classification, which will guide the building owner in time, with a view to checking if the wood waste at his disposal was the subject of an evolution in terms of nomenclature because of their dangerousness. Decree n 2002-540 of April 18, 2002 integrates this classification in French law. This decree draws up a single list of dangerous and non-dangerous waste in compliance with the European decision and preserves the concept of Special Industrial Waste (DIS), registered in addition in the code of the environment. The concept of DIS is a Franco-French idea and does not appear in the Community list of waste. This concept has the role to ensure a continuity of the texts. In effect, the code of the environment and certain national texts refer to this, such as the texts relating to the planning of waste management ( regional plans for special industrial waste disposal, to the generalized tax on polluting activities (TGAP) etc DIS is defined in article 2 of the decree as being dangerous waste others that municipal packing waste mentioned in section 15 01 (packing and packing waste (including municipal packing waste) separately collected and municipal waste mentioned in chapter 20 of the list.

Structure of the classification of waste

Categories Of origin (chapter): 20

Intermediate regrouping (sections): 111 Headings of waste (of which 404 classed as dangerous) (waste code) 839

The coding of waste is organized by category of origin, intermediate regrouping of waste and designations of waste.

There are 20 categories of origin and they are indicated by a 2-digit code. They correspond to the source of waste by identifying :

148

n A sector of activity
Ex: code 17 Construction and demolition waste (including rubbish from contaminated sites) A process which produced waste Ex: code 03 Waste coming from the transformation of wood, production of paper, cardboard, pulp and paper, panels and furniture The waste produced by the households Ex: code 20 municipal Waste (domestic waste and similar waste coming from businesses , industries and the administration), including that collected separately
Chapters 03; 17 and 20 are the three categories of origin in which treated waste wood may be found.

o
The sections or categories of waste identified by their nature total 111 and are indicated by a 4digit code . E.g.: the section 17 02 Wood glass and plastic
Treated wood waste may be grouped together in the three following sections: 03 02 Waste of wood protection products 17 02 Waste wood, glass or plastic 20 01 Collected separately (except section 15 01)

The complete designation of waste. There exist more than 600 designations of waste. Waste is identified by a code with 6 digits, of which the first two are those of the category of origin and the following two those of the intermediate regrouping to which the waste considered belongs.

149

Treated wood waste may thus cover the complete denominations below:
03 Waste coming from the transformation of wood, the production of paper, cardboard, paper pulp, panels and furniture 03 02 Waste of wood protection products 03 02 01 * - non-halogen organic compound wood protection ; 03 02 02 * - organo-chloric compound wood protection ; 03 02 03 * - organo-metallic compound wood protection; 03 02 04 * - inorganic compounds of wood protection. 03 02 05 * - other protection products of wood containing dangerous substances 03 02 99 - protection products of wood not specified elsewhere

17 Construction and demolition waste (including rubbish from contaminated sites)

17 02 Wood, glass or plastic waste 17 02 01 - wood 17 02 04 * - wood, glass, and plastic material containing dangerous substances or contaminated by such substances 20 Municipal waste (domestic waste and similar waste coming from the businesses, industries and the administration), including the separately collected parts 20 01 Separately collected parts (except section 15 01) 20 01 37 * - wood containing dangerous substances 20 01 38 - wood other than that under heading 20 01 37

150

6.6. - Dangerous Waste

Components which make waste dangerous
Appendix II of directive 91/689/the EEC

Inorganic compounds
Beryllium and its compounds Compounds of vanadium Compounds of hexavalent chromium (current wood/CCA) Compounds of cobalt Compounds of nickel Compounds of copper (CCA) Compounds of zinc The arsenic and compounds of arsenic (CCA) Selenium and compounds of selenium Compounds of silver Cadmium and compounds (Recent wood - before 1994) Compounds of tin Antimony and compounds of antimony Tellurium and compounds of tellurium Compounds of barium (except barium sulfate ) Mrcury and compounds of mercury ( recent wood) Thallium and compounds of thallium Lead and compounds of lead (old to recent wood, painted) Inorganic sulfides Inorganic fluorine compounds (except calcium fluoride) (CCF) Inorganic cyanides Metals: lithium, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium Acid solutions or acids in solid form Basic solutions or bases in solid form Asbestos (dust and fibers) phosphorus and its compounds (except mineral phosphates) Carbonyl metals Peroxides Chlorates Perchlorates Azides

Organic compounds
The PCBs (polychlorobiphenyls) The PCTs (polychlorotriphenyls) Pharmaceutical or veterinary compounds Biocides and Phytopharmaceutical substances Infectious substances The creosotes (old and current wood) Phenoles isocyanates and compounds Halogenous solvents Organic solvents Halogen compounds (except inert polymers) Aromatic compounds Polycyclic and heterocyclic organic compounds Aliphatic amines Aromatic amines Ethers Substances of explosive character Organic compounds of sulfur The PCDFs (family of polychloride dibenzofuranes) (recent wood/PCP) The PCDDs (family of the dibenzo polychloride para-dioxines) ( recent wood/PCP)) Hydrocarbons and their oxygenated, nitrogenized and/or sulphurized compounds not specifically mentioned again in the appendix

151

Properties that make waste dangerous

(Extract from Appendix 1 decree 18/04/2002)

of treated wood.

These properties are those that were retained for the classification of dangerous waste, and potentially for the classification

H 3-A Easily inflammable: substances and preparations:

- which, in the solid state, can ignite easily by the short action of an ignition source and which continue to burn or to be consumed after removal of the ignition source, or - which, in contact with water or humid air, produce easily inflammable gases in dangerous quantities.

H 3-B Inflammable: liquid substances and preparations, whose flash point is equal to or higher than 21 C and less than or
equal to 55 C.

H 4 Irritants: non-corrosive substances and preparations that, by immediate, prolonged or repeated contact with the skin
and the mucous membrane, may cause an inflammatory reaction.

H 5 Harmful: substances and preparations which, by inhalation, ingestion or cutaneous penetration, can involve risks of limited seriousness. H 6 Poisonous: substances and preparations (including very toxic substances and preparations) which, by inhalation, ingestion or cutaneous penetration, can result in serious, acute or chronic risks, even death. H 7 Carcinogenic: substances and preparations which, by inhalation, ingestion or cutaneous penetration, can produce
cancer or increase predisposition to it.

H 8 Corrosive: substances and preparations which, in contact with living tissue, can exert a destructive action on it. H 9 Infectious: matter containing viable micro-organisms or their toxins, that are known to or with good reason are believed to be known to cause disease in humans or other living organisms. H 10 Poison to reproduction : substances and preparations which, by inhalation, ingestion or cutaneous penetration, can produce or increase the frequency of undesirable non-hereditary effects in offspring or adversely affect reproductive functions. H 11 Mutagenic : substances and preparations which, by inhalation, ingestion or cutaneous penetration, can produce, or
increase predisposition to, hereditary genetic defects.

H 12 Substances and preparations that, in contact with water, air or acid, emit a toxic or very toxic gas. H 13 Substances and preparations likely to, after elimination, form, by some means, another substance, for example a
product of leaching, that has one of the characteristics mentioned above.

H 14 Eco-toxic : substances and preparations that present or can present immediate or deferred risks to one or more parts of the environment.

152

The concentration calculation values and thresholds refer to those fixed by the decree of February 21 1990 (OJ of March 24, 1990) defining the classification criteria and labeling and packaging conditions of dangerous preparations (appendix 1) Article 3 of decree 2002-540 of April 18, 2002 gives the following concentrations for the definition of dangerous waste: With regard to the properties H 3 to H 8, H 10 and H 11, considered as dangerous are those wastes showing one or several of the following characteristics:
- a flash point of 55 C maximum; - they contain one or more substances classified as very toxic with a minimum total concentration of 0,1 %; - they contain one or more substances classified as toxic with a minimum total concentration of 3%; - they contain one or more substances classified as harmful with a minimum total concentration of 25%; - they contain one or more corrosive substances of class R 35 with a minimum total concentration of 1%; - they contain one or more corrosive substances of class R 34 with a minimum total concentration of 5%; - they contain one or more irritating substances of the class R 41 with a minimum total concentration of 10%; - they contain one or more irritating substances of the classes R 36, R 37, R 38 with a minimum total concentration of 20%; - they contain a substance recognized as being carcinogenic , of categories 1 or 2, with a minimum concentration of 0,1%; - they contain a substance recognized as being carcinogenic, of category 3, with a minimum concentration of 1%; - they contain a substance toxic to reproduction, of categories 1 or 2, of classes R 60, R 61 with a minimum concentration of 0,5%; - they contain a substance toxic to reproduction, of category 3, of the classes R 62, R 63 with a minimum concentration of 5%; - they contain a mutagenic substance, categories 1 or 2, class R 46 with a minimum concentration of 0,1%; - they contain a mutagenic substance of category 3 of class R 40 with a minimum concentration of 1%. ()

153

6.7. - How to fill in an industrial waste follow-up form (BSDI)

The information on the BSDI commits the producer and must thus be filled in by a competent person. 1. Indicate the producers precise details. If the bill-to-address is different, this is to be specified. 2. The code nomenclature is the 6-digit code of decree n 2002-540 of April 18, 2002. (ignore letters C and A which refers to the old nomenclature code). 3. The part under the RTMD on the follow-up form concerns the identification of waste as dangerous for transport. Since RTMD is no longer in force, the terms classified matter and group number are obsolete. In order to be in conformity with the ADR, it is advised: In the box classified matter, indicate the identification (or UNO number) as well as the exact designation for transport ( exact wording of the heading n.s.a for example) In the box group number, indicate the class, the number and letter of the listing followed by initials ADR. If waste is not considered as dangerous matter for transport, it is then advised to indicate Not subjected to the ADR).

154

If there is a shipment of conditioned waste, it is necessary to specify the number and the description of all the parcels including the identification of the products. An appendix is then often necessary. 4. Designation of waste is the usual name of the waste, as easily listed by its producer. 5. The number of the preliminary certificate of acceptance (CAP) is obligatory. It allows association of the waste concerned with a disposal path. This certificate is issued by the waste treatment responsible for disposal of it. 6. Indicate the wastes final destination. Specify the final disposal method : physicochemical treatment. storage center, incineration,

7. A signature is mandatory. Its absence means non-conformity on arrival. If the case arises, this signature serves also as a declaration of the producer to the ADR (commitment to respect the regulation on the transport of dangerous matter).

155

6.8. - Regulation relating to waste

Text
Law of n75-633 of July 15, 1975 relating to waste disposal and the recovery of materials Decree n77-974 of 19 August 1977 relating to information required about waste pollution Decree of January 4 1985 relating to control of polluting waste disposal systems (complement to the decree n77-794 of August 19, 1977) Decree of February 21 1990 defining the classification criteria and the conditions of labeling and packing of the dangerous preparations Directive n 91/689/ EEC of the council relating to dangerous waste (list drawn up by Decision 94/904/EC of the Council 22/12/94)

Key idea
Law blueprint for waste: definitions, environmental risks and waste management bases. BSDI Classification criteria of dangerous waste

The wood waste treated by reagents made up of Copper, Chromium and Arsenic classified as dangerous waste whose disposal must satisfy the requirements of this directive. Does not include impregnated wood coming from construction and demolition activities. Directive of May 3, 2000 Establish the waste list procedure Law n 92-646 of July 13, 1992 relating to waste disposal and to the Installation of departmental plans for household and similar waste disposal and regional plans for special or toxic) waste see decrees n 96-1008 and facilities classified for environmental protection 96-1009 of November 18, 1996 Decree of 20 April 1994 relating to the declaration, classification, Criteria of classification of dangerous waste packing and labeling of substances Circular DPPR/SRPD n 97-0807 of June 27, 1997 relating to the regional disposal plans of DIS Circular of April 28, 1998 relating to waste management , departmental Reinforcement of the objectives of development of matter plans and reinforcement of the objectives of development of matter Directive 1999/31/EC of the council of April 26, 1999 on waste Text of reference for operation of storage centers discharge Circular of February 15 Decision the EEC n2001/118/EC of the Commission of January 16, Nomenclature and list of dangerous waste 2001, decision n2001/119/EC of the Commission of January 22, 2001, Combines the old European waste catalogue with the European list of decision n2001/573/EC of the Council of July 23, 2001, modifying the dangerous waste decision of the Commission 2000/532/EC of May 3, 2000 - Integrates the demolition wood into dangerous waste - Integrates wood from the communities (with designation intended for dangerous wood Decree n2002/540 of April 18 2002 relating to waste classification and Transposition in French law of the European decisions 2000 and 2001 Circular of October 3, 2002 relating to the implementation of the decree n 2002-540 of April 18 2002 relating to the classification of waste Decree of 20/09/2002 relating to the incineration facilities and those Defines the method of operation of facilities of co-incineration of dangerous waste Circular of 03/10/2002 relating to the implementation of the decree n 2002-540 of 18/04/2002 relating to waste classification (not published in the OJ)

156

6.9 Standard sections

The following table provides dimensions of the principal standard sections . Type Beam E (mm) 100 100 100 100 100 150 180 200 250 300 Plank 75 75 75 Batten 63 63 63 50 Half-batten 32 32 32 Small girder 38 38 38 38 38 L (mm) 100 150 200 250 300 150 180 200 250 300 200 225 250 150 160 175 150 150 160 175 150 160 175 200 225 Type Rafters E (mm) 60 63 75 40 50 25/27 25/27 25/27 25/27 25/27 25/27 40 40 18 12 14 27 27 27 27 18 12 L (mm) 80 75 75 60 75 100 150 160 175 200 225 40 60 108 105 105 60 40 32 27 40 40

Planks

Small cuts

Batten

157

6.10 - Bibliographical references Principal standards

Vocabulary
EN 844
NF B 50-001 NF B 50-002 NF B 50-003 NF X 40-001 NF X 40-002 Round wood and sawn timber - Terminology Wood - Nomenclature Wood Vocabulary Wood Vocabulary Protection Terminology Preservation - Vocabulary

Safeguarding of wood
EN 20-1:1992 Wood preservation products - Determination of the protective effectiveness with respect to Lyctus Brunneus (Stephens) Part 1: Application by surface treatment (Laboratory method) Wood preservation products - Determination of the protective effectiveness with respect to Lyctus brunneus (Stephens) Part 2: Application by in-depth treatment (Laboratory method) Wood preservation products - Determination of the curative action against the larvae of Hylotrupes bajulus (Linnaeus) (Laboratory method) Wood preservation products - Determination of the preventive effectiveness against recently-hatched larvae of Hylotrupes bajulus (Linnaeus) (Laboratory method) Wood preservation products - Determination of the threshold of effectiveness against the larvae of Hylotrupes bajulus (Linnaeus) (Laboratory method) Wood preservation products - Determination of the curative effectiveness against the larvae of Anobiida punctatum (De Geer) (Laboratory method) Wood preservation products - Determination of the protective effectiveness with respect to Anobiida punctatum (De Geer) by the observation of the laying and the rate of survival of the larvae - Part 1: Application by surface treatment (Laboratory method) Wood preservation products - Determination of the protective effectiveness with respect to Anobiida punctatum (De Geer) by the observation of the laying and the rate of survival of the larvae - Part 2: Application by in-depth treatment (Laboratory method) Wood preservation products - Tests of accelerated ageing of wood treated before biological tests - Test of evaporation Wood preservation products - Tests of accelerated ageing of wood treated before biological tests - Test of watering down Wood preservation products - Testing method to determine the protective effectiveness with respect to fungi basidiomycetes lignivores - Determination of the threshold of effectiveness Wood preservation products - Determination of the threshold of effectiveness against Reticulitermes santonensis of Feytaud (Laboratory method) Wood preservation products - Determination of the preventive effectiveness against Rticulitermes santonensis of Feytaud (Laboratory method)

EN 20-2:1993

EN 22:1974

EN 46:1988

EN 47:1988

EN 48:1988

EN 49-1:1992

EN 49-2:1992

EN 73:1988 EN 84:1997 EN 113:1996

EN 117:1989

EN 118:1990

158

EN 152-1:1988

Testing methods of Wood preservation products - Laboratory method to determine the preventive effectiveness of a protection treatment of worked wood against fungi blueing - Part 1: Application by brushing Testing methods of Wood preservation products - Laboratory method to determine the preventive effectiveness of a protection treatment for worked wood against fungi blueing - Part 2: Application by methods other than brushing Wood preservation products - Guide for the sampling and the preparation of the wood preservation products treated for analysis Field test to determine the protective effectiveness of wood preservation products in contact with the ground Wood preservation products - Determination of the curative action against Lyctus Brunneus (Stephens) (Laboratory method) Wood preservation products - Determination of the protective effectiveness with respect to the marine borer organisms Wood preservation products Field tests to determine the protective effectiveness of wood preservation products for employment under a coating and out of contact with the ground: method with an L joint Durability of wood and materials derived from wood - Definitions of the classes of biological risk of attack - Part 1: General Durability of wood and materials derived from wood - Definition of the classes of biological risk of attack - Part 2: Application to solid wood Durability of wood and materials derived from wood - Definition of the classes of biological risk of attack - Part 3: Application to the panels containing wood Durability of wood and materials derived from wood - natural Durability of solid wood - Part 1: Guide to principles of testing and classification of the natural durability of wood Durability of wood and materials derived from wood - natural Durability of sawn timber - Part 2: Guide to natural durability of wood and impregnability of wood types chosen for their importance in Europe Durability of wood and materials derived from wood solid wood treated with preservative - Part 1: Classification of the penetration and retention of the preservatives Durability of wood and materials derived from wood solid wood treated with preservative - Part 2: Guide to sampling for the analysis of the wood treated with a preservative Wood treated with preservative Part 3: Performances of wood preservation and certificate of treatment Adaptation to Metropolitan France Wood preservatives - Determination of the curative effectiveness against the emergence of Anobiida punctatum (De Geer) Durability of wood and materials derived from wood - natural Durability of solid wood - Guide to durability requirements for its use according to classes of risk Durability of wood and materials derived from wood - Performances of wood preservation products established by biological tests - Part 1: Specifications by class of employment Durability of wood and materials derived from wood - Performances of wood preservation products established by biological tests - Part 2: Classification and labeling Wood preservation products - Creosote and creosoted wood - Sampling procedures and of analysis - Part 1: Procedure of sampling of the creosote Wood preservation products - Creosote and creosoted wood - Sampling and analysis procedures - Part 2: Procedure to obtain a creosote sample from creosoted wood for later analysis Wood preservation products - Creosote and creosoted wood - Sampling and analysis procedures - Part 3: Determination of the content of benzo (a) pyrene in the creosote

EN 152-2:1988

EN 212:1986 EN 252:1989 EN 273:1992 EN 275:1992 EN 330:1993

EN 335-1:1992

EN 335-2:1992

EN 335-3:1995

EN 350-1:1994

EN 350-2:1994

EN 351-1:1995

EN 351-2:1995

NF B 50-105-3:1998

EN 370:1993

EN 460:1994

EN 599-1:1996

EN 599-2:1995

EN 1014-1:1995

EN 1014-2:1995

EN 1014-3:1997

159

EN 1014-4:1995

Wood preservation products - Creosote and creosoted wood - Sampling and analysis procedures - Part 4: Determination of the phenol content extractable by water from the creosote Durability of wood and materials derived from wood solid wood treated with preservative - Determination of the penetration and retention of creosotes in treated wood Wood preservation products - Determination of the effectiveness with respect to the micro-organisms of soft rot and other micro-organisms in the ground Wood preservation products - Determination of the preventive effectiveness with respect to the fungi lignivores basidiomycetes Wood preservation products - Measuring the losses of active matter and other components of preservative from treated wood - Part 1: Laboratory method to obtain samples for analysis to measure the losses by evaporation to the air Wood preservation products - Measuring the losses of active matter and other components of the preservative from treated wood - Part 2: Laboratory method to obtain samples for analysis to measure the losses after washing out with water or synthetic sea water Wood preservation products - Determination of the curative action against the larvae of Hylotrupes bajulus (Linnaeus) Laboratory method Wood preservation products Field tests to determine the protective effectiveness of a wood preservative not in contact with the ground - Method with a superposed joint assembly Durability of wood and materials derived from wood - Panels containing wood - Testing method to determine resistance to the fungi basidiomycetes lignivores Durability of wood and materials derived from wood - Evaluation of the effectiveness of a fungicide of masonry to prevent the development in the wood of the Serpula lacrymans merule (Schumacher ex Fries) S.F. Gray - Laboratory method General document of introduction to the European testing methods (or CEN) of wood preservatives.

EN 12490:1998

ENV 807:2001

ENV 839:1993

ENV 1250-1:1994

ENV 1250-2:1994

ENV 1390:1994

ENV 12037:1996

ENV 12038:1996

ENV 12404:1997 HD 1001:1984

Classification
EN 338 EN 518 Structural wood Strength classes Structural wood-Classification-Requirements for visual strength classification standards Structural wood Classification Specifications for wood classified by machine for its strength , and the machines to be classified Round wood and sawn wood Terminology Sawn wood Classification of appearance of leafy woods Timber structures Glue-lam wood Strength class and determination of characteristic values Round wood and sawn wood Method of measurement of the singularities Dimensional classification leafy and coniferous round woods Coniferous round wood qualitative Classification Sawn wood Classification of appearance of coniferous woods

EN 519

EN 844 EN 975 EN 1194 EN 1310 EN 1315 EN 1316 EN 1611-1

160

EN 1912 EN 1927

Timber structures Strength classification Allocation of the visual and wood type classifications Coniferous round wood qualitative Classification Regulations for use of wood in the construction industries visual Classification for employment in structures of the principal coniferous and leafy woods Wood Sawing of coniferous timber Classification of appearance Definition of the choices Structural wood and products based on wood Strength class and acceptable associated stresses

NF B 52-001

NF B 53-520 NF P 21 - 400

Manufacture and tolerances

EN 336 Coniferous and poplar structural woods Dimensions, acceptable variations Abutments with multiple splices in the construction timber Performance recommendations and minimum manufacturing recommendations Glue-lam wood - Performance recommendations and minimum manufacturing recommendations Glue-lam wood large-sized abutments Performance requirements and minimum manufacturing recommendations Glue-lam wood Dimensions, acceptable variations Round wood and sawn wood acceptable Variations and preferential dimensions Timber structure Glue-lam timber - Requirements Sawing of leafy woods - nominal Dimensions

EN 385

EN 386 EN 387 EN 390 EN 1313 PR EN 14080 ISO 8903

Joints
EN 383 Timber structures Testing methods Determination of the strength value of the seals and the fitting of the pin type fasteners. Timber structures Determination of the breaking moment of stem- type point fasteners Fasteners Specifications of the connectors for timber structures Timber structures Testing methods Assemblies by metal connectors Timber structures Testing methods Loading of nailed joints Timber structures Testing methods Loading of stapled joints Timber structures Testing methods Tear tests of the timber joints Timber structures Testing methods Performance tests of timber joints

EN 409 EN 912 EN 1075 EN 1380 EN 1381 EN 1382 EN 1383

161

EN 12512 EN 13271

Timber structures Testing methods Cyclic tests of metal joints Wood fasteners Characteristic values of strength and sliding modulus of mechanical wood fasteners Timber structures Joints produced with mechanical fixing elements deformation and strength characteristics general principles for determination of

EN 26891

EN 28970

Timber structures Tests of joints produced with mechanical fixing elements Requirements for density of wood

Adhesives
EN 204 Classification of glues for non-structural use for the joining of wood and derived materials Adhesives of phenolic and aminoplast, nature for wooden load- bearing structures Classification and requirements of retention Adhesives for load- bearing wood structures: testing methods Glue-lam wood de-lamination test on glued joint Glue-lam wood Shear test on glued joints Adhesives - Terms and definitions Adhesives: Classification of the principal adhesives Adhesives: Glued joints, wood on wood: determination of shear strength by tensile force Adhesives: glued joints, wood on wood: measurement of shear strength by compressive force

EN 301

EN 302 EN 391 EN 392 EN 923 NF T 76-011 ISO 6237 ISO 6238

Tests and measurements

EN 380 EN 408 Timber structures Testing methods general principles for static load tests Timber structures solid wood and Glue-lam wood Determination of certain physical and mechanical properties Timber structures solid wood and Glue-lam wood Measurement of shear strength and mechanical properties perpendicular to fibers Wood Determination of the moisture content for the physical and mechanical tests Wood Determination of the density for the physical and mechanical tests Timber structure Determination of the characteristic values of the mechanical properties and density Various standards on wood tests Wood Determination of tensile breaking stress perpendicular to grain

EN 1193

EN 3130 EN 3131 EN 384 NFB51-001 with 032 ISO 3346

162

ISO 3347 ISO 3350 Pr EN14358 Pr EN 14251 EN 1309 EN 1310 EN 1311 EN 13183

Wood - Determination of the shear breaking stress in shearing parallel to the wire Wood - Determination of static hardness Structural wood: calculation of the characteristic value corresponding to the fractile at 5% Round structural wood : testing methods Round wood and sawn wood: method of measurement of dimensions Round wood and sawn wood: method of measurement of the singularities Round wood and sawn wood: method of measurement of biological deterioration Round wood and sawn wood Method of measurement of humidity

Surface coatings
T 72-086 NF T34-202 EN 927 Wood protection products protective coatings Natural climatic aging tests Paint and varnish - Painting system for the protection of wood surfaces :protective coatings Paint and varnish Paint product and system for exterior wood

Panels
EN 300 EN 314 EN 636 EN 789 EN 635 EN 315 EN 309 EN 1058 EN 313 Panels with oriented strips (OSB) Plywood quality of gluing Plywood Specifications: use in dry, wet or external environment Timber structures Tests of panels derived from wood for determination of the mechanical properties for their use in structures Plywood Classification according to appearance of the faces Plywood Tolerances on dimensions Particle board Definition and classification Panels derived from wood Determination of characteristic values of mechanical properties and density Plywood Classification and terminology

163

EN 12369 EN 316 EN 324

Wood-based panels characteristic values for established products Wood-fiber panels Definitions, classification and symbols Wood-based panels Determination of panel dimensions

DTU
DTU 31.1 NF P 21-203 DTU 31.3 NF P 21-205 DTU 41.2 NF P 65-210 DTU 59.1 NF P 74-201-1 Timber frames and staircases

Wooden frames joined metal connectors or gussets

External wood cladding

Painting Paint work on buildings

Waste regulations
decree 2002-540 of April 18 2002 relating to the classification of waste; decree 97-517 of May 15 1997 relating to the classification of dangerous waste; decision of European Commission 2000/532/EC of May 3, 2000 modified.

164

6.11 - Guides and other technical documents

1. Ulrich A. Meierhofer. Timber bridges in Exchange Europe, yesterday, today, tomorrow. Paper presented at the National conference on wood transportation structures, Madison, the USA, October 1996, 5p. 2. Sheila Rimal Duwadi & Michael A. Ritter. Timber bridges http://www.tfhrc.gov/pubrds/winter97/p97wi32.htm. 1997, 11p. in the United States.

3. Graeme P Walter. Timber Bridges in Australia. Paper presented at the National conference on wood transportation structures, Madison, the USA, October 1996, 4p. 4. Vocabulaire du bois (Vocabulary of wood), Standard NF B 50-002, August 1961. 5. STEP 2 Timber Engineering , The Netherlands, 1995, E17 6. STEP 1 Structures en bois aux tats limites : introduction leurocode 5 (Timber structures at the limit states: introduction to Eurocode 5 , Eyrolles, 1996, III-1. 7. Calvi D. Les ponts en bois (Timber bridges), JCBE 1998 p117-159, Epinal. 8. Dirol D & Deglise X. Durabilit des bois (Durability of wood), Herms sciences Ltd Europe, Paris, 2001,415p. 9. Rayzal Mr. Guide de la preservation du bois (Guide to wood preservation), CTBA, Paris, 1998, 165p. 10. Kropf FW. Durability and detail design-the result of 15 years of systematic improvements. Paper presented at the National conference on wood transportation structures, Madison, the USA, October 1996, 7p. 11. Gtz, Hoor, Mhler, Natterer. Construire en bois (Building with wood), presses polytechniques et universities romandes, 1987, 283p. 12. Natterer, Herzog, Volz. Construire en bois 2 (Building with wood 2) presses polytechniques et universities romandes, 1991, 338p. 13. CTBA. Finitions des ouvrages en bois dans le btiment (Finishing wood structures in the building) , 1994,121p. 14. CTBA: Lessentiel sur le bois, (The essential wood) 1998, 184p. (fort franaise et mondiale, props mcas, finitions,) 15. Sandoz JL, Natterer J. Construire en bois : notions de base (Building with wood : basic concepts), cours EPFL, 1997, 150p. 16. ATIBT Association technique internationale des bois tropicaux Atlas des bois tropicaux (Tropical wood atlas) 17. Centre technique forestier tropical Prsentation graphique des caractres technologiques des principaux bois tropicaux (Pictorial display of the technological characteristics of the principal tropical woods), 11 volumes. 18. CIRAD bois des DOMTOM (DOM TOM woods)

165

19. CTBA Le bois trait haute temperature : bilan technico-conomique, perspectives de dveloppement (Wood treated at high temperature: technico-economic assessment, perspectives of development) , 1999, 64p. 20. Programme des Nations Unies pour lenvironnement Aspects environnementaux de la prservation industrielle du bois (Environmental aspects of the industrial preservation of wood, report n20, 1994, 179p. 21. Alon D, Chanrion P, Ngri G, Perez J, Snieg O. Schage du bois guide pratique ( Practical guide to wood drying), CTBA, 1990, 103p. 22. CTBA. Le traitement curatif des bois dans la constructioin (Curative treatment of wood in the construction industry, editions Eyrolles , 1996,140p. 23. Informationsdienst Holz Brcken- Planung, Konstruction, Berechnung, holzbau handbuch Reihe 1 Teil 9 Folge 1, 2000, 44p. 24. Informationsdienst Holz, Details fr Holzbrcken, holzbau handbuch Reihe 1 Teil 9 Folge 2, 2001,32p. 25. CTBA, Les assemblages dans la construction en bois ( Joints in timber construction), 2001, 129p. 26. B. Marrey Les ponts modernes (Modern bridges). Picard Editeur

Stra guides.
27. Guide pour la commande et le pilotage des etudes douvrages dart Stra novembre 1997. (Guide for the ordering and control of engineering structures), Stra November 1997. Reference F 9761 - 15 ; 28. Guide pour une demarche dAssurance Qualit. Etudes de conception et dexcution douvrages de Gnie Civil Stra SNCF dcembre Rfrence : F9775 25 (Guide to setting up Quality Assurance. Studies of execution and design of Civil Engineering structures), Stra SNCF, December. Reference F 9775 25 ; 29. Guide du projeteur douvrages dart Ponts courants Stra janvier 1999 Rfrence : F 9850 Prix de vente : 45 ( Project managers guide to engineering structures Standard bridges 30. The Technical Bulletin n 8 of Stra on the building of metal bridges gives useful information on building a timber bridge. (No longer available in the original edition, it is still available upon request to the CTOA of Stra). 31. Ponts mtalliques et mixtes _ Rsistance la fatigue Guide de conception et de justification (Fatigue strength of metal and composite bridges Design and justification guide, Stra Guide Cticm SNCF May 1996. Reference F 9611 - 25 ; 32. Epreuves de chargement des ponts routes et passerelles _ Guide technique Stra (Load tests of highway bridges and footbridges, Guide Stra March 2004 Reference 0404 - 14 ; 33. Passerelles pitonnes _ Evaluation du comportement vibratoire sous laction des pitons Guide mthodologique (Evaluation of vibratory behavior of footbridges under force of pedestrians, Guides Stra - Afgc March 2006. Reference 0611 - 20 ;

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6.12. - Tables of the figures and tables

Figure 1: Egyptian ships ...................................................................................................................... 10 Figure 2: bridge made of boats ............................................................................................................. 10 Figure 3: Caesars bridge over the Rhine according to the reconstruction by Andrea Palladio ........................ 10 Figure 4: outside cantilevering abutment according to a drawing of Viollet-le-Duc ...................................... 11 Figure 5: collapse of the bridge at Petit-Chtelet in Paris during the winter of 1407 ...................................... 11 Figure 6: project for the "Pont des Arts" in Paris drawn according to the ideas of Andrea Palladio. Note the masonry piers, on timber pile foundations ...................................................................................... 12 Figure 7: Pont-Rouge in Paris ............................................................................................................. 12 Figure 8: partial elevation of the Tournus bridge .................................................................................... 13 Figure 9: press article .......................................................................................................................... 16 Figure 10: Schaffhouse bridge (Switzerland) .......................................................................................... 17 Figure 11: definition of sawing on slabs and quarters ............................................................................... 24 Figure 12: detail of a butt joint ( vertical finger joint ).............................................................................. 25 Figure 13: effect of a diagonal grain orientation or of a shake .................................................................... 25 Figure 14: role of the trunk in the transmission of stresses applied to the tree............................................. 29 Figure 15: natural reference mark LRT identifiable on block (CNDB) ........................................................ 30 Figure 16: transverse section (plan RT) of a trunk of oak (CNDB)............................................................. 31 Figure 17: photosynthesis and circulation of the saps ............................................................................... 32 Figure 18: on the left, drawing of the ligneous plan of a coniferous tree; on the right microphotography of a coniferous tree (X 50) .................................................................................................................. 33 Figure 19: details of a ligneous plan of a coniferous tree ......................................................................... 33 Figure 20: on the left a drawing of the ligneous plan of leafy trees and on the right microphotography of the oak ................................................................................................................................................. 34 Figure 21: various modes of rupture in compression. ............................................................................... 35 Figure 22: various modes of rupture in tension. ...................................................................................... 35 Figure 23: various modes of rupture under bending of a wood sample free from singularities. ....................... 36 Figure 24: model of the layers of the cellular wall of the tracheids .............................................................. 36 Figure 25: stages of drying ................................................................................................................... 38 Figure 26: hygroscopic balance of wood in outside .................................................................................. 39 Figure 27: solutions allowing the free shrinkage of wood .......................................................................... 41 Figure 28: shrinkage of wood ............................................................................................................... 41 Figure 29: deformations from drying ..................................................................................................... 43 Figure 30: deformations due to shrinkage or swelling ............................................................................... 43 Figure 31: carbonization of wood ......................................................................................................... 45 Figure 3232: various sections of wood ................................................................................................... 47 Figure 33: typical laws of behavior of wood ............................................................................................ 48 Figure 34: example of distribution of compressive strength of wood ......................................................... 50 Figure 35: stages of the choice of preservation ........................................................................................ 59 Figure 36: detail of the connection between the arcs and the suspending rods ............................................. 82 Figure 37: bridge at Innenferrera........................................................................................................... 85 Figure 38: longitudinal section of the bridge of Vihantasalmi .................................................................... 87 Figure 39: transverse section of the bridge over the river Dore.................................................................. 89 Figure 40: bridge at Merle - longitudinal Section...................................................................................... 89 Figure 41: bridge at Merle - transverse Section ........................................................................................ 90 Figure 42: bridge at Merle section of a strut frame ............................................................................... 91 Figure 43: bridge at Merle - detail of assembly ........................................................................................ 91 Figure 44: detail of the open boarding ................................................................................................... 97 Figure 45: Possible examples of causes of damage ................................................................................ 103 Figure 46: angle to envisage to protect the beam ................................................................................... 106 Figure 47: vertical boarding with covering ............................................................................................ 107 Figures 48: bad, good and very good lathing for a vertical boarding ........................................................ 108 Figure 49: various boarding arrangements ............................................................................................ 108
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Figure 50: handrail ............................................................................................................................ 111 Figure 51: protected assemblies .......................................................................................................... 112 Figure 52: longitudinal connection of the handrail ................................................................................. 113 Figure 53: mortise and tenon joints ..................................................................................................... 113 Figure 54: slit-and-tongue joints .......................................................................................................... 113 Figure 55: some examples of metal joint parts....................................................................................... 114 Figure 56: gusset joint connection and spike nails .................................................................................. 114 Figure 57: bolted assembly ................................................................................................................. 114 Figure 58: rigidity of the joints ............................................................................................................ 115 Figure 59: ventilation in joints ............................................................................................................ 116 Figure 60: joint with concrete support ................................................................................................. 118 Figure 61: bad joint design (solution a) and good joint design (solution b) ............................................... 119 Figure 62: Grooved wood for flooring ................................................................................................. 120 Figure 63: detail of sealing of roadway ................................................................................................ 121

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6.13. - Table of the photographs

Photograph 1: Erection of the railway-station bridge at Vaires-sur-Marne. .................................................... 8 Photographs 2: Tournon bridge of 1847 ................................................................................................ 15 Photograph 3: bridge on the Marne ....................................................................................................... 15 Photograph 4: bridge of Montmerle (Ain) .............................................................................................. 16 Photographs 5: bridge of the chapel of Lucerne and bridge in the area of Davos, probably built in the 18th century ...................................................................................................................................... 17 Photograph 6: Keystone-Wye bridge in South-Dakota. ........................................................................... 18 Photograph 7: Cocteau footbridge built in Nimes. ................................................................................... 18 Photograph 8: Thalkirchen bridge in Munich (Germany) ......................................................................... 19 Photograph 9: bridge over the river Dore (Puy de Dme) ........................................................................ 19 Photograph 10: Pinot footbridge in Blagnac (Haute-Garonne) .................................................................. 20 Photograph 11: sawing on slab off-cut ................................................................................................... 24 Photograph 12: beam in Glue-lam spruce .............................................................................................. 25 Photograph 13: Judo Institute (Paris)..................................................................................................... 26 Photograph 14: Pinot footbridge .......................................................................................................... 26 Photograph 15: LVL ........................................................................................................................... 27 Photograph 16: LSL ............................................................................................................................ 27 Photograph 17: PSL ............................................................................................................................ 27 Photograph 18: OSB ........................................................................................................................... 28 Photograph 19: plywood ..................................................................................................................... 28 Photographs 20: span of end of bridge at Isar in Munich......................................................................... 45 Photographs 21: various forms of knot .................................................................................................. 52 Photograph 22: cubic example of rot ..................................................................................................... 55 Photograph 23: adult Capricorn (scale x4 approximately) ......................................................................... 55 Photograph 24: damage due to the Capricorn ......................................................................................... 55 Photograph 25: damage due to termites ................................................................................................. 56 Photograph 26: greyish aspect of timber left outside ................................................................................ 57 Photograph 27: example of timber concrete connector .......................................................................... 80 Photograph 28: Pinot footbridge .......................................................................................................... 81 Photograph 29: general views of the bridge between Strada and San Nicla .................................................. 82 Photograph 30: sight from the roadway ................................................................................................. 83 Photograph 31: boarding of the arch and the spacers ............................................................................... 83 Photograph 32: bridge at Innenferrera: 60 m of length, 3,50 m of road width .............................................. 84 Photograph 33: bridge at Vihantasalmi .................................................................................................. 86 Photograph 34: bridge over the river Dore (interior view) ........................................................................ 87 Photograph 35: bridge over the river Dore (exterior view) ........................................................................ 88 Photograph 36: bridge at Merle - general view ........................................................................................ 90 Photograph 37 a: bridge at Crest ........................................................................................................... 91 Photograph 38: footbridge over the river Doubs - general view ................................................................. 92 Photograph 39 footbridge over the river Doubs - view of lower part ......................................................... 93 Photograph 40: composite timber-steel bridge at Sur-En (Switzerland)....................................................... 93 Photograph 41: footbridge and railway station at Vaires-sur-Marne............................................................ 94 Photograph 42: footbridge at Ajoux ...................................................................................................... 95 Photograph 43: footbridge at Saint-Jorioz ............................................................................................. 95 Photograph 44: footbridge in Grigny ..................................................................................................... 96 Photograph 45: detail of flooring with edge and open boarding ................................................................ 96 Photograph 46: footbridge at Danjoutin ............................................................................................... 99 Photograph 47: footbridge at Wald ....................................................................................................... 99 Photograph 48: connection beam apron and roadway of access .............................................................. 100 Photograph 49: connection beam apron .............................................................................................. 101 Photograph 50: Wood on wood assembly to avoid ............................................................................... 101 Photograph 51: handrail badly fixed .................................................................................................... 102
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Photograph 52: fungus attack on the handrail ...................................................................................... 102 Photograph 53: degradation of protective coating and wood................................................................... 102 Photograph 54: poured side beams ..................................................................................................... 103 Photograph 55: accumulation of soil in contact with wood ..................................................................... 104 Photograph 56: increase in vegetation.................................................................................................. 104 Photograph 57: example of the covered bridge crossing the Bouzanne river near Argenton sur Creuse: It was built in 1849.............................................................................................................................. 106 Photograph 58: beams under roadway protected from the bad weather .................................................... 106 Photograph 59: ventilated horizontal boarding...................................................................................... 107 Photograph 60: Protective hoods on the bridge at Thalkirchen ............................................................... 109 Photographs 61 a and b: Europe-Bridge at Saint-Georgen ..................................................................... 109 Photographs 62 a and b: details of the bridge at Merle ........................................................................... 110 Photograph 63: protected end wood ................................................................................................... 110 Photograph 64: example of fixing of handrail ....................................................................................... 112 Photographs 65: ventilation of wood on all faces .................................................................................. 117 Photograph 66: minimization of surfaces of contact .............................................................................. 117 Photographs 67: two good examples of bottom of ventilated posts......................................................... 119 Photographs 68: various types of siding .............................................................................................. 120 Photograph 69: metal section delimiting the bituminous zone ................................................................. 121

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Rights concerning photographs and illustrations:

Board 1: project of Wiebeking preserved by Victor Schmitt Photograph 1, Photograph 41: Bernard REY (the SNCF Engineering). Figures 1 and 3: Gerard HOMANN (Stra Starting from the software Operated) Photographs 2, Figure 39: Domenica CALVI Photograph 3: Joel RAOUL (Stra) Photograph 4: CETE of Lyon Photographs 5, Photograph 13, Photograph 20, Photograph 29 straight lines, Photograph 60, Photographs 61, Figure 34: Jacques BERTHELLEMY (Stra) Photograph 6: Prof GUTKOWSKI (Colorado State University) Photograph 7: Truong Trong CANH (consulting engineer) Photograph 8, Photograph 26, Photograph 29 left, Photograph 30 in Photograph 32, Photograph 38 in Photograph 40, Photograph 46 in Photograph 59, Photograph 63 in Photograph 69: Vincent BARBIER, (CETE of the East - LRPC Nancy) Photograph 9, Photograph 34, Photograph 35: BRUMAIRE Photograph 10, Photograph 14, Photograph 28: local Agency of the French Road Directorate of the HauteGaronne Photograph 11, Photographs 15 to 19, Figures 15 to 17, Figure 31, Photographs 21 to 24, Photo 37, Photograph 42: CNDB Photograph 12: Robert LEROY (LCPC) Photograph 25, Figure 26, Figure 58: CTBA Photograph 27: Bernard Le TALLEC (ISBA) Photograph 33, Figure 38: Timo RANTAKOKKO Photograph 36, photographs 62 has and b: Jean-Louis MICHOTEY Photograph 43: local Agency of the French Road Directorate of High Savoy Photograph 44, Photograph 45, Figure 44: Jerome LAPLANE Cartoons of Pierre ARNAUD (CETE the Mediterranean) and Jacques BERTHELLEMY (Stra) Drawings formatted with the assistance of Guillaume PERRIN (Stra CTOA)

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6.14. - Useful Addresses other than Stra

Centre de coopration internationale en recherch agronomique pour le dveloppement CIRAD Fort, dpartement Bois TA 10/16, avenue Agropolis 34398 MONTPELLIER Cedex 5 Tel : +33(0)4 67 61 65 25 Fax : +33(0)4 67 61 65 60 Internet site: www.cirad.fr

PEFC - France: 6, Avenue de Saint Mand 75012 PARIS Tel./Fax: +33(0)1.43.46.57.15

Rseau Scientifique et Technique de lEquipement Centre dEtudes Technique de lEquipement de lEst Laboratoire des Ponts et Chausses de Nancy 71, avenue de la grande Haie 54510 TOMBLAINE Tel.: +33(0)3 83 18 41 41 Fax: +33(0)3 83 18 41 00 Mel.: D6.CETE.Est@Equipement.gouv.fr Centre National pour le Dveloppement du Bois 6, avenue de Saint Mand 75012 PARIS Tel.: +33(0)1 53 17 19 60 Internet site: www.bois-construction.org Centre Technique du Bois et de lAmeublement 6, avenue de Saint Mand 75012 PARIS Tel.: +33(0)1 40 19 49 19 Fax: +33(0)1 44 74 65 24 Internet site: www.ctba.fr

Syndicat National des Constructeurs de Charpentes en Bois Lamell Coll (SNCCBLC) 6, avenue de Saint Mand 75012 PARIS Tel.: +33(0)1 43 45 53 43 Faxes: +33(0)1 43 45 52 42 Mel.:snccblc@magic.fr Internet site: www.glulam.org

cole Nationale Suprieure des Technologies et Industries du Bois 27, rue du Merle Blanc, BP 1041, 88051 PINAL cedex 9 Tel. : +33(0)3 29 29 61 00 Fax : +33(0)3 29 29 61 38 Mel. : enstib@enstib.uhp-nancy.fr

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With the environmental concerns, the bridges owners rediscover timber construction and its cordial aspect. In addition, the timber bridges are light and easy to erect: they thus have a strong potential of development, in particular for pedestrian bridges. However, the durability of these structures is mainly based on the choice of the right initial drawings who protect the wood. It is also based on the quality of maintenance. Moreover, in the event of demolition of a bridge whose wood were treated with chemical preservatives, the bridge owners are responsible for the produced wastes. After the history of timber bridges, the guide published by Stra : recalls the essential concepts on the anatomy and the mechanical and physical properties of this material; presents the wood attackers and the methods used to preserve wood, underlining the disadvantages of certain chemical methods; exposes the principal engineering drawings to ensure the protection of timber structures; provides recommendations to the project managers to formalize a good choice of wood, to choose the treatments of preservation and the engineering drawings.

This document is awailable and can be downloaded on Stra website: http://www.setra.equipement.gouv.fr

Haute Garonne Cover - Photographers: Jacques Berthellemy (Stra); Brumaire; D DE de 173 The Stra authorization is required for reproduction of this document (all or even part) 2007 Stra - Reference: 0743A - ISRN: EQ-SETRA--07-ED40--FR+ENG

The Stra belongs to the scientific and technical network of the French Public Work Ministry (RST)