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The Basics of Screenwriting Structure

Contributed by Steve Pierce Thursday, 14 July 2005

Find out what the experts say about screenplay structure. This tutorial deals first with the popular 3-act structure before examining John Truby's 22-step building block technique.

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The Three-Act Structure

The three-act structure is widely regarded as the standard templates for scripts, and is credited to Syd Field whose books have become the industry standard templates for Hollywood scripts. Other people have since expanded upon Field's ideas - Robert McKee is less rigid when it comes to page numbers, Kristen Thompson adds the concept of protagonist's goals to the mix, and Ray Frensham proposes the idea of focus points, but all templates are similar enough to be used interchangeably.

In the three-act structure, Act 1 and act 3 together make up half the film's running time, and act 2 makes up the other half. Act 1 deals with the setup of the story and introduces most (if not all) of the characters that will play an active part in the movie. Act 2 is the development of the story and Act 3 is the climax of the story.

In her book, Storytelling in the New Hollywood, Thompson proposes a slightly different structure with 4 acts. The proportions are pretty similar: ultimately, all she has really done is to split Act 2 in half (calling them the complicating action and development respectively), and to shorten the climax. The 3-act & 4-act structures are pretty much the same and we can swap between them without any trouble, so for the purposes of this tutorial, I'll stick to the 3-act structure. Let's assume we have a 120 page script (approximately 2 hours running time at a page a minute) and take a closer look at each act.

Act 1

Pages 1-10: The first 10 pages will set the tone of the script, and will set up the scenario. The protagonist will be introduced, as will some of the other main characters. At some point here, a key line of dialogue will be spoken by a character which will give the audience a clue as to what themes and ideas will be explored in the script. The first 5 pages will also contain a hook: something that grabs the reader's attention and draws them into the story.

Pages 10-20: This section usually focuses exclusively on the protagonist(s), and deepens their characterisation by showing their personality and attitude. The interaction of this characterisation with the situation you have designed for
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them will form the character problem which they must overcome by the end of the movie. Thus, this section acts as a benchmark by which the audience can measure character growth. Major subplots are also established in this section.

Pages 20-30: The first act is wound up by introducing an element of risk, which leads to an inciting incident around pages 23-28. This is the first turning point in the script (the other is at the end of act 2), and the inciting incident catapults the story in a completely new and dangerous direction, altering the protagonist's motivation and/or goal. If a deadline needs to be set, it is usually established here. Turning points always happen to the protagonist, and are caused by their actions (or non-actions). This is the climax of act 1.

Act 2

Act 2 is often troublesome, as its length can cause writers to get lost and the story to lose its momentum. By splitting act 2 into four parts via the introduction of two focus points and the point of no return, we can make it more manageable.

(a) Pages 30-45: This section gives the audience a chance to relax after the act 1 climax, and a moment for the protagonist to reflect on his new dilemma. The protagonist will have now formed a goal, but without knowing that it will ultimately prove a false one. At some point during this section there will be a setback, but this will be minor in the grand scheme of the story. Problems that will occur later in the story are set up here. This section ends with a focus point, (the first of two) which refocuses the line of action begun at turning point 1, and reaffirms the problem at hand. Focus point 1 is also the first sign of growth in the protagonist's character.

(b) Pages 45-60: The protagonist takes his/her first decisive action towards attaining the ultimate goal of the story. Similarly, any subplots will show the first signs of change in the protagonist's character. The obstacles get tougher and the protagonist gets stronger. This section ends with the point of no return. Up until this point, the protagonist is floundering as the victim, uncommitted and not in control. After this point, the protagonist begins to take charge of his/her own destiny. The point of no return is a moment of realisation for the protagonist. which forces them to reassess their quest and consider giving up, but ultimately continue, with no going back to their former ways and notions.

(c) Pages 60-75: This is often the point where a script will begin to flounder and lose its direction. To combat this, a subplot will sometimes be explored here or the location will be changed. If so, this section may include a self-enclosed sequence, something that could be imagined alone as a short film. Pages 60-75 also show the protagonist holding to the commitment made at the point of no return. This section ends with focus point 2. Like focus point 1, it serves to refocus the story, preventing the writer from getting lost by restating the problem at hand. Good focus points should be linked, with the first setting up the second, They will also emphasise the protagonist's character growth, the first focus point hinting at it, the second revealing it in full.

(d) Pages 75-90: Immediately after the second focus point, there will sometimes be a long, expositionary speech explaining the inner motivation of the protagonist. This section is mainly concerned with setting up the action that will lead to turning point 2. Like turning point 1, turning point 2 thrusts us into the next act. It must be well integrated into the story with an obvious set-up, and will lead to a sense of failure and despair.

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Act 3

Pages 90-115: Again, there is a brief pause to give the audience a chance to relax after the Act 2 climax. After this, the script should focus entirely on accelerating the action toward the act 3 and final climax. This section often involves a chase or pursuit of some sort. After the initial breather, there is little chance for relaxation - this section has the fastest pace with the most number of crises. Act 3 often revolves around a single major sequence.

Pages 115-120: In the climax of the movie (not necessarily the final scene), the protagonist faces the final confrontation. The film must have a strong climax which resolves the story, and it must provide a satisfying (not necessarily happy) ending for the film. The climax is the peak emotional moment for the protagonist. The epilogue section after the final climax should tie up all the loose ends and provide the audience with a belief that the characters will continue to exist after the movie. The key line or image hooks set up at the start of the script will be resonated here, but with their meaning changed.

That's it. Don't forget, the rules are there to be broken. Films that stick rigidly to the template are nothing without wellwritten dialogue, strong & interesting characters, and an involving plot. However, as a writer you'll be expected to be familiar with the ideas above and they are often helpful if you are struggling to decide how to arrange the order of your script, or if you are unsure of how to continue after a certain point. Here is a diagram with all the elements of the 3-act structure in place, taken from Teach Yourself Screenwriting by Ray Frensham. You may find it useful to print off a copy and mark on it the key points of your own script.

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Recommended Reading

Teach Yourself Screenwriting by Raymond Frensham Storytelling in the New Hollywood by Kristen Thompson Story by Robert McKee Screenplay by Syd Field

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The 3-act Structure of Collateral

One of the biggest box office hits in the past few years, Collateral by Stuart Beattie is a very decent example of a script
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that I would argue adheres to the above guidelines. I think the story relies on one-too-many coincidences and some of the characterisation is handled a little clumsily, but its an exciting read and will show you how the above points are integrated into a full feature script. Although this version of the script has 167 pages, a fair few of them are only partiallyfilled, so the actual page count is shorter. However, the blank sections are fairly evenly spread and thus the overall proportions are not affected. You can download the script here.

I found it quite interesting that Collateral appears to follow a 20-60-20 three-act structure rather than the proposed 25-5025. Kristen Thompson has already suggested a shorter climax was now the norm, and I wonder if audiences are becoming so in tune with scripts that they no longer need as long a setup, letting us get straight into the action.

Act 1

Pages 1-20: Getting to know Max. We learn he takes pride in his job as a taxi driver, and that he believes this is a temporary job, but he lets himself get walked over. We also meet Annie, Max's love interest which is the setup for the final act. Page 5 shows the visual hook (Max's postcard of paradise). At page 20, Max meets Vincent. The key line is tricky to spot - I'd argue that if it does occur here, it will be the exchange between Annie and Max on page 13 - Annie asks Max if he takes pride in being the best at what he does, and Max responds that "This is temporary...". This reveals one theme of the story - that Max wasting his life away as a taxi driver is no different to Vincent's murders.

Pages 20-29: The men talk as Max takes Vincent to his destination. Vincent is a charmer, a confident man, also insightful and can read Max’s body language well. He makes Max realise that his ideas for the future may be a pipe dream. Vincent hires Max to wait while he completes his job. Vincent tells the story of "just another dead guy riding the subway", and this could be interpreted as another key line, particularly in terms of its connection with the final scene, and its resonance with the theme of LA being a 'lonely city'.

Pages 29-35: At page 29, the body of Vincent’s first hit falls onto the car. This is the inciting incident. The men put the body into the boot of Max's taxi and drive away.

Act 2a

Pages 35-41: The breather. Consists mainly of dialogue between Max and Vincent. At page 41, the cops pull Max over.

Pages 41-47: Max deals with the setback of the cops.

Pages 47-52: Focus point 1 - In a moment of light relief, Vincent helps Max to gain a strength of character by defeating his boss. Vincent leaves to kill his second victim, not before taping Max's hands to the steering wheel, serving to remind us of the problem at hand - that Max is a prisoner.
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Act 2b

Pages 52-61: Max is left alone and he tries to escape by attracting the attention of passers-by. In a rotten bit of luck, his would-be saviours turn out to be thieves, and steal Max's wallet and Vincent's briefcase. Vincent isn't best pleased when he returns and deftly dispatches the thieves, returning Max's wallet to him. Max has gotten two people killed and we learn why the film is called Collateral.

Pages 61-66: We're taken away from the main action to set up the characters of the policemen on the case of Vincent's murders. In an expositionary speech, Fanning reveals that a few years ago, a taxi driver with no previous criminal convictions murdered three people one night and then 'committed suicide'. Was this Vincent's doing? If so, Max is in trouble.

Pages 66-77: Max and Vincent visit a jazz club where they talk to Daniel, a jazz musician. Vincent seems to like and respect Daniel, but we soon learn that Daniel is Vincent's next hit. Vincent offers Daniel a chance to escape by answering a question, but it is a trick question and Vincent kills Daniel. This is the point of no return. Even though Vincent liked and respected the man, he still killed him. Max wants to quit, but Vincent won't let him. Max realises that he's not going to get out of this alive and must now formulate a plan for survival.

Act 2c

Pages 77-89: Straight after the point of no return, Max and Vincent visit Max's mother in hospital (a self-contained sequence at a new location). This provides another chance for the audience to relax until Max steals Vincent's briefcase and escapes. Vincent catches up with Max but not before Max hurls the briefcase off of a bridge where it is destroyed by a juggernaut. Vincent is ready to kill Max, but can't help but be impressed. As we discover later, Vincent now needs Max alive to recover the lost data from his laptop.

Pages 89-92: Another brief scene showing Fanning on Vincent's trail.

Pages 92-99: More dialogue. Vincent jokes that he killed his father, and reminds Max that his twelve years as a taxi driver is hardly temporary. They stop at a disco and Vincent reveals that Max must now pretend to be him to recover the lost data from Vincent's employer.

Pages 99-111: Max enters the club and meets Vincent's employer, Felix. Max is nervous, and it looks as though he will be found out. Max knows he must show the confidence of Vincent. He quickly pulls himself together and manages to pull it off. In a cheeky move at the end of the scene, he offers Felix a 50% discount on Vincent's services. This is focus point 2, revealing Max's character change in full. Unfortunately, the police happen to be watching this club and now suspect that Max is indeed Vincent, the hitman they have been looking for.
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Act 2d

Pages 111-122: Scenes of Vincent & Max in the taxi are intercut with the FBI on their trail. Vincent reminds Max of his earlier ride, the woman at the start of the film, and advises him that life is short and that he should call her if he gets out of this alive. Max & Vincent arrive at a club, where Vincent's fourth victim is hanging out. Vincent and Max enter the club, followed by the police.

Pages 122-135: In an action-packed scene, the fourth victim is killed and the police engage in a shoot-out with Vincent and the victim's bodyguards. Fanning is the only one who believes Max is innocent, but in another rotten bit of luck, Vincent kills Fanning and escapes with Max in the taxi. This is turning point 2 and it thrusts us into the final act.

Act 3

Pages 135-142: Max is distraught at Fanning's death, not least because he was the only cop who believed Max was innocent. More dialogue as Max drives Vincent to his final hit of the night. Max learns that the victims are not criminals as Vincent had claimed earlier, but are in fact key witnesses for a court trial. Vincent tells Max that his job is no different to Max wasting his life away as a taxi driver. Max speeds up, driving faster and faster until he deliberately flips the car. Vincent manages to prise his way out of the wreckage and runs off into the night.

Pages 142-146: Max manages to break free and escape from the taxi - he's alive. A cop arrives on the scene and sees the body of Vincent's first hit hanging out of the boot of the taxi. The policeman is ready to arrest Max and Max is only too happy to co-operate... until Max sees a photo of Vincent's final victim - it's Annie. Max manages to escape the policeman, handcuffing him to the taxi. Max heads off to save Annie.

Pages 146-153: Max calls Annie and convinces her she is Vincent's final target. Annie prepares to leave the building but Max spots Vincent two floors below her. Max tells Annie to call the police. Vincent looks to the switchboard and sees that a call is being made from a room two floors above.

Pages 153-158: Vincent finds Annie and is ready to kill her, but Max arrives and shoots Vincent, wounding him. Max & Annie escape, with Vincent in pursuit.

Pages 158-162: Max & Annie get on a train and hide in the front carriage. Vincent clambers onboard at the back and pursues them. The train stops at a station but Max and Annie can't get off - they're trapped. The train continues, with Vincent making his way toward them.

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Pages 162-165: A stand-off between Max and Vincent. They shoot at each other through the window of the carriage door separating them. Max's shots are on target, Vincent's aren't. Vincent slumps in the seat, dying. His final view is a poster of a tropical island, rather similar to Max's postcard of paradise.

Pages 165-167: The epilogue. Max and Annie step off at the next station, leaving Vincent as just another dead guy riding the subway.

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Truby's 22-step Building Block Technique

While the three-act template is useful in ordering your story at a base level, a far more advanced technique has been developed by another leading figure in screenwriting tutorials, John Truby. Truby's 22-step building block technique throws the three-act structure out of the window, employing instead a fluid method devoid of page-number restrictions, and derives plot from the actions of the main character, rather than the other way around.

The information is this tutorial has been condensed from Truby's Great Screenwriting audio course, which runs for a whopping 14 hours. If you find this tutorial useful, I'd recommend you purchase the CDs. At around 120 the course is not cheap, but it obviously contains far more information than I've presented here, including guidelines on creating the visual world of the story, genres and how to undercut and transcend them, subplots, the five major types of dialogue, and three important variations on the classic structure below: the myth, the fairytale and the drama. Fans of Terry Rossio's Wordplay articles will be interested to know Rossio is one of Truby's high-profile fans.

The audio course examines Vertigo by Alec Coppel & Samuel Taylor, and The Verdict by David Mamet, both rated highly by critics and audiences. Truby explains that although both scripts hit the beats outlined below, he believes Vertigo is a superior script, not least because in The Verdict, the hero's self-revelation occurs at the point of the first revelation, making subsequent revelations impossible to build upon. The moral ambiguity of Jimmy Stewart's hero also makes Vertigo a more interesting, less clean-cut affair.

The Building Blocks of Truby's Classic Structure

1. Range of Change Start at the end, as they say. The self-revelation (step 20) is the most important element of the classic structure, and should be the first decision the writer makes at it will reflect his view of the correct way to live in society. Furthermore, writing a script may take several months, even years, and the writer's enthusiasm may flag unless he is convinced he is conveying a worthwhile message. The writer should ask the following questions: What specifically will the hero learn at the end of the story? What correct and, more importantly, incorrect notions does the hero hold at the start of the story? By doing this the writer can figure out the range of change of the hero.
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2. Ghost & Context The ghost is the event from the past still haunting the hero, creating a fundamental weakness for him/her. It is absolutely crucial as it provides the foundation for the entire script, and gives you as the writer a running start, a so-called ‘backstory’. The ghost is the internal opponent of the hero, the great fear that causes his inaction in difficult circumstances. Where desire pushes the hero in one direction, the ghost holds the hero back. The ghost is typically the source of the need. The best films will have a ghost cycle, a cycle of events enslaving the hero. The context is the world of the hero, and Truby defines 4 types: wilderness, village/town, city, & oppressive city. Each of these social stages requires a different type of hero. These are dealt with in great detail in the audio course.

3. Need There are two types of need: psychological & moral. A psychological need is something deeply affecting the hero, a weakness that must be overcome or an internal lack in character, but something the hero may be acutely aware of. In Vertigo, the hero's psychological need is to overcome his fear of heights. In better stories, the hero will also have a moral need - i.e. the hero is also hurting other people and must learn how to act differently for the sake of others. In Vertigo, the hero's moral need is to learn to forgive, although he does not realise this in time. Some needs may be both psychological and moral.

4. Inciting Incident An event from outside causes the hero to formulate a goal and take action. Truby defines the inciting incident as the translator between need and desire. It jump-starts the hero in a particular direction. An important point to remember is the inciting incident should be necessary i.e. it should cause the hero to run smack into the opponent, and eventually confront his need. The rule of thumb for creating a good inciting incident is 'from the frying pan to the fire'. The hero should think the event from the outside has just gotten him out of trouble, when in fact it has made things worse for him.

5. Overall Desire Line If the need is the general lack inside the hero, then the desire is the goal outside the hero. Usually, if the hero succeeds in fulfilling his desire, he will also fulfil his need. The desire should be as specific as possible, and the audience should be acutely aware of when the goal will be achieved (e.g. to 'get the girl' is a strong desire line; to 'become independent' is not). A good desire line should start at the lowest possible level and will be modified throughout the story, but will not change completely as this will lead to a fragmented story. For example, in Vertigo, the hero's initial desire is to have a drink with an old friend. In The Verdict, the initial desire is simply to clean up the office. The desire line should not be accomplished until the end of the story.

6. Ally Useful for two reasons: as a way to define the hero by comparing him with his ally, and also to give the hero someone to talk to so the audience can hear his thoughts. There is little time to fully develop and define the ally, and so it is a good idea to give this character a desire line of their own, to give the audience the impression of a complete person. The ally should never be a more interesting character than the hero.

7. Opponent/Mystery One of the most important elements of the classic structure, there are some key points to remember. The opponent must
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be necessary to the hero: i.e. he should be the one person in the world best able to attack the weakness of the hero, and will attack ferociously. The opponent must be complex and human, not 'evil', or a machine - the opponent may not even be a bad guy. The opponent must have a desire line of his own, and must want essentially the same thing as the hero, or there may be no conflict. The opponent must be a person of great power, status or capability, with a set of beliefs very different from the hero's beliefs. The hero and opponent may compete for the same tangible item (e.g. treasure), but for a great story, they must also be competing for control, creating an opposition of values and moral concerns. In the best stories, the hero must not just defeat the opponent, but must uncover him first, making the success greater. In detective stories, the opponent is kept hidden and so is replaced with the mystery.

8. Opponent-Ally Actually an opponent, or working for the main opponent, this person pretends to be an ally to the hero. Sometimes, they may gain an affinity for the hero and begin to question their own conscience. The fact that they are an opponent must be hidden until later. Not all scripts have an opponent-ally, but according to Truby, the great ones do.

9. First Revelation The hero receives a new piece of information and has a 'revelation', causing him to make a decision and pursue a new course of action. This causes him to adjust his original desire line leading to a modified desire and changed motive for the hero. The revelation should not be a self-revelation, as each subsequent revelation should be stronger than the last. Truby cites this step as the key to the middle of every script, and the reason why many scripts flag in the middle section.

10. Plan The hero formulates a set of guidelines to reach the opponent and achieve the goal. This will generally mark out the middle of the script. The plan should not be 'played out' - i.e. things should go wrong, forcing the hero to come up with new methods to win.

11. Opponent's Plan & Counter Attack Self-explanatory, the opponent also formulates a plan and counter strikes against the hero.

12. Drive This is typically the largest step and usually requires a number of scenes. The drive is the series of actions the hero takes to achieve his goal, and will typically encapsulate from steps 10 to 14. Here, the hero is losing to the opponent causing desperation. The hero begins to take immoral steps in order to win, thus bringing about his moral decline. The drive should incorporate new twists and steps, avoiding repetition. In Vertigo, the drive is very repetitive as Scottie follows Madeleine, and this is, according to Truby, one of the flaws of the script.

13. Attack by Ally As the hero's moral decline continues, the ally will question and criticise the hero, adding a second level of conflict to the story.

14. Apparent Defeat

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This will occur around two-thirds through the story. It is the lowest point for the hero, as he feels he has lost. However, the hero will receive new information and from this point on will come back. Note there should only be one apparent defeat, and it should be an explosive and devastating moment for the hero.

15. Second Revelation & Obsessive Drive A second piece of major information is necessary here in order to drag the hero back into the game. Here, the hero undergoes a character change - he becomes tyrannical and obsessed with finding the solution. The desire line will again be modified here (but not changed completely).

16. Audience Revelation about Opponent-Ally Here, the audience discovers the true nature of the opponent-ally and for the first time in the story, the audience has information that the hero does not. This breaks the audience identification with the hero for the finale, so they can see his character growth in full.

17. Third Revelation The final revelation about the opponent. The hero now has all the information he needs to defeat the opponent and for the first time, he believes he can win. Films lasting longer than two hours should add more revelations between the second and third revelations in order to sustain the running time.

18. Gate/Gauntlet & Visit to Death As the hero moves toward the final battle, the pressure increases and the space narrows, giving him fewer options. The hero will move through a narrow gate or long gauntlet and will see his own mortality, leading him to become conscious of the fact that he must take a stand. In Vertigo, the bell tower is a vertical gauntlet. This is the most movable of all the steps, occurring as early as the apparent defeat or as late as the battle.

19. Battle The clearest expression of what the hero and the opponent are fighting about, this must be a difficult and painful experience for the hero. Here, the hero will fulfil his need and desire.

20. Self-revelation Having gone through the struggle of battle, the hero goes through change & learns something new about himself. If a moral need is set up, he will also have a moral self-revelation, to learn how to act properly in this world. The hero has fulfilled his need and has learned how to lead a better life. The key point of a good self-revelation is that it should be a sudden, shattering experience for the hero. The hero should realise that he has been hiding something from himself, and has been enslaved because of this. In the best stories, the opponent will also have a self-revelation. The hero and opponent will learn something from each other, and this blend between them is the author's view on the proper way to live in the world. This double reversal occurs most often in love stories.

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21. Moral Decision In order to prove to the audience that the hero has indeed changed, the hero must take new moral action as proof of his new understanding.

22. New Equilibrium Everything is back to normal, except for one big difference. If the self-revelation is positive, the hero will be at a higher level. He has discovered who he is, a very powerful thing, and the audience must believe that he will stay at this level for the rest of his life. In contrast, a negative self-revelation will absolutely destroy the hero. According to Truby, negative selfrevelations are rarer, as scripts with negative endings are traditionally more difficult to sell. However, structurally, there is no difference between them.

{mosimage cw=150 align=left popup=1}It's worth noting that Truby's 22-step structure does conform loosely to the threeact structure, as shown in the diagram here (taken from the Dramatica website).

NB: All scripts are provided for educational purposes only, and many more scripts are available from Drew's Script-ORama and Daily Script.

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