Soil Bid. Biochem. Vol. 26. No. 6. pp.

695-702, 1994
Copyright t) 1994 Elsevier Science Ltd
0038_0717(93)E0033-I Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved
0038-07 I7/94 $7.00 + 0.00

NITROGEN AND PHOSPHORUS AVAILABILITY AND

MINERALIZATION IN DRYLAND REDUCED TILLAGE
CULTIVATION: EFFECTS OF RESIDUE PLACEMENT AND
CHEMICAL FERTILIZER

HEMA SINCH and K. P. SINGH*

Department of Botany, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, India

(Accepted 20 November 1993)

Summary-Proper residue management may help augment soil fertility in dryland farming systems in the
developing countries. We report on the effect of residue placement and chemical fertilizer on available
nutrient pools (N and P) and N-mineralization in dryland reduced tillage cultivation. Four treatments
(control, fertilizer, straw, and straw + fertilizer) were initiated in June 1990 under dryland farming
conditions (rice and lentil rotation) in an attempt to improve nutrient availability and plant growth. Plant
available pools (N and P) and N-mineralization rates were measured periodically. Available N ranged
from 7.0 to 25.5 pg N gg’ dry soil, maximum values were found for the fertilizer treated plots (4566%
greater than control) followed in decreasing order by straw + fertilizer, straw and control plots.
N-mineralization rate ranged from 2.7 to 24.2 ng gg’ month-‘. The increase in nitrogen mineralization
in straw + fertilizer treatment was 97% over the control. The rate of N-mineralization was greatest during
the wet period of the year. It increased exponentially with increase in soil moisture content from S-23%,
indicating that the N-mineralization process is moisture limited in these drylands. At similar moisture
content, straw + fertilizer treatment resulted in greater rate of N-mineralization compared to the control.
Available P ranged from 7.9 to 17.7 pg P g-r dry soil. From 26 to 69% increase in available P was found
in straw + fertilizer treated plots. Both available P and mineralization rates were maximum in
straw + fertilizer treated plots and minimum in control plots. In conclusion, straw + fertilizer application
substantially increased available nutrient pools, and also the rate of N-mineralization, particularly in the
wet period.

INTRODUCTION tion of conservation tillage agriculture has the net

effect of increasing the kind and number of inter-
The agroecosystems of the dryland regions are actions among plants, invertebrates and microorgan-
characterized by low productivity related to low isms. These changes lead to greater and better quality
nutrient availability. Misuse of these ecosystems trig- of soil organic matter, a larger soil microbial biomass
gers soil erosion, desertification and other processes which acts as a large dynamic source and sink of
of degradation. Productivity is quickly diminished, nutrients, and increased macro-porosity which allows
causing far-reaching consequences for local and na- fertilizer management options that can lead to less
tional economies and the well-being of the people leaching and better fertilizer use efficiency (Elliott and
concerned. In India cu 70% of the 144 million Coleman, 1988). Thus, reduced tillage techniques can
ha of arable land depends entirely on rainfall for potentially improve the soil physical structure as well
crop production, and the practice of agriculture here as enhance efficiency of nutrient return from crop
is best described as dryland farming (Virmani, 1991). residue to the plant.
Interest in reduced tillage in dryland farming has For developing countries residue management is
increased recently because of conservation compli- especially important because the amounts of nutri-
ance and potential of this practice to reduce ents in crop residue are several times higher than
soil erosion, conserve soil moisture, improve soil the quantities of these nutrients applied as high
structure, and increase net return to producers. cost fertilizers (Poulain, 1980). Crop residue is also
The adoption of reduced tillage systems in temper- a source of trace elements which are absent in
ate regions is refocusing attention on soil ecology. traditional NPK fertilizers. Prevention of phosphate
Such sustainable agricultural systems can provide fixation is an added benefit because in a major part
economically viable options which may be particu- of India soils are rich in iron and aluminum oxides
larly applicable to the sensitive soils of certain parts which can fix a large amount of phosphorus
of the tropics (Woomer and Ingram, 1990). Introduc- (Laverdiere, 1982).
Several investigators have found that surface-
*Author for correspondence. managed crop residues decompose more slowly than
696 HEMA SINGH and K. P. SINGH

the incorporated residues, indicating that the N delivery, high quality-resource and the straw is a
immobilization potential of surface residue is lower slow nutrient-releasing, poor quality-resource (Swift
than that of residue mixed in soil (Brown and Dickey, et al., 1979). Straw + fertilizer represented a medium-
1970). However, most of these findings are based on quality resource. Four treatments with three repli-
short-term and laboratory based experiments. In cates were established in randomized block design.
contrast, most of the long-term field studies indicate Plot size was 5 x 4.2 m. A strip of 0.5 m was left to
greater net mineralization from incorporated straw separate each treatment block. Plots were kept under
than from surface-applied straw (Brown and Dickey, minimum tillage after the start of the experiment. The
1970; Holland and Coleman, 1987). treatments were: (a) control, (b) chemical fertilizer
We have studied the effect of residue (straw) incor- (NPK: 80kgNha-I, 40kgPhaa’, 30kgKhaa’; for
poration and fertilizer application, singly and in N urea, for P single super phosphate, and for K
combination, on the amounts of plant available N muriate of potash were used), (c) wheat straw
and P, and on the rates of N mineralization under (2 kg me2) with the amount of N equivalent to that
dryland farming conditions. under treatment (b), (d) wheat straw + fertilizer
[straw I kg mm2 + fertilizer 50% of (b)]. Chemical
MATERIALS AND METHODS
composition of applied wheat straw is given in
Table I.
Study sites Applications of fertilizer, straw and straw +
The experiments were made on the experimental fertilizer to plots were made on 24 June 1990 and
farm of the Institute of Agricultural Sciences, again on 30 June 1991. From June 1990 the crop
Banaras Hindu University at Varanasi. The agricul- sequence studied was: fallow to stabilize the treat-
tural farm is located at 25”18’ N latitude and 8O”l’ E ments (June-October), lentil (Lens esculentn var. Pant
longitude, 76 m above the mean sea level and is 209) (8 November-13 March), summer fallow
a part of the Gangetic plains. The region has a (March-June), rice (Oryza sativa var. Akashi) (I7
tropical dry sub-humid climate, dominated by a July-26 October), lentil (20 November-17 March).
typical monsoonal character. The year is divisible Treatments were maintained on the same plots
into a cold winter (November-February), a hot from June 1990. Fertilizer and straw was applied once
summer (April-June) and a warm rainy season each year in the month of June before the rainy
(July-September). October and March constitute season crop. Wheat straw was lightly incorporated in
transitional months between rainy and winter, and the soil whereas fertilizer was surface applied. Winter
between winter and summer seasons, respectively. crop used residual fertilizer and there was no exogen-
The summer is dry and hot with temperatures ranging ous fertilizer application during this period.
between 3045°C during the day. May is the hottest
month having an average maximum temperature Soil sampling and analyses
of >4O”C. Warm conditions (2436°C) and high Soil samples were collected every month for the
relative humidity (70-95%) prevail during the rainy analysis of available N and P pools and measure-
season. During the winter season, temperatures fall to ments of N-mineralization. From each replicate plot
between lO_25°C and January is the coldest month of two soil samples were collected and mixed together to
the year. The annual rainfall averages II00 mm of form a composite sample. The samples were sieved
which 85% falls during the rainy season from the (<2mm).
south-west monsoon. July and August are the rainiest Field-moist samples were analysed for gravimetric
months. About 55 rainy days occur in the annual moisture and pH. A part of the soil was dried at 40°C
cycle, and there is an extended dry period of ca 9 in a forced air oven and ground for analysis of
months. organic C, total N, and total P, K, Na and Ca.
The soils of the study area are Inceptisols that are Sub-samples of the air-dried samples were dried at
deep, flat alluvial, pale brown, silty loams with a 105°C to determine the moisture factor correction.
neutral reaction. In general, soils are well drained and Particle size analysis was done by using sieves of
moderately fertile being low in available N, medium different mesh sizes and a Bouyoucos hydrometer
in available P and K (Hema Singh, unpubl. Ph.D. (Anderson and Ingram, 1989). Bulk density was
thesis, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 1992). determined by using a soil corer and measuring the
The soil of the Banaras Hindu University campus weight of dry soil of a unit volume to a depth of
which includes the agriculture farm has been
characterized as Banaras Type III by Agarwal and
Table I. Characteristics of wheat
Mehrotra (1952). straw applied in the field
Organic C (%)
Experimental design 37.8 jL 1.30
N (%) 0.48 * 0.02
The experiment was designed to vary the quality P(%) 0.09 i 0.05
Na (%) 0.12~0.01
of nutrient input in soils by using wheat (Triticum K (%) 0.95 * 0.04
aestivum), straw and chemical fertilizers, singly and Cd(%) 0.14~0.01
C: N ratio 75.50 * 1.70
in combination. The fertilizer is a rapid nutrient-
 Residue placement and chemical fertilizer 697

10 cm. Soil pH was measured using a glass electrode
(I : 2, soil: water ratio). Water holding capacity
(WHC) was determined by using perforated circular
brass boxes (Piper, 1944). Organic C in soil was
analysed following the Walkley and Black technique
by using dichromate oxidation and titration with
ferrous ammonium sulphate (Walkley, 1947). Soil
was digested by using a mixture of HClO,, HN03
and H,SO, (triple acid digestion) for the analysis
of total P, Na, K and Ca (Allen et al., 1976). Total
P was ~olorimetrically determined by the ammonium
molybdate-stannous chloride method (Jackson,
1958). Total Na and K were measured by using a
flame photometer (Systronics Mediflame 127) and Ca
by a Perkin-Elmer (373 AAS) atomic absorption
spectrophotometer following a method described by
Allen et al. (1976).
Available N and P
Field-moist soil samples were divided into two
parts. One part was used for the determination
of available N (NO,-N + NH,-N) and available P
(NaHCO~-Pi). The second part was used for assessing
the N-mineralization rate. Nitrate-N was measured
by the phenol disulphonic acid method, using CaSO,
as the extractant (Jackson, 1958). Ammonium-N
was extracted by the 2 M KC1 and analysed by the
phenate method [APHA (American Public Health
Association), 19851. Alkaline sodium bicarbonate
(NaHCO,, pH 8.5) was used to extract plant-
available phosphate-P (NaHCO,-Pi) which was
determined by the ammonium molybdate-stannous
chloride method (Jackson, 1958).
Nitrogen mineralization
N-minerali~tion was measured by the buried bag
technique (Eno, 1960; Raghubanshi, 1992). Two
fresh field moist sieved (2 mm) soil samples (ca 150 g
each) were sealed in large polyethylene bag and
exposed in the buried soil of each treatment replica-
tion plot at 10 cm depth. Coarse roots and any large
fragments of organic debris were removed in order to
avoid any marked immobilization during incubation
(Schimel and Parton, 1986). Nitrate-N and am-
monium-N were determined (as previously described)
at time zero (after collection) and after 30 days of
field exposure. The increase in the concentration of
ammonium-N plus nitrate-N over the course of field
exposure is defined as net N-mineralization (Meliilo,
1981; Pastor et al., 1984) and the increase in nitrate-N
as nitrification. All the results are expressed on oven
dry soil (105”C, 24 h) basis.
Statistical analysis
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test the
effects of the four treatments on the data recorded.
The four treatments were regarded as distinct (non-
factorial) strategies. Treatment means were compared
using the least significant difference procedure at the
5% level of significance.
RESULTS
Results of the physico-chemical analyses of soils
are given in Table 2. The texture was silty loam,
with bulk density ranging from 1.31 to 1.35 g cmm3.
Organic C, total N, and total P ranged from 0.69
to 0.93%, 0.08 to 0.11% and 0.018 to 0.021%,
respectively. Most of the nutrients exhibited an
increasing trend in their pool sizes due to the appli-
cation of straw + fertilizer which may lead to
increased nutrient supply rate of the soil in the
long-term.
Available N
Available N (nitrate-N + ammonium-N) varied
considerably within the annual cycle. Table 3 shows
nitrate-N and ammonium-N values during different
crop and fallow periods. Maximum vahtes of avail-
able N were found during the dry phase of the annual
cycle, and it decreased during the period of the
active crop growth. Available N ranged from 7.0
to 18.1 pgg-’ in the control, 11.2 to 25.5 pgg-’
in fertilizer, 7.2 to 21.3pgg-’ in straw and 8.0 to
22.3 fig g-’ dry soil in straw + fertilizer treated plots.
Maximum values were found for the fertilizer treated
plots and the minimum for the control plot. Fertilizer
treated plots were significantly different from other

Table 2. Effectof two fertilizerand straw inputs on soil physico-chemicalproperties (22 months after imposition
of the first treatment). Values are mean of three wplicates zt I SE
soil property Control Fertilizer ShW Straw + fertilizer LSD
Soil texture
Sand (%) 31.7kO.9 33.7 + 0.3 31.OkO.6 32.3 f 0.3 I .9
Silt (%) 64.8 rt 0.8 63.2 + 0.4 65. I + 0.4 64.9 f 0.4 I.3
Clay (%) 3.5 rt 0.3 3.2 f 0.2 3.9 f 0.5 2.8 f 0.1 0.9
PH 6.16 + 0.05 6.89 rt 0.03 7.03 * 0.04 6.8 f 0.03 0.14
Bulk density (gem-‘) 1.35 + 0.01 I .40+ 0.02 1.32 + 0.07 1.31 f 0.03 0.13
Water holding capacity (%f 40.5 f 0.3 41.2 * 0.2 42.8 + 0.4 41.6 f 0.7 I.5
Organic c (%) 0.77 + 0.05 0.69 + 0.02 0.93 f 0.09 0.77 f 0.08 0.22
Total N (“/of 0.10~0~01 0.08 rt 0.01 0.11 *0.02 0.1 I f 0.01 0.04
C:N ratio 1.7 + 0.7 8.7 i 1.0 9.1 * 0.9 7.5 + 1.0 3.0
Total P (pgg-‘) 177+6 194*4 181 +4 188 +7 17
K bgg-‘) 7541+ 125 7791 k 167 8012 k 152 7614 f 167 1176
h (Pgg-‘) 717 * I2 836 ir 24 8lO+ 14 830 + 25 130
Ca (Pgg-‘) 1147~63 1271 + 33 1253 + 20 1160+29 131
LSD = least significant difference (P i 0.05).
698 HEMASINGHand K. P. SINGH

Table 3. Variations in nitrate-N and ammonium-N (pg g ’ + I SE)

due to treatments during different crop and
fallow periods. The values for each fallow-crop periods are averages of monthly determinations during respective
oeriods. Values in oarentheses show ocr cent increase over conlrol

Period Control Fertilizer Straw Straw + fertilizer LSD

Nifrare-N
1990 Rainy fallow 0.6 f 0. I I .9 f 0.4 I.1 kO.1 1.4*0.1 0.69
1991 Lentil crop 1.3 kO.1 2.7 k 0.07 1.7*0.2 2.2 -f: 0.1 0.37
1992 Summer Fallow 2.2 f 0. I 4.0 + 0.3 2.7 f 0.7 2.9 f 0. I 1.3
1992 Rice crop I .2 f 0.08 2.1 * 0.07 I .6 f 0.06 1.9*0.12 0.28
1992 Lentil crop 1.4*0.1 2.9 f 0.03 2.1 + 0.03 2.4 f 0.01 0.18

Ammonium-N
1990 Rainy fallow Il.7 f 0.9 16.5 f 0.2 13.4 + I.4 14.5 f 0.4 2.7
1991 Lentil crop ll.8kO.7 16.8 * 0.5 14.2 + 0.4 15.2 + 0.4 1.7
1992 Summer fallow 8.2 f 0.2 13.3 f 1.0 10.6+_0.1 10.8 f 0.3 1.8
1992 Rice crop 6.0 f 0.1 9.5 + 0.1 7.0 * 0.03 7.7 f 0.2 0.4
1992 Lentil crop 8.4 f 0.2 II.3 f0.2 9.3 + 0.08 10.0 f 0.3 0.6

Inorganic N (NH,-N + N&-N)

1990 Rainy fallow 12.2 f 0.7 18.4 f 0.5 14.5 f I.2 15.8 + 0.3 2.3
(+sl)* (+ 19)’ c+30).
1991 Lentil crop 13.1 f I.6 19.6 k 1.6 15.9+ 1.3 17.4 f 1.4 4.3
(+sl)* (+22) ( + 34)*
1991 Summer fallow 10.4 * 0.1 17.3 f 0.8 13.3 k 0.8 13.7 f 0.3 I .9
(+66)* (+ 28)’ (+28)*
1991 Rice crop 7.2 + 0.3 ll.6kO.4 8.5 5 0.3 9.6 + 0.4 I .o
(+61)* (+ l8*) (+33)*
1992 Lentil crop 9.7 * 0.9 14.1 f I.5 11.4*0.9 12.3 f 1.2 3.3
(+45)* (+ 18) (+27)

*Significant at P < 0.05.

treatment plots during the fallow periods and during Nitrification

the rice crop season (Table 3). However, during
the lentil crop season fertilizer treatment differed
significantly only from the control.
Available P
Available P in soil ranged from 7.9 to 14.1 pg g-’
in the control, 10.1 to 17.1 pg gg’ in fertilizer, 9.2 to
16.3 pg gg’ in straw and 11.2 to 17.7 pg gg’ dry soil
in straw + fertilizer amended plots (Table 4).
Straw + fertilizer treated plots showed highest
available P values and differed significantly from
other treatments during the rainy fallow period,
summer fallow period and 1991 lentil crop (Table 4).
However, during the rice crop season and 1992 lentil
crop season it showed significant differences only
with the control and straw treated plots. Seasonal
variations of available P pools were not as marked as
those for inorganic N. However, the values for wet
periods were slightly higher than those for the dry
periods.
The nitrification rate during the mineralization
incubation was maximum in fertilizer amended soils
(2.1-5.5 bgg-’ month-‘), followed by straw + ferti-
lizer amended soils (1.9-5.0 pg g-’ month-‘). Control
and straw treated plots had 1.3-4.3 and 1.4-4.5 pg g-’
month-’ nitrification, respectively (Table 5).
N-mineralization
Straw + fertilizer treatment resulted in maximum
rate of N-mineralization followed by fertilizer and
then by straw treatment. The mineralization rates
ranged from 2.7 to 17.5, 4.2 to 21.4, 3.3 to 19.6 and
4.6 to 24.2 pgg-’ month-’ for control, fertilizer,
straw and straw + fertilizer treated plots, respectively
(Fig. I). During all the crop periods the straw +
fertilizer treatments exhibited significantly higher
N-mineralization than the control plots (Table 6).
N-mineralization in fertilizer treated plots was higher
than in control and straw-treated plots. No signifi-
cant differences due to treatments were observed

Table 4. The size of available P pool (gg g ’f I SE) as affected by different treatments. The
values for each fallow and crop periods are averages of monthly determination during respective
periods. Values in parentheses show per cent increase over control

Straw+
Period Control Fertilizer Straw fertilizer LSD

1990 Rainy fallow 10.6 f 0.2 13.3 f 0.5 ll.8+0.2 15.6 + 0.3 0.9
(+25)* (+II)* (f47).
1991 Lentil crop 9.4 + 0.3 10.9 + 0.3 10.3 + 0.1 ll.8+0.1 0.5
(+ 16)’ (+lo)* (+26)’
1991 Summer fallow 9.8 f 0.2 14.9 f 0.2 13.2 f 0.3 16.6 f 0.2 0.7
(+52)* (+35)* ( + 69)’
1991 Rice crop 12.0 + 0.4 16.0 + 0.4 14.2 + 0.5 16.7 + 0.3 I.2
( + 33)* (+ l8)* ( + 39).
1992 Lentil crop 9.0 * 0.5 11.2*0.5 10.2 * 0.4 12.2 * 0.5 1.4
( + 24). (+l3) (+36)*

*Significant at P < 0.05.

 Residue placement and chemical fertilizer 699

Table 5. Effects of treatments on nitritication (pgg-’ month- ’ + I SE). The values for each
fellow-crop period are averages of monthly determinlttion during respective periods. Values in
parentheses show per cent increase over control
straw +
Period Control Fertilizer straw fertilizer LSD
1990 Rainy fallow 4.3 f 0.4 5.5 f 0.3 4.5 f 0.3 5.0 f 0.2 0.9
(+28)* (+5) (+16)
1991 Lentil crop 1.9 + 0.2 2.7 f 0.2 2.0 f 0.2 2.2 f 0.3 0.6
(+42)* (+5) (+l6)
1992 Summer fallow 1.4*0.4 2.1 f 0.06 I .8 f 0.9 1.9 f0.9 I.7
(+ 50)’ (-3) (+38)*
1990 Rice crop 3.8 f 0.1 5.3 f 0.1 4.4*0.1 4.7 +0.1 0.4
(+39)* (+ l9)* (+24)*
1992 Lentil crop 1.3 kO.1 2.7 f 0.1 1.7 f 0.08 2.0+0.1 0.3
(+ l08)* (+3lj* t + 54j*
*Significant at P < 0.05.

during the fallow periods. A marked seasonality
was observed in N-mineralization rate; wet periods
had higher rates and dry periods lower rates of
N-mineralization.
DISCUSSION
N and P availability
Our study revealed significant increases in the
mean values of available N pools in the three treat-
ments compared to control. The increases in N were
greater for the fertilizer treatments which increased
inorganic N concentration by 45-66% (Table 3). In
a U.S. dryland long-term research site, El-Haris et al.
(1983) also reported an 88% increase in inorganic
N values after 67 kg ha-’ N fertilizer application.
Significant accumulation of inorganic N is expected
in the surface soil under dry conditions, and the
addition of fertilizer N would only help accentuate
this situation (Carter and Rennie, 1984). In our study

25
Control Fertilizer

7
9 20
6
E
-7
M I5
2

2
._
5 10
.:
‘;;j
5
.9
E 5
i

JlllI~llllllllllIIllll
2:
Straw

-i
5 20
E
E
7
M I5
2

.-8
5 10
2
:!
8
.- 5
E
i

0
JAODFAJAODF JAODFAJAODF
90 92 90 90

Months Months
Fig. I. Temporal changes in the rate of N-mineralization (pg g-’ month-‘) under different treatments.
700 HEMA SINCH and K. P. SINGH

Table 6. N-mineralization rates (pg g- ’ month ’ + 1SE) as affected by the different treatments.
The values for each cropfallow period are averages of monthly determinations during respective
oeriods. Values in oarentheses show wr cent increase over control
straw+
Period Control Fertilizer straw fertilizer LSD
1990 Rainy fallow 14.9 f 1.2 18.8 * 1.5 16.3 k 1.6 19.3 f 2.3 5.0
( + 26)’ (+9) (+30)*
1991 Lentil crop 6.1 f I.1 7.8 + 0.4 6.9 f I .O 9.1 f 1.0 2.8
( + 28)’ (+l3) (+49)*
1992 Summer fallow 3.4 f 0.4 4.2 + 0.4 4.0 f 0.9 4.6 + 0.4 1.8
(i 24)* (+l8) (+35)*
1990 Rice crop 9.8 f 0.2 14.3 + 0.9 I I .2 f 0.2 16.6 f I.2 2.2
(+46)* (+14) (+69)*
1992 Lentil crop 3.8 f 0.4 6.3 + 0.2 4.4 f 0.5 7.5 + 0.3 1.0
( + 66’) (+l6) (+97)*
*Significant at P < 0.05

more inorganic N was present during the dry periods
of the rotations. Campbell and Biederbeck (1982) and
Carter and Rennie (1984) also reported accumulation
of inorganic N at the soil surface during the dry
period. In our study the decrease in the inorganic N
pool coincided with active crop growth and was
evidently due to N-uptake by crop.
Ammonium-N was the dominant form of inor-
ganic N in the soils we studied as it constituted a
substantially large proportion (77-96%) of inorganic
N (Table 3). From 50 to 76% of N mineralization was
accounted by the ammonification process (Tables 5
and 6). Studies on conservation tillage (Thomas and
Peaslee, 1973) and residue placement (Standley et al.,
1990) show low amounts of nitrate-N compared
to ammonium-N in the soils. The activity of the
nitrifying bacteria, in contrast to the diverse ammoni-
fying microbes, can be impeded by low soil water
potentials under the dryland conditions, resulting in
an accumulation of ammonium (Domergues et al.,
1978). Standley et al. (1990) found that during the
first 3 yr after stubble retention, stubble plots had
less nitrate than the plots with stubble removed.
Ammonium dominance is expected to reduce N
losses by denitrification or leaching from dryland
ecosystems.
In our study straw application increased inorganic
P by l&35% over the control (Table 4). Most of the
P present in the residue can leach out easily in
inorganic form and reflect in available P pool in the
soil. A large proportion (30-60%) of P in the plant
residue is soluble in water or bicarbonate following
drying (Birch, 1961; Martin and Cunningham, 1972;
White, 1981). Bromfield and Jones (1972) found that
as much as 6&85% of the total P in mature hayed-off
Phalaris tuberosa and Trifoliutn subterreneum was
water soluble, with most of it being inorganic P.
Similar results have been reported for roots (Martin
and Cunningham, 1972). Generally, the addition of
organic molecules in the soil increases the mobility
of phosphate ions (E. Frossard, unpubl. Ph.D.
thesis, INPL, Nancy, 1985), whereas a depletion of
soil organic matter can raise the fixation power of
phosphate ions in soil (Morel, 1984) and induce the
formation of stable phosphate compounds (Smeck,
1985). This may be the reason of highest inorganic
P concentrations in our study in straw + fertilizer
treatment plots (2669% over control).
N-mineralization
Effect of residue inputs on N-mineralization is
shown in Fig. 2. Values for the control have been

l Fertilizer
12
t 0 straw
0 Straw + Fertilizer
10
;
c
z
8
2
-T 6
M

JJASONDJFMAMJJ ASONDJFM
91 92

Months
Fig. 2. Effect of applications of straw and fertilizer singly and in combination (arrows indicate time of
application), on N-mineralization (pg g“ month-‘). The values for control have been subtracted from the
treatment values.
 Residue placement and chemical fertilizer 701

30 40 kg N ha-’ at the end of year and ca 40% of this

r
(0.17x) N was derived from the straw itself (Powlson et al.,
[r* = 0.801 1985). Ocio et al. (1991) also found that most of the
I newly-synthesized microbial biomass during straw
decomposition comes from N already present in the
straw as in their experiment soil inorganic N was
small and there was a rapid increase in microbial
biomass in straw alone treatments. Similarly, in the
soil receiving straw and 100 kg ha-’ inorganic-N
nearly all of this N was still present in inorganic form
7 days after straw incorporation, yet by this time the
microbial biomass had increased by ca 50 kg N ha-’
(Ocio et al., 1991). In our study also, inorganic N
concentrations in straw amendments never fell below
the control, indicating insignificant immobilization of
0 5 10 15 20 25
inorganic N from the soil.
Soil moisture (%) There are reports of N-mineralization from
Fig. 3. Relationship between N-mineralization rate and residues with N concentration lower than 1.0%
gravimetric soil moisture across all treatments and sampling (Smith and Douglas, 1971; Douglas et al., 1980).
periods.
In our study N mineralization was always found
in the straw-treated plots which had 9-18% more
subtracted from those of the other treatments. This N-mineralized than the control. In a long-term field
figure indicates that straw + fertilizer application re- experiment Bonde et al. (1988) found highest miner-
suited in greatest treatment increase in the rate of alization potential in straw + fertilizer applied soil
N-mineralization followed by fertilizer and straw (36% higher than the control) whereas fertilizer
applications singly. N-mineralization and the effect of application alone increased mineralization potential
inputs on it was maximum during the wet period by only about 6% over control. In our study also
which coincided with the active crop growth. In straw + fertilizer combination increased N-mineraliz-
the majority of cases at the same moisture level, ation rates by 3&97% and this per cent effect was
straw + fertilizer treatment resulted in greater miner- more than the cumulative per cent effects of separate
alization compared to the control. Figure 3 shows a applications of fertilizer and straw. Addition of corn
relationship between gravimetric soil moisture and residue with a low C: N ratio to the unfertilized as
N-mineralization. It is apparent from this relation- well as fertilized treatments also increased the rate of
ship that mineralization is a moisture limited process N-mineralization (Clay and Clapp, 1990).
in the dryland soils and it increases exponentially In conclusion, combined input of straw and fertil-
within the range of 5-23% soil moisture content. izers enhances N-mineralization rate resulting into a
Variation of soil moisture throughout the annual larger size of available N pool. This will increase the
cycle strongly affected the rate of N-mineralization. nutrient supply even during the period when fertilizer
As much as 80% variability in N-mineralization was application is not feasible due to low moisture in
explained by the soil moisture content. dryland farming conditions.
Several workers have reported increased N-miner-
alization in soils supplied with fertilizer (Bonde and Acknowledgements-Thanks are due to Dr A. S. Raghuban-
Rosswall, 1987; Bonde et al., 1988; Clay and Clapp, shi for suggestions and to the Ministry of Environment and
Forests for funding support through a project granted to
1990). When fertilizer-N is added to soil, it interacts
Professor J. S. Singh.
with the indigenous soil-N sometimes increasing the
mineralization of soil N, a phenomenon known
as ‘priming effect’ (Westerman and Kurtz, 1974; REFERENCES
Dormaar, 1975). Woods et al. (1987) argued that the
Agarwal R. R. and Mehrotra C. L. (1952) Soil Work
‘priming effect’ results from the increased net N-min-
in Uttar Pradesh, Vol. II. Department of Agriculture,
eralization that accompanies increased N-fertilization Uttar Pradesh, India.
so long as mineral-N concentrations remain low Alexander M. (1977) Introduction to Soil Microbiology.
enough to limit soil microbial activity. Priming effect Wiley, New York.
Allen S. E., Grimshaw H. M. and Rowland A. P. (1976)
may also be involved in the considerable increase in
Chemical analysis. In Methods in Plant Ecology (P. D.
N-mineralization rate after fertilizer application Moore and S. B. Chapman, Eds), pp. 285-344. Blackwell,
(24-66% over the control) in our study (Table 6). Oxford.
In plant residues with high carbon:element ratios, Anderson J. M. and Ingram J. S. 1. (1989) Tropicul Soil
nutrient immobilization may dominate over mineral- .,_ and Fertility: A Hundbook of Methods. CAB
Biolonv
International, Wallingford.
ization until microbial demands are met (Alexander, APHA (American Public Health Association) (1985) Stan-
1977; Swift et al., 1979). Incorporation of 3 t ha-’ dard Meth0d.y for the Esamination qf‘ Wat&and ‘Wmte-
straw in late autumn caused a retention of cu wter. American Public Health Association, Washington.
702 HEMA SINGH and K. P. SINGH

Birch H. F. (1961) Phosphorus transformations during plant pp. 427442. Swedish Natural Science Research Council,
decomposition. Plant and Soil 15, 347-366. Stockholm.
Bonde T. A. and Rosswall T. (1987) Seasonal variation Morel R. (1984) Les Essais de Fertilisation de Longue duree
of potentially mineralizable nitrogen in four cropping de la Station Agronomique de Grignon. Disposifif
systems. Soil Science Society of America Journal 51, Deherain et des 36 Parcelles. Resultats/Experimentaux
1508-1514. (periode 1938-1982), pp. 5459. INRA, Paris.
Bonde T. A., Schnurer .I. and Rosswall T. (1988) Microbial Ocio J. A.. Brookes P. C. and Jenkinson D. S. (1991) Field
biomass as a fraction of potentially mineralizable nitrogen incorporation of straw and its effects on soil microbial
in soils from long-term field experiments. Soil Biology & biomass and soil inorganic N. Soil Biology & Biochemistry
Biochemistry 20, 447452. 23, 171-176.
Bromfield S. M. and Jones 0. L. (1972) The initial leaching Pastor J., Aber J. D., McClaugherty C. A. and Melillo J. M.
of hayed-off pasture plants in relation to the recycling of (1984) Aboveground production and N and P cycling
phosphorus. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research along a nitrogen mineralization gradient on Blackhawk
23, 8 I l-824. Island, Wisconsin. Ecology 65, 256268.
Brown P. and Dickey D. D. (1970) Losses of wheat straw Piper C. S. (1944) Soil and Plant Analysis. Interscience, New
residue under stimulated field conditions. Soil Science York.
Society of America Proceedings 34, 118-121. Poulain J. F. (1980) Crop residues in traditional cropping
Campbell C. A. and Biederbeck V. 0. (1982) Changes in systems in West Africa. Effects on the mineral balance
mineral N and numbers of bacteria and actinomycetes and level of organic matter in soils and proposals for their
during two years under wheat-fallow in Southwestern better management. In Organic Cycling in Africa. FAO
Saskatchewan. Canadian Journal of Soil Science 62, Soil Bulletin No. 43.
1255137. Powlson D. S., Jenkinson D. S., Pruden G. and Johnston
Carter M. R. and Rennie D. A. (1984) Nitrogen transform- A. E. (1985) The effect of straw incorporation on the
ations under zero and shallow tillage. Soil Science Society uptake of nitrogen by winter wheat. Journal of the Science
of America Journal 48, 1077-1081. of Food and Agriculture 36, 26-30.
Clay D. E. and Clapp C. E. (1990) Mineralization of low Raghubanshi A. S. (1992) Effect of topography on selected
C-to-N ratio corn residue in soils fertilized with NH: soil properties and nitrogen mineralization in a dry
fertilizer. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 22, 355-360. tropical forest. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 24,
Coleman D. C., Reid C. P. P. and Cole C. V. (1983) 145-150.
Biological strategies of nutrient cycling in soil systems. Schimel D. S. and Parton W. J. (1986) Microclimatic
Advances in Ecological Research 13, l-55. controls of nitrogen mineralization and nitrification in
Dommergues Y. R., Belser L. W. and Schmidt E. L. (1978) shortgrass steppe-soils. Plant and Soil 93, 347-357.
Limiting factors for microbial growth and activity in soil. Smeck N. E. (1985) Phosphorus dynamics in soils and
In Advances in Microbial Ecology (M. Alexander, Ed.), landscapes. Geoderma 36, 185-199.
Vol. 2, pp. 49-104. Plenum Press, New York. Smith J. H. and Douglas C. L. (1971) Wheat straw de-
Dormaar J. F. (1975) Susceptibility of organic matter of comnosition in the field. Soil Science SocietvI of- America
chernozemic Ah horizons to biological decomposition. Proceedings 35, 2699272.
Canadian Journal of Soil Science 5% 473480. _ Standley J., Hunter H. M., Thomas G. A., Blight G. W.
Douglas Jr., C. L., Allmaras R. R., Rasmusen P. E., Ramig and Webb A. A. (I 990) Tillage and crop residue manage-
R. E. and Roager Jr., N. C. (1980) Wheat straw compo- ment effect vertisol properties and grain sorghum growth
sition and placement effects on decomposition in dryland over seven years in the semi-arid and sub-tropics. 2.
agriculture of the Pacific North-West. Soil Science Society Changes in soil properties. Soil and Tillage Research 18,
of America Journal 44, 833-837. 367-388.
El-Haris M. K., Cochran V. L., Elliott L. F. and Bezdicek Swift M. J., Heal 0. W. and Anderson J. M. (1979)
D. F. (1983) Effect of tillage, cropping and fertilizer Decomposition in Terrestrial Ecosystems. Blackwell,
management on soil nitrogen mineralization potential. Oxford.
Soil Science Society of America Journal 41, I 157-l 161. Thomas G. W. and Peaslee D. E. (1973) Testing soils for
Elliott E. T. and Coleman D. C. (1988) Let the soil work for phosphorus. In Soil Testing and Plant Analysis (L. M.
us. Ecological Bulletins 39, 23-32. Walsh and J. D. Beaton, Eds), pp. 120-128. Soil Science
Eno C. F. (1960) Nitrate nroduction in the field bv incubat- Society of America, Wisconsin.
ing the soil in polyethylene bags. Soil Science Society of Virmani S. M. (1991) Dryland farming: promise of water-
America Proceedings 24, 277-279. shed projects. The Hindu Survey of Indian Agriculture
Holland E. A. and Coleman D. C. (1987) Litter placement 1991, pp. 2429. Kasturi, Madras.
effects on microbial and organic matter dynamics in an Walkley A. (1947) A critical examination of a rapid method
agroecosystem. Ecology 68, 425433. for determining organic carbon in soils-ffects of
Jackson M. L. (1958) Soil Chemical Analysis. Prentice-Hall, variations in digestion conditions and of inorganic soil
Englewood Cliffs, N.J. constituents. So% Science 63, 251-264. -
Jansson S. L. and Persson J. (1982) Mineralization and Westerman R. L. and Kurtz L. T. (1974) Reolv to Fried and
immobilization of soil nitrogen. In Nitrogen in Agri- Broeshart. Soil Science Society ofAme&Proceedings 38,
cultural Soils and Agronomy (J. Stevenson, Ed.), 858-859.
pp. 2299252. American Society of Agronomy, Madison. White R. E. (1981) Pathways of phosphorus in soil. In
Laverdiere M. R. (1982) Effect of phosphate additions on Phosphorus in Sewage Sludge and Animal Waste Slurries
the charge properties of a Podzolic B horizon. Canadian (T. W. G. Hucker and G. Catroux, Eds.), pp. 2146.
Journal of Soil Science 62, 519-525. Reidel, Dordrecht.
Martin J. K. and Cunningham R. B. (1972) Factors con- Woods L. E., Cole C. V., Porter L. K. and Coleman D. C.
trolling the release of phosphorus from decomposing (1987) Transformations of added and indigenous nitrogen
wheat roots. Australian Journal of Biological Sciences 26, in genobiotic soil: a comment on the priming effect. Soil
715-727. Biology & Biochemistry 19, 673678.
Melillo J. M. (1981) Nitrogen cycling in deciduous forests. Woomer P. L. and Ingram J. S. I. (Eds) (1990) The Biology
In Nitrogen Cycling in Terrestrial Ecosystems (F. E. and Fertility of Tropical Soils. Tropical Soil Biology and
Clark and T. Rosswall, Eds), Ecological Bulletin 33, Fertility Report: 1990. TSBF Programme. Nairobi.