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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/agee

Soil and water environmental effects of fertilizer-, manure-, and

compost-based fertility practices in an organic vegetable cropping system
Gregory Evanylo *, Caroline Sherony, John Spargo, David Starner, Michael Brosius, Kathryn Haering
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Department of Crop and Soil Environmental Sciences, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0403, United States

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: Degraded soil quality, which decreases agricultural productivity and increases nonpoint source pollution
Received 4 June 2007 of surface water, may be ameliorated by employing soil organic matter enhancing management, such as
Received in revised form 24 February 2008 practiced by compost use in organic farming. The value of compost applied at rates lower than those
Accepted 26 February 2008
required to supply crop nutrient needs requires investigation because applying compost at agronomic
Available online xxx
nitrogen rates may not be economically feasible for organic vegetable producers. We conducted field
research during 2000–2002 on a Luvisol to compare the nutrient and non-nutrient effects of various rates
Keywords: and timings of mixed poultry litter-yard waste compost with a traditional organic fertilizer (poultry
Carbon (C)
litter) and inorganic fertilizer on environmental soil attributes and water quality in an organic vegetable
Compost
crop rotation. Soil organic C, total N, and available P increased 60%, 68%, and 225%, respectively, above the
Infiltration
Nitrogen (N) control with the application of 144 Mg ha 1 compost (dry wt.) during the 3-year study, but the low rate of
Organic matter compost (31 Mg ha 1) did not affect soil C or N. Compost N mineralization was not synchronous with
Phosphorus (P) sweet corn N assimilation, resulting in excess root zone nitrate that would have posed a leaching risk
Poultry litter without the use of a winter rye N-scavenging cover crop. The concentrations of nitrate N that leached
Runoff below the tillage zone occasionally exceeded the 10 mg L 1 health standard but were not different among
Soil quality the agronomic rates of compost, poultry litter, fertilizer, and control treatments for nearly every sampling
Water quality event. Despite increasing runoff water concentrations of N and P, the high compost rate reduced the
amounts of N and P that were transported from the soil surface by five-fold and four-fold, respectively,
compared to the inorganic fertilizer due to a four-fold reduction in runoff volume. Crop yields did not
benefit from low compost rates during the 3-year duration of the study; however, improvements in some
bulk density and porosity indicated that benefits of longer term, low compost rate additions may accrue
over time.
ß 2008 Elsevier B.V.. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Manures are typically applied to soil at rates designed to supply

Degraded soil quality, expressed as poor surface soil aggregation,
high bulk density, low porosity, and slow infiltration, limits
agricultural productivity and increases nonpoint source pollution
of surface water via agricultural runoff. Increasing soil organic
matter content through the addition of organic amendments has
proven to be a valuable practice for maintaining or restoring soil
quality (Wander et al., 2002). Alternative agricultural practices such
as organic production have been promoted as environmentally
beneficial (Oquist et al., 2007) by reducing agricultural impacts on
water quality. Organic agricultural relies greatly on building soil
organic matter with compost typically replacing inorganic fertilizers
and animal manure as the fertility source of choice.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 540 231 9739; fax: +1 540 231 3075.
E-mail address: gevanylo@vt.edu (G. Evanylo).
a crop’s nitrogen requirement (i.e., agronomic N rate). Composting
reduces nitrogen concentration of the original waste and trans-
forms N into stable forms whose plant availability is reduced.
Nitrogen mineralization rates of 38–60% for uncomposted
manures were reduced to 6–20% upon composting (Eghball and
Power, 1999; Benitez et al., 2003; Wolkowski, 2003). Nutrient
management regulatory criteria for the mid Atlantic region
typically assigns organic N mineralization factors of 60% for
poultry manure and 10% for compost during the year of application
(Evanylo, 1994; Virginia Department of Conservation and Recrea-
tion, 2005, http://www.dcr.virginia.gov/documents/Standard-
sandCriteria.pdf). Such decreases in nitrogen concentration and
mineralization rate necessitate higher application rates to meet
crop N demands.
Rates of compost required to supply agronomic N needs are
typically too high to be economically feasible for farmers; however,
organic farmers are more likely to apply at or near agronomic N

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Please cite this article in press as: Evanylo, G. et al., Soil and water environmental effects of fertilizer-, manure-, and compost-based
fertility practices in an organic vegetable cropping system, Agric Ecosyst Environ (2008), doi:10.1016/j.agee.2008.02.014
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rates because of the higher price that they can command for their
crop and their great reliance on compost as an N source. Maynard
(2005) obtained increases in soil organic matter and vegetable
yields with compost rates as low as 22.5 Mg ha 1, but higher rates
of 56 and 112 Mg ha 1 were needed to achieve maximum
economic yield. Further research is required to determine how
much value low rates of compost or less frequent agronomic N
rates impart to agronomic and environmental soil quality.
Bulluck et al. (2002) measured greater improvements in soil
physical, chemical, and biological attributes and crop yields from
compost than synthetic fertilizer in this region. By contrast, Eghball
and Power (1999) and Diez et al. (1997) obtained no yield
differences between crops grown with compost and chemical
fertilizer. Aref and Wander (1997) suggested that adding organic
matter may improve environmental efficiency (i.e., fewer inputs to
produce the same yield), rather than increasing yield, based on
long term research conducted at the Morrow plots in Illinois.
Mamo et al. (1999) and Keeling et al. (2003) determined that
compost use enhanced the effectiveness of fertilizers by increasing
crop productivity when both compost and fertilizer were applied
rather than either one of the amendments. Sikora and Enkiri (2000)
found that substituting 33% of fertilizer N with an equivalent
amount of total (not plant-available) compost N gave equal tall
fescue yields. Few studies have attempted to separate the
beneficial nutrient supply effects from other crop growth-
promoting benefits.
One routinely cited environmental advantage of compost as a
soil amendment is the reduced mineralization rates may decrease
the potential for nitrate leaching by delaying the conversion of
organic N to mobile, nitrate N. Maynard (1989) and Mamo et al.
(1998) determined that nitrate leaching could be reduced by
substituting compost for commercial inorganic fertilizer in
vegetable studies ranging from 1 to 3 years. Brinton (1985)
reported lower potential nitrate leaching from soils amended with
composted than uncomposted manure for maize production. None
of these studies employed lysimetry to measure actual amounts of
nitrate N that leached from the root zone. The environmental
advantage gained by slow mineralization may be an agronomic
shortcoming.
Repeated N-based applications of manure lead to an accumula-
tion of soil phosphorus (P) in excess of crop needs and can increase
P enrichment of agricultural runoff (Sharpley et al., 1998; Sims
et al., 1998). The ratio of plant available N (PAN) to P in compost is
significantly lower than the ratio of PAN:P in manure from which
the compost is prepared (Preusch et al., 2002; Sikora and Enkiri,
2004) and lower than the ratio of N:P in crops (Mullins and Hansen,
2006); thus, the accumulation of soil P is likely to occur when
compost is repeatedly applied based on crop N needs.
Eghball and Gilley (1999) and Sharpley and Moyer (2000)
demonstrated that compost applied at agronomic N rates may pose
risk for elevated P in runoff; however, neither of these studies
considered the long term beneficial effects of repeated compost
applications on soil physical properties (e.g., bulk density,
porosity) that may increase infiltration and decrease runoff and
subsequent erosion (Khaleel et al., 1981; Aggelides and Londra,
2000; Foley and Cooperband, 2002). As much as 90% of P lost from
agronomic land is in the particulate form when soil P levels are not
excessive (Sharpley and Beegle, 1999); thus, erosion plays a
significant role in P transport.
The objectives of this study were to compare rates and
application timings of composted poultry litter with a standard
organic fertilizer (poultry litter) and a commercial agricultural
synthetic fertilizer on (1) soil attributes of environmental quality
(carbon, N, P, infiltration and runoff volume, and water holding
capacity), (2) agronomic measures of nitrogen availability (crop
growth, plant nitrogen, and available soil nitrogen), and (3) water
Please cite this article in press as: Evanylo, G. et al., Soil and water environmental effects of fertilizer-, manure-, and compost-based
fertility practices in an organic vegetable cropping system, Agric Ecosyst Environ (2008), doi:10.1016/j.agee.2008.02.014
quality (nitrate leaching and runoff nutrient loads) in an organic
vegetable cropping system in the Virginia Northern Piedmont soil
physiographic province.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Site description and experimental design
A field site was established at Virginia Tech’s Northern
Piedmont Agricultural Research and Education Center (NPAREC)
in Orange, Virginia in the Virginia Piedmont soil physiographic
province on a Fauquier silty clay loam (fine, mixed, mesic, Ultic
Hapludalfs) having a slope of 7–10%. The Fauquier soil series, a
Luvisol according to the World Reference Base for Soil Resources
(http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/agll/wrb/), has a moderately high
mean soil productivity for soils in the Virginia Piedmont
(8.55 Mg corn grain ha 1; Simpson et al., 1993).
Eight treatments (as described in Table 1) were established to
discriminate among nutrient and non-nutrient agronomic benefits
and environmental effects of compost. Annual rates of compost,
poultry litter, and fertilizer to supply the agronomic crop N needs
are the highest economically viable rates of those fertility sources.
Higher rates of those materials present a risk of excessive N, and
lower rates could limit maximum economic yield. Compost
treatments applied at rates designed to supply only 20% of the
crop N requirements were included to determine agronomic
benefits and environmental effects of low compost rates to which
farmers might be economically limited. Each treatment was
replicated 4 employing a randomized complete block design with
individual plots measuring 3.6 m wide by 7.5 m long.
Annual agronomic N rates of compost (AC), poultry litter (PL)
and fertilizer (F) treatments were used to compare plant available
N and water quality impacts of different sources of N applied at the
same calculated PAN rate. The compost (AC) and poultry litter (PL)
treatments were used to compare two organic sources of N, likely
having different availabilities and, possibly, environmental con-
sequences. The fertilizer (F) and unamended (CTL) treatments
were used as controls for comparing 100% soluble and completely
soil dependent N sources, respectively.
The other four treatments consisted of various combinations of
compost and fertilizer rates. Comparisons of the annual agronomic
N compost rate (AC) with the annual low compost rate plus
supplemental fertilizer (LCF) and the agronomic biennial compost
treatment plus supplemental fertilizer (BCF) permitted the non-
nutrient benefits of the compost to be assessed because each of
these treatments provided equal plant available N but varying
rates of organic matter. The annual low compost rate treatment
Table 1
Description of experimental treatments
Treatment code Treatment description
CTL Control (no amendments)
LC Low compost: 20% of the agronomic N compost
rate applied annually
LCF Low compost + fertilizer: 20% of the agronomic N
compost rate plus supplemental fertilizer required
to meet crop N needs, applied annually
AC High compost: agronomic N compost rate,
applied annually
BC High compost: agronomic N compost rate, applied
biennially, i.e., in years 1 and 3
BCF High compost + fertilizer: Agronomic N compost
rate applied biennially, i.e., years 1 and 3, plus
supplemental fertilizer required to meet crop N needs
PL Poultry litter: agronomic N poultry litter rate, applied
annually
F Fertilizer: soil test laboratory recommended rates
of inorganic N, P, and K fertilizers, applied annually
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Table 2 Ammonium and TKN (total Kjeldahl nitrogen) were analyzed using
Mean values of nutrient variables in soil amendments and barley straw mulch EPA method 350.2 (USEPA, 2003) and NO3–N was analyzed using
Poultry litter Compost Barley straw mulch the automated Cd reduction method in the Standard Methods for
the Examination of Water and Wastewater (APHA, 1995). Organic
2000 2001 2002 2000 2001 2002 2000 2001 2002
N was calculated by subtracting NH4–N from TKN.
TKN (g kg 1) 48.4 46.2 46.0 14.6 19.0 24.5 4.0 5.2 4.8 Chemical analyses of the poultry litter and compost (Table 2)
Organic N (g kg 1) 35.3 38.5 36.0 14.5 18.9 24.5 NA NA NA
were used to calculate agronomic N loading rates. Plant available N
NH4–N (g kg 1) 13.1 7.7 10.0 0.1 0.1 ND NA NA NA
NO3–N (g kg 1) 0.1 0.3 0.0 0.01 0.55 1.1 NA NA NA
in compost and poultry litter was calculated from published
Organic C (g kg 1) 481 486 475 296 285 454 424 440 448 regulatory organic N mineralization and ammonia volatilization
C:N 9.9 10.5 10.3 20.3 19.1 19.0 106 84.6 93.3 factors in Virginia (Virginia Department of Conservation and
P (g kg 1) 13.8 14.6 15.6 5.8 6.3 7.8 1.9 2.9 2.5 Recreation, 2005, http://www.dcr.virginia.gov/documents/Stan-
K (g kg 1) 29.1 32.8 32.6 9.7 9.2 13.7 10.9 16.4 15.9
dardsandCriteria.pdf). We calculated PAN by adding 100% of the
NO3 N + NH4 N (i.e., all inorganic is considered plant available
when compost and poultry litter are applied to the soil and
(LC) was used as a check against which to compare the LCF incorporated within 24 h of sampling stockpiles) and the fraction
treatment. The biennial compost treatment plus supplemental of organic-N estimated to be mineralizable. The regulatory-based
fertilizer (BCF) enabled second year residual organic matter effects nitrogen mineralization factors used were 0.10 for compost and 0.6
and non-N-supplying cumulative organic matter effects to be for poultry litter for the first season and 0.05 and 0.12 for the
determined by comparing with AC treatment in the second and second season, respectively. Actual loading rates of the compost
third years of the study, respectively. The biennial compost rate and poultry litter dry matter, C, and N (Table 3), based on actual
treatment (BC) was used as a check against which to compare the annual analyses and estimated plant availability factors, varied
BCF treatment. among treatments due to differences in amendment composition
and first and second year mineralization rates. Less poultry litter
2.2. Management practices was applied to supply the required PAN due to the higher expected
available N; therefore, the amount of carbon applied with the litter
The compost was a commercially-produced material (‘‘Panor- was much less than that added with compost. All organic materials
ama Paydirt’’, Panorama Farms, Earlysville, Virginia), whose contained high enough concentrations of P and K to satisfy crop
poultry litter and yard waste feedstocks were combined at a ratio nutrient requirements when the amendments were applied at
of 2:1 (vol:vol) and composted using turned windrow technology agronomic N rates. A potential concern when applying the compost
for four months. A commercially-processed, screened poultry litter and litter at agronomic N rates was over enrichment of soil P, a
(PL: ‘‘Valley Pride’’ poultry litter, Glen Hill Farm, Harrisonburg, possible source of surface water impairment.
Virginia) was employed as an uncomposted manure comparison. Fertilizer N, P, and K were applied at rates recommended by
The fertilizer treatment (F) consisted of ammonium nitrate (N), Virginia Cooperative Extension (2001) for results of the soils
triple superphosphate (P), and muriate of potash (K) formulated collected and analyzed by Virginia Cooperative Extension routine
and blended according to according to Virginia Cooperative soil testing procedures (Donohue, 1992) each fall preceding the
Extension soil test recommendations. fertilization application. For soil testing analyses, 10 soil cores from
Three 1-litter samples of compost and poultry litter each were the tillage zone (0–15 cm) of each plot were collected, composited,
collected from the stockpiled processed residuals at the commer- air-dried, and screened to pass a 2 mm sieve in spring 2000 and
cial locations and combined, subsampled, and analyzed for total each fall following harvest for routine soil test analysis (Donohue,
carbon and various nitrogen forms each spring prior to soil 1992). Soil test properties at the commencement of the study
application for calculation of amendment application rate. Three 1- were: pH (6.1); Mehlich I-extractable P (17 mg kg 1), K
litter samples each were also collected, combined, and subsampled (157 mg kg 1), Ca (864 mg kg 1), Mg (120 mg kg 1), Zn
from the compost and poultry litter stockpiles on the day of (3.5 mg kg 1), Mn (8.1 mg kg 1), and Cu (0.7 mg kg 1); and cation
application for analysis of chemical composition for determination exchange capacity (9.3 cmol (+) kg 1).
of actual chemical constituents applied (Table 2). The range of C Soil amendments were hand-applied and incorporated within
and TKN in compost during the 3 years of the study is not 24 h during the seedbed preparation by roto-tilling. Pumpkin
unexpected due to the variability in feedstock (i.e., poultry litter, (Cucurbita pepo Var. Magic Lantern), sweet corn (Zea mays L. Var.
municipal leaves, woody waste) composition and recipes over Silver Queen), and bell pepper (Capsicum annuum Var. Aristotle)
time. were grown in 2000, 2001 and 2002, respectively. The crop N
Organic amendments were analyzed for phosphorus (P) and requirements were 84 kg ha 1 for pumpkin, 168 kg ha 1 for sweet
potassium (K) using the EPA method SW 846-6010B (USEPA, corn, and 139 kg ha 1 for bell pepper grown in the Fauquier soil
2003). Organic carbon (C) was analyzed using EPA method 415.1. (Virginia Cooperative Extension, 2001). The amendment rates

Table 3
Rates of organic amendments and associated total organic C and TKN applied to treatments annually

Treatments 2000 2001 2002

Dry matter Organic C TKN Dry matter Organic C TKN Dry matter Organic C TKN
1
Dry weight basis (kg ha )
LC 8,700 2,575 127 13,400 3,819 255 8,600 3,904 211
LCF 8,700 2,575 127 13,400 3,819 255 8,600 3,904 211
AC 43,700 12,935 638 66,900 19,067 1,271 32,900 14,937 836
BC 43,700 12,935 638 0 0 0 40,800 18,523 1,000
BCF 43,700 12,935 638 0 0 0 40,800 18,523 1,000
PL 2,150 1,034 104 4,760 2,313 220 5,780 2,746 266

Treatment code: LC, low compost; LCF, low compost + fertilizer; AC, annual agronomic N compost rate; BC, Biennial agronomic N compost rate; BCF, Biennial agronomic N
compost rate + fertilizer; PL, annual agronomic N poultry litter rate; F, fertilizer.

Please cite this article in press as: Evanylo, G. et al., Soil and water environmental effects of fertilizer-, manure-, and compost-based
fertility practices in an organic vegetable cropping system, Agric Ecosyst Environ (2008), doi:10.1016/j.agee.2008.02.014
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Table 4 2.3.2. Plants

Monthly actual and long term mean rainfall (mm) at the Northern Piedmont
Ten corn earleaf samples were collected from corn plants at the
Agricultural Research and Education Center
early silking (R1) stage (http://www.agronext.iastate.edu/corn/) in
Month Year 1941–2002 2001, dried at 65 8C, and ground in a Wiley mill to pass a 0.5 mm
2000 2001 2002 Mean sieve for determination of nitrogen as an indicator of plant-
available nitrogen. Rye at Feekes Growth Stage 5 (http://
January 63 47 30 72
www.smallgrains.ncsu.edu/Guide/Chapter1.html) was sampled
February 45 28 25 64
March 59 110 71 91 in April 2002 and 2003 within 1 m  0.5 m quadrats, dried at
April 131 18 91 77 65 8C, weighed for biomass production, and ground in a Wiley mill
May 55 119 49 97 to pass a 0.5 mm sieve in preparation for nitrogen analysis as an
June 151 213 72 95
indicator of residual plant-available soil nitrogen. Processed plant
July 87 104 132 115
August 69 76 69 100
tissue was analyzed for total N by combustion with the Vario Max
September 130 21 63 93 CNS macro elemental analyzer.
October 0.3 31 143 87 At harvest, vegetables were picked, counted, and weighed in the
November 42 12 128 85 field for fresh weight yields. Pumpkins were harvested at one
December 65 51 82 77
sampling time, corn was harvested at two sampling times, and
Total 896 830 953 1052 peppers were harvested once a week for five weeks.

2.3.3. Leachate nitrate

required to provide these N rates were calculated using the N
availability factors above and the actual analyses of the amend-
ments and are presented in Table 3. Winter rye (Secale cereale L.
Var. Wheeler) was planted as a cover crop each fall and
incorporated into the soil each spring by disking at Feekes Growth
Stage 5 (http://www.smallgrains.ncsu.edu/Guide/Chapter1.html).
Weeds were controlled by cultivation with a tractor-mounted
roto-tiller and by barley straw mulch applied to a depth of 10 cm.
The barley straw was analyzed by the same methods used for the
compost and poultry litter (Table 2). At a cumulative application
rate of 33,900 kg straw ha 1, the mulch supplied 14,882 kg C ha 1,
161 kg N ha 1, and 85 kg P ha 1 during the 3-year study. The straw
mulch remained largely intact (i.e., little visual signs of decom-
position) throughout the growing season. Whatever remained on
the soil surface the following spring was incorporated into the soil
with the rye cover crop by disking.
Armicarb 100 (potassium bicarbonate; Helena Chemical
Company, Memphis, TN) was used throughout the 2000 growing
season to suppress fungal diseases in pumpkin. To decrease
pests in corn, we applied mineral oil to corn tips and released
beneficial parasitic wasps (T. ostriniae) in 2001. Supplemental
water was applied by trickle irrigation only when necessary to
prevent crop failure during all three growing seasons. Rainfall
data for the site during the three growing seasons are presented
in Table 4.
2.3. Sampling and analysis
2.3.1. Soil
Ten soil cores from the tillage zone (0–15 cm) of each plot were
collected, composited, air-dried, and screened to pass a 2 mm sieve
in spring 2000 and each fall following harvest for total organic C
and N analysis by combustion in a Vario Max CNS macro elemental
analyzer (Elementar Analysensysteme GmbH, Hanau, Germany).
Ten soil cores were collected from the 0–30 cm depth in 2001
when the corn plants were 25–30 cm tall for pre-sidedress soil
nitrate test (PSNT) analysis as an in-season indicator of available
soil inorganic N (Evanylo and Alley, 1997). The samples were
immediately frozen with dry ice and kept frozen in a freezer at
4 8C until thawing for extraction and analysis. Nitrate N was
extracted with 2 M KCl (Keeney and Nelson, 1982) and determined
by flow injection autoanalyzer (Lachat QuickChem method no. 12-
107-06-2-A, Zellweger Analytics, Inc., Milwaukee, WI; Lachat
Instruments, 1986) for interpretation of the PSNT.
Soil was analyzed each fall for bulk density, porosity, and soil
moisture content as indicators of soil quality using the on-farm soil
quality test kit (Sarrantonio et al., 1996).
Zero-tension lysimeters were installed in the soil of the control
(CTL), annual agronomic N rates of compost (AC) and poultry litter
(PL), and fertilizer (F) treatments in November 1999 to monitor
nitrate N loss from soil amendments. The lysimeters were
fabricated from non-perforated, drainage pipe measuring 25 cm
wide and 75 cm long using the method of Stewart et al. (2001) and
were installed to a soil depth of 90 cm following removal of soil
with a tractor-driven auger in November, 1999. Each lysimeter was
capped and sealed at the bottom, into which 5 cm of acid-washed
sand was placed. Tynar tubing extended from the sand reservoir to
the soil surface, which was 15 cm above the upper rim of the
drainage pipe. Soil horizons augered from each hole were carefully
replaced into the lysimeter above the sand layer and compacted to
near the original bulk density. Soil solution was evacuated monthly
with an electric pump and immediately frozen with dry ice for
transport to the laboratory until thawing in preparation for
analysis of NO3–N. Nitrate–N was analyzed using flow injection
analysis and read on a Lachet instruments (1986) colorimetry
detector at 550 and 660 nm wavelengths.
2.3.4. Runoff
A rainfall simulation and runoff collection event was conducted
at the end of the third growing season (August 2002, following the
harvest of bell pepper) to compare the effects of annual
applications of compost (AC), poultry litter (PL), fertilizer (F) and
the untreated (CTL) soil on changes in soil properties (i.e., N, P, and
C concentrations, bulk density, porosity) that affect runoff water
quantity and quality. Straw mulch residue was gently removed by
hand in each replication of the four treatments. Stainless steel
borders (1.5 m wide by 2 m long) were installed in the bare soil,
with the long axis oriented downslope, so that they extended 5 cm
below and 10 cm above ground level to contain the overland flow.
Simulated rainfall was generated using a portable rainfall
simulator based on a design of Miller (1987). Water was delivered
at a rate of 7.5 cm h 1 to overland flow plots, and the length of time
required until runoff commenced was recorded. All runoff water
was collected from each of the 16 plots (4 treatments  4
replications) for 30 min after the initiation of runoff. The mass
of runoff was determined, and a 1-L subsample was collected for
analysis. A 50-mL aliquot was immediately filtered through a 0.45-
mm Millipore filter. We operationally defined all constituents in the
water that passed through the filter as ‘‘dissolved’’ and that which
did not pass the filter as ‘‘particulate’’. Both filtered and unfiltered
samples were stored at 4 8C until analysis was conducted
(approximately 72 h later).
Analyses were performed on unfiltered samples for total
suspended solids (TSS) by EPA 160.2, total organic carbon (TOC)

Please cite this article in press as: Evanylo, G. et al., Soil and water environmental effects of fertilizer-, manure-, and compost-based
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by EPA 415.1, and for total P (UTP) by EPA 365.4 (USEPA, 1979); and Table 5
Effects of treatments on soil bulk density, porosity, and water holding capacity
TKN (UTKN) according to Standard Methods for the Examination of
measured each fall
Water and Wastewater (APHA, 1995). Filtered samples (dissolved
fractions) were analyzed for total P (TP) by EPA 365.4 and PO4–P Treatment Bulk density Porosity Water-holding
(g cm 3) (cm3 cm 3
) capacity (g g 1)
(ortho-P) by EPA 365.1 (USEPA, 1979) and for NH4–N, NO3–N, and
TKN according to Standard Methods for the Examination of Water 2000 2001 2002 2000 2001 2002 2000 2001 2002
and Wastewater (APHA, 1995). Filtered PO4–P concentrations were
CTL 1.21 1.27ab 1.42a 0.544 0.522bc 0.463d 0.29 0.28 0.28c
expressed as dissolved reactive phosphorus (DRP), and dissolved LC 1.21 1.17bc 1.22b 0.544 0.559ab 0.539c 0.31 0.28 0.31bc
organic phosphorus (DOP) was calculated by subtracting DRP from LCF 1.22 1.17bc 1.16bc 0.540 0.557ab 0.563bc 0.3 0.31 0.31bc
TP. Dissolved organic N (DON) was calculated as the difference AC 1.09 1.08c 1.11cd 0.589 0.593a 0.581ab 0.31 0.3 0.40a
BC 1.11 1.23ab 1.07cd 0.582 0.536bc 0.598ab 0.3 0.29 0.36a
between TKN and NH4–N in the filtered extract. Loads of individual
BCF 1.08 1.15bc 1.05d 0.594 0.566ab 0.605a 0.3 0.32 0.38a
runoff constituents were calculated as the concentration of the PL 1.1 1.27ab 1.22b 0.585 0.520bc 0.538c 0.29 0.28 0.31bc
constituent  runoff volume. F 1.2 1.32a 1.26b 0.547 0.503c 0.525c 0.29 0.26 0.32b

2.4. Statistical analysis
Analysis of variance and mean separations were performed
using the general linear model procedure of SAS Institute (2002).
The least significant difference procedure (LSD) and contrasts with
a probability level of 0.05 were used to determine significant
differences between treatment means.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Soil chemical effects
The high compost rate treatments (AC, BC, BCF) increased soil C
(Fig. 1) and N (Fig. 2) above the other treatments. Soil N was
increased and maintained with the addition of high C-containing
compost treatments as the soil C:N ratio remained a constant 10:1
P-Value 0.06 <0.010 <0.0001 0.07 <0.010 <0.0001 0.5 0.5 <0.0001
Treatment code: CTL, control; LC, low compost; LCF, low compost + fertilizer; AC,
annual agronomic N compost rate; BC, Biennial agronomic N compost rate; BCF,
Biennial agronomic N compost rate + fertilizer; PL, annual agronomic N poultry
litter rate; F, fertilizer. Values followed by different lower case letters within a
sampling year are significantly different at probability levels shown.
to 11:1 throughout the study. The low compost rate treatments (LC
and LCF) did not differ from the CTL and F treatments, which
demonstrated that low rates of compost were rapidly mineralized.
Soil test extractable P was affected by treatment. By fall 2002,
the soil P increased in the following order: CTL (16 mg kg 1) < LC
(24 mg kg 1), F (26 mg kg 1), PL (29 mg kg 1), LCF (30 mg
kg 1) < BC (43 mg kg 1) < AC (52 mg kg 1), BCF (52 mg kg 1) at
the 0.001 probability level. Such a high soil P accumulation rate
under continuous compost addition may result in increased risk of
P transport from soil to surface water.

3.2. Soil physical effects

Fig. 1. Effects of treatments on changes in soil organic carbon. Treatment code: CTL,
control; LC, low compost; LCF, low compost + fertilizer; AC, annual agronomic N
compost rate; BC, Biennial agronomic N compost rate; BCF, Biennial agronomic N
compost rate + fertilizer; PL, annual agronomic N poultry litter rate; F, fertilizer.
The high compost rate treatments (AC, BC, BCF) reduced soil
bulk density compared to the CTL and F treatments by the end of
the second growing season (Table 5). After 3 years of compost
applications, even the lower compost rates decreased bulk density
as measured by contrast testing. This demonstrated that con-
tinuous application of lower than agronomic compost rates could
improve soil physical properties of the Fauquier silty clay loam. In a
review of 14 research articles, Khaleel et al. (1981) found a direct
correlation between decreasing bulk density and organic C
additions.
Soil porosity exhibited trends similar to bulk density (Table 5).
There was more pore space in the high compost-amended
treatments than in the CTL and F treatments, and the pore space
in treatments not receiving compost tended to decrease with time
under annual tillage. Even the low compost rate treatments
increased porosity by the third year.
Differences in soil water-holding capacity were not distin-
guishable among treatments until the final year, when the AC, BC,
and BCF treatments had higher water holding capacity than the
other treatments (Table 5). The low compost treatments and PL
treatment did not add enough organic material to increase the soil
water-holding capacity.

3.3. Crop yield

Treatment did not affect pumpkin (2000 mean yield = 51.7

Fig. 2. Effects of treatments on changes in soil total nitrogen. Treatment code: CTL,
control; LC, low compost; LCF, low compost + fertilizer; AC, annual agronomic N
compost rate; BC, Biennial agronomic N compost rate; BCF, Biennial agronomic N
compost rate + fertilizer; PL, annual agronomic N poultry litter rate; F, fertilizer.
Mg ha 1) or bell pepper (2002 mean yield = 1.6 Mg ha 1). The
presence of considerable soil reserves of essential plant nutrients
from fertilization of previous crops likely limited yield responses to
the treatments in 2000. Bell pepper yield response to treatments
was confounded by extensive frost damage after transplanting was
completed. Replanted plots had lower plant populations than

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Table 6
Effects of treatments on corn yield in 2001 and winter rye biomass and N accumulation in 2002 and 2003

Treatment 2001 2002 2003

1 1 1 1 1
Mg corn ha kg rye biomass ha kg rye N ha kg rye biomass ha kg rye N ha

CTL 2.4c 560d 13.7c 330d 8.3d

LC 3.3c 690cd 15.5bc 465d 10.9d
LCF 14.4ab 1155abcd 26.6abc 765c 18.0c
AC 11.6b 1785ab 42.7a 1135a 30.1a
BC 4.6c 845cd 19.0bc 930b 22.7b
BCF 14.4ab 1025bcd 22.6bc 1180a 31.3a
PL 14.4ab 1900a 45.6a 975b 24.2b
F 16.2a 1485abc 33.7ab 645c 15.9c

Treatment code: CTL, control; LC, low compost; LCF, low compost + fertilizer; AC, annual agronomic N compost rate; BC, Biennial agronomic N compost rate; BCF, Biennial
agronomic N compost rate + fertilizer; PL, annual agronomic N poultry litter rate; F, fertilizer. Values followed by different letters are significantly different at 0.05 probability
level.

desirable, and replanted transplants never attained the size and
vigor of the original transplants that survived the frost.
Corn (2001) yields were higher in the LCF, AC, BCF, PL, and F
treatments than in the CTL, LC, and BC treatments (Table 6). The F
treatment also produced higher yields than the AC treatment.
Coefficients of determination for the yield relationships with soil
NO3–N (r2 = 0.59, P < 0.05, Fig. 3) and earleaf N (r2 = 0.83, P < 0.05,
Fig. 4) provide evidence that the corn yield response was due
largely to plant available N supplied by the amendments. Gallaher
et al. (1998) found a similar relationship between yield and earleaf
nitrogen when using yard waste composts and cited PAN as the
reason for the positive yield response to compost.
The highest rye biomass and N accumulation in 2002 occurred
in the AC treatment (Table 6), which also provided the lowest
concentration of PSNT nitrate N among treatments the treat-
ments (LCF, AC, BCF, PL, and F) that supplied high amounts of N
for corn in 2001 (Fig. 3). Asynchrony between timing of compost
N mineralization and corn needs, due to delayed N mineraliza-
tion in 2001, likely lowered corn yields compared to the other
high N treatments (esp., F). Juang (1993) and Senesi (1989) have
ascribed poor yield response to compost to inadequate N
mineralization. The organic N eventually mineralized likely
contributed significantly to the pool of soil N available to be
leached or, in this case, assimilated by a winter cover crop
(Poulton, 1995).
The 2003 rye biomass and N accumulation were lower than the
2002 values. This may have been due to a combination of the lower
N rates applied to the bell pepper and the repeated application of
high C:N-containing barley straw, whose eventual soil incorpora-
tion may have immobilized soil nitrogen. The high compost rate
treatments (AC, BC, BCF) and the poultry litter treatment, which
supplied the highest rates of organic N, produced the greatest
biomass and N uptake.
3.4. Nitrate leaching
The NO3–N concentrations in the leachate initially rose to near
50 mg L 1 in all treatments following disturbance of the soil during
the lysimeter installation (Fig. 5). Such increases in NO3–N
concentrations in leachate following soil disturbance/tillage has
been commonly reported due to mineralization of organic matter
and, to a lesser extent, release of fixed NH4–N (Legg and Meisinger,
1982). The source of the residual nitrogen was likely several years of
cultivation with N-fixing soybean prior to the fallow 1999 season.
A NO3–N baseline concentration was attained 5 months after
lysimeter installation (April 2000; Fig. 5). During the 52 months of
monitoring, differences in NO3–N concentrations among treat-
ments, employing single degree of freedom contrasts, were
measured on only 3 of the 37 sampling dates for which we
obtained leachate. The F treatment in June 2001 and the compost
treatments in September 2002 and January 2003 were the only
treatments whose NO3–N concentrations exceeded those of the
other treatments. This demonstrated that annual application of
compost at rates designed to provide plant available N was no
more likely to impair groundwater quality than the poultry litter,
fertilizer, or unamended treatments.
An increase in nitrate N leaching above the 10 mg L 1 USEPA
health advisory level (http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/criteria/
drinking/dwstandards.pdf) occurred during winter 2000–2001, a
period without an actively growing crop to assimilate soil N and
when precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration. Low concentra-
tions of nitrate N in the lysimeter leachate following the 2001

Fig. 3. Relationship between corn grain yield and extractable soil NO3–N
concentration in 2001. Treatment code: CTL, control; LC, low compost; LCF, low
compost + fertilizer; AC, annual agronomic N compost rate; BC, Biennial agronomic
N compost rate; BCF, Biennial agronomic N compost rate + fertilizer; PL, annual
agronomic N poultry litter rate; F, fertilizer.
Fig. 4. Relationship between corn grain yield and corn earleaf N concentration in
2001. Treatment code: CTL, control; LC, low compost; LCF, low compost + fertilizer;
AC, annual agronomic N compost rate; BC, Biennial agronomic N compost rate; BCF,
Biennial agronomic N compost rate + fertilizer; PL, annual agronomic N poultry
litter rate; F, fertilizer.

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Fig. 5. Effect of treatments on nitrate nitrogen concentrations in lysimeter leachate during 52 month monitoring period. Treatment code: CTL, control; AC, annual agronomic
N compost rate; PL, annual agronomic N poultry litter rate; F, fertilizer.

Table 7
Effects of treatments on time to runoff, runoff and infiltration volumes, and final soil moisture content

Treatment Time of rainfall until Runoff volumea Infiltration volumeb Soil moisture content,
runoff began (min) (L/ha) (L/ha) 0–10 cm (g water/kg soil)

Control (CTL) 5.7b 139,075a 277,036b 274c

Compost (AC) 48.1a 28,575b 882,641a 370a
Poultry litter (PL) 41.6ab 80,558ab 754,775ab 310b
Fertilizer (F) 18.8ab 101,122ab 468,357ab 281bc

Values followed by different lower case letters are significantly different at 0.05 probability level.
a
Volume of water that ran off plot between initiation and end of rainfall.
b 1
Infiltration was calculated as the difference between the total volume of water applied with the 7 cm h rainfall rate and the volume of runoff water collected.

sweet corn crop (Fig. 5) was likely due to (1) the high N
assimilation rates of corn and (2) the excellent N-scavenging
capability of the rye cover crop (Table 6).
Monthly nitrate N leachate concentrations largely remained
lower than 10 mg L 1 for the remainder of the study except for a
few sampling periods under the compost-amended soil following
the 2002 cropping season. Increased soil water nitrate concentra-
tions under the AC treatment plots following the 2002 growing
season were possibly due to a combination of (1) poor synchrony
between the release of PAN from the compost and N assimilation
by bell pepper and rye cover crop, (2) underestimation of the N
mineralized from the compost, and/or (3) increased infiltration of
water and nitrate through the compost-amended soil.
3.5. Runoff
The AC and PL treatments required eight times longer than the
CTL to begin runoff (Table 7). The improvement in the ability of the
compost-amended soil to absorb water was reflected in the runoff
volume (CTL > AC) and soil moisture content at the end of the
rainfall simulation (AC > PL > CTL). This occurred despite the
application of 3.2 as much water to the AC than to the CTL
treatment (Table 7).
The AC treatment allowed significantly more water to percolate
into and be held by the soil prior to commencement of runoff than
the CTL, likely due to an increase in soil porosity and a decrease in
bulk density (Table 5) resulting from the increased soil organic C in
the compost-amended soil (Fig. 1). The PL and F treatments did not
differ from either the CTL or the AC treatments in time to runoff,
runoff volume or infiltration volume (Table 7) despite reducing soil
bulk density and increasing porosity compared to the CTL (Table 5).
Concentrations of TSS in runoff were higher in the CTL and F
treatments than in the PL and AC treatments. The TSS total loads
(concentration  runoff volume) were greater from the CTL and F
than the AC treatment. The TOC concentration in runoff was higher
in the AC than in the CTL and F treatments, but there was no
difference in the total load of TOC due to less total runoff from the
AC than the CTL and F treatments.
The major sources of inorganic N (F, PL) gave the highest runoff
concentrations of NO3–N, while the major sources of organic N (AC,

Table 8
Effects of treatments on concentrations and loadings of runoff constituents during rainfall simulation

Treatment TSS TOC NO3–N TKN DON UTKN DRP TP DOP UTP
1
Concentration (mg L )
CTL 1318a 4.50b 2.13bc 1.32c 1.21c 4.26 0.14b 0.14b 0.01 2.79
AC 697b 9.95a 0.72c 1.93ab 1.86ab 3.84 0.42a 0.49a 0.07 2.12
PL 744b 7.06ab 5.49a 2.17a 2.13a 3.24 0.24b 0.26b 0.02 1.86
F 1272a 5.14b 3.77ab 1.63bc 1.56bc 4.31 0.19b 0.20b 0.02 2.75
1
Load (g ha )
CTL 107,163a 246 154 85 81 310a 7.0 7.3 0.71 218a
AC 15,402c 87 9 18 18 54.6b 4.4 4.7 0.47 39b
PL 32,626bc 343 415 97 95 149ab 12.8 14.4 1.65 92b
F 77,561ab 222 246 78 72 250a 9.9 10.3 0.58 161ab

Treatment code: TSS, unfiltered total suspended solids; TOC, unfiltered total organic carbon; NO3–N, dissolved nitrate nitrogen; TKN, dissolved total Kjeldahl N; DON,
dissolved organic N; UTKN, unfiltered TKN; DRP, dissolved reactive phosphorus; TP, dissolved total P; DOP, dissolved organic P; UTP, unfiltered total P. Values for each
constituent followed by different lower case letters are significantly different at the 0.05 probability level.

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8 G. Evanylo et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment xxx (2008) xxx–xxx
PL) gave the highest runoff concentrations of organic N (TKN, DON)
(Table 8). Despite differences in various dissolved N fractions in the
runoff, treatments did not affect dissolved N runoff load. A
considerable portion of the TKN in the runoff was associated with
the size fraction >0.45 mM (UTKN, Table 8). Compost-amended soil
contributed the lowest amounts of all combined forms of N to
runoff load due to reduced runoff volume.
The AC treatment gave the highest concentration of DRP and
dissolved TP, which was comprised almost entirely of DRP
(Table 8). This was not unexpected given the high concentrations
of soil test P that had accumulated in the compost-amended soil.
Nearly all of the soluble P, even in the compost-amended soils, was
found in the inorganic form.
Most of the P in the runoff was in the unfiltered fraction
(Table 8). Phosphorus runoff loads, largely particulate, were lowest
from the AC and PL treatments and highest from the CTL treatment
(Table 8). Although the compost-amended soil and runoff had the
highest concentrations of P, the total P loads from the compost-
amended soils were the lowest due to the high rates of infiltration
and low rates of runoff.
4. Conclusions
Significant increases in the amounts of C and N sequestered in
soil was achieved with agronomic N rate applications of compost,
but most of the C applied at 20% of the agronomic N rate was
rapidly mineralized. Soil N sequestration followed that of C with
significant increases occurring with high, but not low, compost rate
applications. Soil P was also increased rapidly with agronomic N
compost rates. Low compost rates elicited similar responses as
those achieved with poultry litter.
The high rates of C added with the agronomic N compost rate
improved soil physical properties, such as bulk density, porosity,
and water-holding capacity, which provide agronomic and
environmental benefits. In general, soil physical properties were
improved with the application of compost, but the positive effects
occurred more quickly with the higher rates. After three years,
improvements in some soil physical properties demonstrated that
benefits from long term, low compost rate additions may accrue
with time. Understanding the C replacement rate is necessary to
calculate the rate of organic amendment required to increase or
maintain soil quality-enhancing organic matter concentration.
Compost can provide crop N requirements but very high rates are
required to supply the small portion of mineralizable N from such a
stable N fertility source. While compost has been demonstrated to
improve soil chemical and physical properties, the major agronomic
value of compost the compost used in our study was its ability to
supply crop N needs as there was no evidence that improvements in
soil physical properties benefited yield. Measurements of soil and
plant N indicated that the first year organic N mineralization factor
of 0.10 for compost was generally accurate; however, asynchrony of
N mineralization from the compost with crop N assimilation pattern
may limit compost use as an efficient N source.
High annual application rates of compost greatly increase soil C,
N, and P concentrations compared to the standard fertility. Nitrate
enrichment of groundwater can be prevented by accurately
estimating N mineralization rate and using an N-scavenging cover
crop. An increase in the risk of nutrient transport to surface water
due to an increase of C, N and P concentrations in runoff water from
compost-amended soils be balanced by increased infiltration,
porosity, and water-holding capacity that reduce runoff volume.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the
United States Department of Agriculture Sustainable Agriculture
Please cite this article in press as: Evanylo, G. et al., Soil and water environmental effects of fertilizer-, manure-, and compost-based
fertility practices in an organic vegetable cropping system, Agric Ecosyst Environ (2008), doi:10.1016/j.agee.2008.02.014
Research and Education Program to conduct this research. In
addition, we would like to thank Steve Gulick, Alvin Hood, Maria
Mauceri, and Justin Evanylo for their tireless work in the field.
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