CHAPTER ONE

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study
Even though the history of education in Ethiopia dates as far back as the introduction of
Christianity in Ethiopia during Ezana in 3300A.D, the first attempt to open school of European style
was for the first time made by the Jesuit in the 16th century. This attempt was not continued due to the
outstanding of Jesuits following the removal of emperor Susinyos. Toward the end of the 19th century,
several factors accentuated the need for modern education. The establishment of strong central
government and permanent urban seats of modern development of modern sector economy like
manufacturing activities, establishment of foreign embassies of Adwa, are, among others, the main
factors that have contributed for the development of modern education in Ethiopia. Modern education
has started at the beginning of the 20th century and officially commenced in 1908 with opening of
Menelik 1st School in Addis Ababa. (Ministry of education, 2004),
Ethiopian education in general has two systems of main sub-sectors that are institutionally separate:-
1. formal educational sub-sector, which consist of academic and technical and training at primary,
secondary and tertiary level ; and
2. Non-formal education which includes:-
Technical vocational skills trained and extensive contact for youth and adults. Between 1962 and 1994
the general education in Ethiopia divided into three these are:-
• primary school (grade1-6)
• junior secondary school (grade7-8)
• senior secondary school (grade9-12)
Education reforms in 1994 revised the structure so that it now cons in 1994 revised the structure and
modify the previous system of education so after 1994 consists of primary education (grade1-8) which
also consists of first cycle (grade 1-4) which aims at achieving the functional literacy and the second

1
cycles (grade5-8) prepares students for further education, general secondary education and training,
and second cycles of the secondary education (grade11-12), that prepares student for higher education.
1.1.1. Educational policies and strategies in Ethiopia.
Attempts to formulate the education sector policies during imperial regime were limited to a
proclamation (1943 and 1948) which deals with the organization and duties and responsibilities of the
ministry of education and its duties. It was made to adapt the Ethiopian education to the needs of the
country and expands the coverage of the activities in the provision of special training for the sector and
education system. (Ministry of Education of Ethiopia, 2004),
1.1.2. Performance of education sector in the Ethiopia.
Education directly improves the productivity and rates of return and earnings of people.In
addition to this, education has or wide range of indirect effects, which instigate positive
changes in peoples attitudes toward work and society. It make easier to learn new skills
throughout their lives and hence facilitate their participation in modern economies and
societies. It also important factor which affects the health and life expectancy of individuals,
because if equips them with the knowledge and the means to present control and direct
disease. (Ministry of Education of Ethiopia,2004)

Primary school enrollment increased from about 957,300 in 1974/75 to nearly 2,450,000
in 1985/86. There were still variations among regions in the number of students enrolled and a
disparity in the enrollment of boys and girls. Nevertheless, while the enrollment of boys more
than doubled, that of girls more than tripled. Urban areas had a higher ratio of children
enrolled in schools, as well as a higher proportion of female students, compared with rural
areas. (Ministry of Education, 2004)

The number of junior secondary schools almost doubled, with fourfold increases in Gojam,
Kefa, and Welega. Most junior secondary schools were attached to primary schools. The
number of senior secondary schools almost doubled as well, with fourfold increase in Arsi,
Bale, Gojam, Gonder, and Welo. The prerevolutionary distribution of schools had shown a
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concentration in the urban areas of a few administrative regions. In 1974/75 about 55 percent
of senior secondary schools were in Eritrea and Shewa, including Addis Ababa. In 1985/86 the
figure was down to 40 percent. Although there were significantly fewer girls enrolled at the
secondary level, the proportion of females in the school system at all levels and in all regions

increased from about 32 percent in 1974/75 to 39 percent in 1985/86. (Ministry of education,

2006)

1.1.3. Education in Oromia Regional states

Regarding to Oromia regional states of Ethiopia, it is one of the regions in the country where both
formal and non-formal education do not reach the majority of the population. The school in the regions
are unevenly distributed and mostly physically and materially and deteriorated. This deterioration is
due to cultural and other constraints there is a
higher dropout rate at the lower lower level which mostly affects girls’ participation in the education of
the region. (Finance and Development Bureau of Oromia, 2005), Education system of Oromia regional
state normally consists of formal and non-formal education.
Formal education comprises of primary, secondary educations, technical and vocational educations.
The data that recorded in 2005 in Oromia regional bureau of educations shows that, two teachers
training institute (TTI), four teachers training college (TTC), 38 technical and vocational education
training (TTET), of which 36 and 2 are government and non-government centers respectively.
Moreover, there are 164 secondary schools, and 4893 primary schools in the Oromia regions.(Regional
Education Bureau of Oromia,2005), Education in Aweday town
1.1.3.1 Performance of education in oromia regional state
As can be seen from the trend of growth of number of educational facilities stated in the previous
section, tremendous efforts were made to improve access to education facilities over the past seven
years (1987-1995 E.C). According to the available data in this regard the number of primary schools
has increased from 4069 to 4893. Likewise, the number of secondary schools has also increased from
108 to 164, which is a commendable achievement over a shorter period of time. This generally
indicates that on an average the regional government has been constructing and putting in operation
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about 103 primary and 7 secondary schools each year. It is apparent from this, that the rate of increase
in senior secondary schools facilities is by far significantly lower than that of primary schools
affecting the quality of and access to secondary level of education.
1.1.3.2. Enrollment of education in oromia regional state
The analysis of the performance of primary education enrolment shows that there was an
increment over the past seven years from 21% (1987) to 66.7% in 1995. Generally, the primary
education enrolment rate was growing at an average rate of about 5.8% per annum. By and large, the
current level of enrolment as well as the annual growth rate compared to the level of 1987 is
encouraging. Nonetheless, the level of primary education participation has remained low compared to
the achievements of some of the regional states (Tigray 77.6% and SNNP 67.5%). On the other hand,
the gender gap is getting wider growing from 12% in 1987 to 31.% in 1995. Therefore, it is obvious
that what has been achieved over the past seven years has favored male than female signifying the
required level of attention to be paid in order to improve female's participation in primary education.
Lack of proximity, lack of opportunity to go to the next higher level of education, low income of
parents, lack of awareness of the benefits of education by some parents and poor facilities are among
factors contributing to lower enrolment rate at primary education level. Similar to gender gap there is
significant disparity of enrolment rate among godina's. In line with this, Arsi has attained the highest
enrollment rate of 86.3% in 1995, whereas Borena is standing at only 46.6%, which is the lowest
enrollment rate compared to all other godina's of Oromia. (Education bureau of Oromia, 2006)
1.1.3.4. Education in Aweday town
Aweday town is one of the towns of the Eastern Hararge Zone of Oromia which is located
between Harar and Haramaya towns. In this town there are both private and public schools. Among
these schools kingerdgarten, primary schools and high schools which are owned by public and
private owners. This implies
1.2. Statement of the problems
The number of school going children is increasing from year to year. Here is a need to provide the
educational facilities for them through opening of various types of educational institutions. Because of
different constraints like poverty, cultural factors majority of the population do not send their children
to school at distant place. The characteristics of education sector can be expressed mainly in terms of
4
accessibility, affordability, adequacy and quality. This factor can affect school attainment through their
effect on enrollment learning outcomes both directly and indirectly through of their effects on school
attendance. Private Tuitition and more generally the learning enhancing behavior of children and their
related home hold. Accessibility to schools usually determine by distance from home to school for
children. Female student’s enrollment is negatively affected by cultural and gender related problems.
1.3. Objectives of the study.
The general objectives of this study are to be identifying the problems and prospects of education in
Ethiopia particularly in Aweday town. In addition to these general objectives there are other specific
objectives these are:-
1. To study the existing availability and capacity of various types of educational institutions and
number of admission seekers in Aweday town.
2. To identify the problems of available institutions and their causes and effects.
3. to explore the opportunities for expansion of various education in the near future.

1.4. Significance of the study

This research is significant in that it can add as pot of information to the existing body of knowledge
on the educational sectors in general and on factors affecting the development of education sectors in
particular. Besides, the result of the findings of this research paper
will serves as building block for any interested individuals or groups who are willing to carry out
further and detailed studies on related topics. And it could be help some how to imitate policy
concerns, which are necessary to tackle the problems of education.
1.5. Scope of the study.
As to the geographical coverage, this research is confined to the problems and prospects of education
in Aweday town in the year 2008. in terms of dimensional aspects of problems and prospects of
education it considers factors affecting prospects of educational sectors, on the other hand focuses on
the performance of educational sectors. The factors that affect
prospects of educational sectors are have various constraints such as poverty, economic problems,
family related barriers, cultural constraints; school related problems are the main scope of this study.

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 1.6. Limitation of the study
The one that most limiting factors for the study is that the data requirements are not fully satisfied due
to lack of time series data on the problems and prospects of education sectors in the zone of eastern
Hararge which may make the study clear. Some limitation also in case of time since there is no enough
time to collect data from all of the kebeles of Aweday town
1.7 Methodology of the study
1.7.1 Types and source of data.
On the problems and prospects of education, education bureau of Oromia, Federal ministry of
education, economic and development bureau of Aweday town, directors of kindergarten, primary,
secondary, high school and some written materials on educational problems and prospects were used
as a source of this study.
Regarding world problems and prospects the data that collected different documents like internet
world bank on the problem of education UNESCO documents are also used as a source of educational
problems in case of gender gap in education.
1.7.2. Method of Data collection
The data collected by using both primary and secondary method of data collection in primary data
collection the researcher collect data by preparing questionnaires and in the case of secondary data
collection the researcher collected data from different documents, Ministry of Education, written
materials which has been done on the problem and prospects of education
1.7.3. Method of data analysis
The data analyzed by using descriptive statistics, ratios, and percentages.
1.8 Organization of the paper
This research contains four chapters. The first chapter comprised from background of the study,
statement of the problems, objective of the study, significance of the study, scope of the study,
limitation, methodology, and organization of the paper. The second part describes related literature of
the study. The third chapter explains the discussion and analysis of the data that are collected from
Aweday town and other related areas of education like Haramaya district bureau of education. The
fourth chapter based on the third chapters gives recommendation and conclusion.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2. LITERATURE REVIEWS
This chapter contains two parts. The first part discussed related literatures which is theoretical while
the second part explains empirical literature. In this chapter the researcher will be discuss the related
literature from the previes research paper and other documents which

2.1. Theoretical literature

2.1.1 Constraints on the Impact of Formal education
Some of the major factors influencing the provision of formal education and limiting its effectiveness
for poor and disadvantaged people are:
1. Global economic relations: - these play a key role in determining the
effectiveness of formal education in achieving development for society
as a whole. Even where the state invests heavily in education and is committed to social equality and
development
2. Differentiated access and opportunities: - education promotes social
advancement, raises the states of women and leads to improvements in health and childcare. However,
educational opportunities is limited by the proximity to urban centers, poverty, and by discrimination
based on gender, class race or cultures. For example, in Costa Rica, the national figures for adult
illiteracy in 1984 were 7 percent, but in the poorest rural areas was almost 20 percent. The
discrimination suffered by the people because of their cultures or limits their access to education and
their opportunities to use it effectively.
They have to choose between potential alienation from their own culture, and the need to master
language and cultural forms of the dominant society in order to survive successfully within it.
These choices are experienced differently by women and men. (Eade and William, 1995).
3. Gender: - this is crucial factor in determining educational
opportunities; girl’s often fore worse than boys’ interims of primary school enrollment. There are
considerable differences in the level of the males and females education in most arts of the world. In
the
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Afghanistan, Guinea, Burkina Faso, Somalia, and Nepal, females’ illiteracy in 1990 was twice as high
as the figures for males. In Salvadoran rural women’s organization founded by Oxfam only one
percent of the members could read one percent of the members could read and write. Bangladesh is an
extreme example, where of the 60 percent of all children who enroll fewer than 10 percent are girls the
ratios are generally worse at secondary level and above. Fewer than have as many girls as boys are
enrolled in secondary school in Sub-Saharan Africa 15 percent and 44 percent respectively. There are
many factors for unequal educational opportunities of girls and boys. Mothers are likely to have
received inadequate schooling themselves, and their daughters generally bear the burden of domestic
work and
childcare from an early age. The expectation of early marriage or (fact of teenage pregnancy) is also
used to justify cutting short girl’s education. In self-fulfilling cycle, since greater employment
opportunities exists for men than women, boys’ education takes priority over girls’ education because
they are more likely to be able to use it. Cultural factors can reinforce gender based discrimination
women are often regarded as bearers of traditional culture, particularly, culture identifies are
threatened. In such circumstances, they may be formal education (Eade and William, 1995)
4. Poverty:-the poorest people are hardest hit inflation, unemployment, and cuts in services. They
cannot always afford to keep children at school, particularly at thesecondary level. Costs of education
including clothes, books, equipment and maintenance, and fees. The economic difficulties of poor
families increase the pressure on children to earn money either instead of or in addition to going to
school. A further formal education is irrelevant to their economic and cultural need which in often born
out by a chronic lack of employment opportunities which make use of skills gained at school. In
addition, poor children live in environment where study is difficult and where poor health, over work,
and malnutrition may leave them without energy and concentration to learn (Eade and William, 1995).

2.1.2. The gender gap in education.

Low adult literacy rates prevail throughout the developing world. In fourteen developing countries
where literacy date are available, only one in five adult women can read, where as the literacy rates for
men ate as low in only five of these countries. Recent estimates suggest

8
that only one out of two women in Asia is literate and only out of three in sub- Saharan Africa
(UNESCO, 1992).
School enrollment rates have been raising for both girls and boys at all levels in the past two decades.
Primary school enrolment, in particular, has out paced the growth of youth population, although a few
low income countries especially, in sub-Saharan Africa experienced decline
in primary enrollments in the 1980’s. (UNESCO, 1992).
Many countries have no universal primary education for males and
females. But girls enrollments continuous to lag behind in many others, most dramatically in south
Asian, west Asia, north Africa, and sub-Saharan Africa. With exception of Sri Lanka, all south Asian
nations have much lower gross enrollment ratios (GER) for girls than for boys. In Bhutan,
girls’ enrollment in 1983 was 19 percent compared to 34 percent for boys; in Nepal, 49 percent for
girls’ and compared with 110 percent for boys’, in Pakistan, 38 percent versus 73 percent; in
Bangladesh, 50 percent versus 110 percent. Where as in Latin America and nearly all
east Asia countries such large male-female differences had disappeared by 1985 (UNESCO,1992).
At post primary levels, the gender gap widens in some countries,
but narrows in others, why does the gender gap exist? The supply of schools has expanded greatly in
the past twenty five years, leading to accommodating the increase in primary school enrollment over
that period. Moreover, there are few restrictions to the admission of girls at the primary school level.
To understand why, despite this expansion, a large proportion of school or dropout early in many
developing countries, one need to consider the many factors affect the education of girls and boys
differently. For many families the differed possible benefits do not seem large enough to offset
immediate costs like school fees or the loss of child labor parents do not often consider the
less obvious benefits that education generates (like improved productivity ) when deciding whether to
send children to school or to favor sons, partly because they are the ones expected to go out and
earn more family income, so this may be the cost of efficient response by parents to constraints of
family resources. One less or from experience is that expanding access simply by building more
schools, relating admission policies or instituting quotas for girls may lead to
higher levels of female enrollment at margin.

9
 Distortion with labor market due to discriminating employment practice against women
reduce, their attempt earning and benefits that women can expect to gain from education even when
jobs are available. Example, restriction against the living of married in wage paying-jobs in
manufacturing or service sectors. Explicit or implicit entry barriers against women in certain
occupations serve as obstacles to education. Some of these barriers begin at the primary school level,
with teachers and text book projecting attitudes that discourage school attendance and performance of
girls. Stereotype may persist of girls not being as good as boy in technical subjects or mathematics.
Even obstacles which begin at the post primary level can nevertheless
inhibit girls’ school attendance and motivation at the primary stage.
In Dominica Republic, three of the most important schools for middle level technology training bar
women even though they have stipends from the national governments. In Pakistan, women are also
allowed to enroll in seventy-two of the secondary school, vocational institution because of strict sex
segregation. (UNESCO, 1992).
In some societies, customs dictates that son take possibility for their parents, whilst girls
marry out of their families at the early age and into their husband’s families. The earlier marriage age,
the fewer parents enjoy the benefits of their daughter’s education. In Bangladesh, 75 percent married
women living in rural areas were married by the age of seventeen. In India, 75 percent of this group
were married by the age twenty-two some evidences suggests that when girls do not marry so early,
but spend some of their time working in the labor force, parents are more willing to educate their
daughters.(www.unesco.org/edu/html)
In Hong Kong women who tend to marry at a later ages and help their parents in the interims
appear to reach higher educational levels than others. In parts of southern India, because the more
educated women are recognized as having a higher potential for earning, some grooms
parents are willing to accept pre-payment of dormitories in the form of higher level schooling of the
perspective daughters in law. (UNESCO,1993).
Parents also may have poor knowledge of the benefits of education to the family’s current
health and welfare and prosperity of their grand children. They may not be aware that the benefit of
education are inter generational and accumulates over time. Or of families may not be appreciating the

10
benefits of girls’ education in countries where the “Suitable” of educated women to be good wives in
held in doubt. A balance must be starve between providing courses that help women.
Fulfill traditional roles, but at the same time not allowing curricula to lock women out of wider
educational opportunities. Education itself, along with economic change, can and should be powerful
force in modifying traditional view points on girls’ schooling. (UNESCO, 1992).
Even if they are aware of potential long-range benefits of education, parents may be unable to afford
the tuition, materials, transportation, boarding fees and others. Costs of sending girls to
school. Location, distance and even clothing requirements can make the effective cost of school
attendance higher for girls. Gender differences enter in when, for instance, parents are more reluctant
to send girls to school without proper clothing of young daughters’ in some cultures deters them from
allowing girls’ to attend distant schools requiring long travel daily or residence away from home.
(UNESCO, 1992)
In countries where religion requires seclusion of women parents allow girls’ to attend only single
sex schools with female teachers, or they withdraw girls at the onset of puberty. Thus, the availability
of schools with female teachers may be of decisive importance, in lowincome countries. Only one
third of primary, less than one fourth of secondary, and just over one tenth of tertiary education
teachers are women. The shortage largely reflects the limited pool of potential women teachers, as a
result of low schooling levels of girls, and the reluctance of young women teachers to work in rural
areas. This reason is because cultural attitudes discourage young, single women from moving far from
home and living alone. The shortage supply of safe dormitories for women even in technical training
institute exacerbates the situation. Also women from rural areas usually do not qualify to enroll in
teacher training schools in the cities, and there are few programmes in rural areas to identify, recruit
and train girls to become teachers. Finally, parents may not feel able to afford to send girls to school if
it means their labor cannot be used in traditional ways. Although in some countries boys perform a
large share of family labor such as livestock herding, with few exception girls do more work than boys
in the home and in the market place. In Nepal and Java (Indonesia) most young girls’ spend at least a
third more hours per day working at home and in the market than boys of the same age groups
as much as 85 percent more hours. 129-150 percent more hours than boys. Clearly, girls who work
more than their brothers will less likely to attend school, perform less well. In addition to lost labor,

11
parents in many countries feel that girls will lose important training at home in childcare, household
and crafts if they go to school. (UNESCO, 1992).
Gender gap that show in the following table shows that
country Literacy rate Literacy rate
Female Male Female Male
Ethiopia

2.1.3 Gender literacy and cultural difference

Gender literacy and cultural difference one area of apparent
controllers concerns the extent to which the obstacles to girls and women’s education are similar
across cultures. One view is that in all cultures, although in varying degree, male/female relationship
place obstacles in the way of girls’ and women’s full participation in education. Patriarchy is
manifested in two ways: the sexual division of labor, and control over women’s sexuality. Both these
factors so condition a women’s worldview that marriage, husband, and family become the be-all and-
all for the existence. They also limit women’s mental horizons and push education from her attention.
As girl’s grow up, socialized into their future roles as sexual division of labor the second components,
control over women’s sexuality, ensures that women maintain their roles as wives and mothers and is
the cause of women’s inability to control their fertility and its associated consequences, including
unwanted pregnancies, the practice of early marriage, restricted physical mobility for women, and
domestic violence. (UNESCO, 1992),
Who benefits from all this? Whose interests are served as by theseexisting conditions? In feminist
theory, it is undoubtedly men who benefit. Does this mean that feminists are setting women against
men and women and men against women? The answer is no most feminists seem to be seeking a more
egalitarian society in which women are treated as equals with men “According to feminist theory, the
problem of women’s illiteracy will not be solved merely underlying problem is not technical. For
change to occur, individual men in a male-dominated state will have to re-examine and modify their
own values and attitudes. An alternative view is that cultural difference between countries is
more important than some feminist would accept. For example, successful literacy ventures in
Pakistan are often community based; the important thing is to change total attitudes. In Feriur-ban
Karachi this has been done. Successfully using flexible working hours both formal and non-formal
teaching methods, and education both parents and children, adults are motivated to learn via primary
12
economic interests (functional literacy) who has become the subject of the basic education curriculum.
Residential facilities for teachers based in community have led to greater school community
interaction and help facilitates more opportunities for girls and for more women. The whole
programme has helped produce a positive, confident self concept of women. However,
cultural constraints are undeniably powerful. For, example, the word “child”, which is gender is
neutral in English language, has masculine connection in south Asia. Here the stark reality is that, by
and large, girls are denied that joyful care free period of growing and learning that is called child hood.
Very little value is attached to girls she is caught in a men of cultural practices and social prejudices
from the moment of her birth. Although she works twice as hard as her brother, and her labor
contributes to the survival of the family, neglect and malnutrition, treated as lesser human being and
brought up to believe that she does not count. Therefore, in any society that aims to social justice in
any policy that seeks to move towards quality of educational opportunity, attention has to be
focused is contrary to entrenched cultural values. Changes in education that do not enhance the states
of women are not likely either to be generally accepted or to reduce women’s present state of under
development.
2.1.4. Problems that female student face in Addis Ababa
high schools
Another researcher (Emebet, 2003) classified problems of girl’s
education under subheadings of economic constraints, family related barriers and cultural barriers
economic constraints. The impact of poverty on women’s education can be studied at two
levels: Country level and family level. Although the degree of poverty in
country affects the education and in general the life of its citizens, the effect can be moderated by the
socioeconomic status a family has within the society (Emebet, 2003 p.33)
In discussing the effects of poverty on the education of women, Njeuman (1993) explained that
much improvement has been observed in the education of women since the 1960’s (Emebet, 2003).
However, poverty is still slowing the progress. Discussing African, the pointed out that among thirty
poorest countries in the world, twenty are found in Africa. Under these circumstances, the major
concern is the provision of education for children in general; it is difficult to give special attention to
girl’s, she further pointed out that although many developing countries put
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sign out amounts of money and energy into education, several of them
were not able to provide it for all school age children. (Emebet, 2003 p.34),
Enrollment of girls in school does not guarantee success and completion in these poor countries.
Strongest (1990) noted that in all developing countries were the United Nations under took studies,
during recession years; girl’s often experienced a change in parental plans for enrollment. In such
years parents choose retain daughters at home assist with work and income generating activities,
which would result in lower female attainment. (Emebet, 2000).
Because of this fiscal strait, the inequality of males and females in the area of education is quite
staggering. Hyde (1993:101) pointed out that in Sub-Saharan Africa, one of the most enduring kinds of
educational inequality are one observed between males and females. This inequality is reflected in
lower levels of attainment and higher dropout and repetition rates for girls. It is also apparent in
different curriculum choices offered to or made by men and women at the secondary and tertiary
levels; most notably in the low enrollment figures for women’s in scientific and technical fields
(Emebet, 2003 p.34).
The above situation is clearly observed in the Ethiopia case. In urban areas we find female
enrolled in high schools in great number; 50.6percent of the students in Addis Ababa in the academic
year 1998/99 were women as sited in (Emebet, 2003 p.34). However, this high rate of enrollment is
accompanied by a staggering rate of repetition. In the same academic year 61.4 percent of the
repeaters were females (MOE, 2000 p.62).
Among the students who are enrolled in the various higher education
institutions for undergraduate degree programme, only11.6 percent were females. The percentage of
female students in science fields is more discouraging (Science 9.7 percent, Medicine 11.7 percent,
Technology 12.9 percent, and Agriculture 4.7 percent)) Emebet, 2003,
p.34/5). One of reflection of poverty in developing countries is the uneven distribution of schools
across the regions. This related to school distance. In most of the larger cities, we find a good
concentration of schools of all levels, including colleges, through some students in rural areas have to
travel for hours to find a single high school distance is identified to be an important factor affecting
girls education in many developing countries. Sronguest (1989) indicated that this holds true for rural
as well as urban areas where transportation costs may be high. In many rural areas of Ethiopia, as

14
the girls pass to high school they are require to go towns to learn. This situation pushes many parents
to take their daughters out of school. (Emebet, 2003 p.34).
Several studies indicated that the socio-economic states of the family are highly correlated
with the enrollment and persistence of daughters. Hyde (1993) explained that girls who come from
economically advantaged families are much more likely entered and remained in secondary schools
than are girls from disadvantaged families. A similar situation is observed in Ethiopia. In a study of
female student in higher educational institution, it was found that among the 118 schools attended by
the respondents, only 13 were private or catholic schools and almost all these schools were located in
the capital or cities. Thirty-five percent of the female students who entered colleges came from these
13 schools. In some cases, family socio-economic status (SES) plays more important role than parental
education in getting children in to private schools is often considered a status symbol. (Emebet, 2003
p.35).
2.1.4.1. Poverty
At the both country and family level, is a detriment to the education of women although it
interferes with the education of all children, its correlation is much stronger for female. Stronguest
(1998:150) explained that the higher the income of the family, the greater the desire
of parents for their daughters’ education (Emebet, 2003 p.36).

2.1.4.2 Family related barriers

Family plays a very important role indenturing the degree of access girls have to education and their
level of achievement. There are several family related factors, which including location of upgrading,
parental schooling, and family income (Emebet, 2003 p.36).
Geographical location, urban or rural, can significantly affect the education of children. According
to several studies carried out in developing countries, growing up in rural communities worsen school
opportunities for females more than for males. In the study carried

15
out in Ethiopia, Abrah, etal (1991) found that urban girls enrolled in school are more likely to persist
than rural ones. The study findings remained consistent, both when girls were studied alone, and when
they were compared to boys. The urban-rural distinction also influences to
greater extent the academic performance of female students. Abraham, etal (1991) stated that in
Ethiopia, girls enrolled in schools found in urban areas had better performance on the national exam
than the girls who attend schools located in rural areas (Emebet, 2003 p.35).
Though, in general, girls in the cities have a better prospect of accessing and succeeding in their
education, and also studying the field/subjects they want, they have their-share of barriers to over
come. In Genet’s (1994) study, was indicated some of the problems of girls in Addis Ababa high
schools encounter were lack of study time to heavy load of house hold chores, dropping out because of
failure to pass exams and pregnancy, and teachers’ biased attitudes. (Emebet, 2003 p.36)
2.1.4.3 Cultural barriers
Culture influences the education of women in various ways. One is the cultural division of labor,
Zewdie and Jungles (1990) study of four peasants associations in Ethiopia indicated that women spend
about 15 or more hours on various chores important for the household. Under this circumstance, it is
the girls who share the burden of their mothers by spending time on the chores instead of their studies.
Though on time use study has been carried out in the cities, Genet (1994) pointed out that parent, and
females’ students themselves and their teachers indicated that the female students spend much time on
the household chores (Emebet,2003 p.36).
Early marriage parents are other cultural impediments to girls’ education. Studies in many developing
countries indicated that the number of girls attending school abruptly drops when the reach the age of
15 to 19. One major reason for the phenomena is early marriage. In most developing countries, early
marriage and education are anti theatrical. Bach, etal (1985)
reported that more education women attained, the older their age at marriage. The issue of women’s
education in developing countries is very complex. It is affected by several factors among which are
economic, political, and social. Other factors, related to culture or religion. The effect of these factors
usually differs from place to place, and one factor can be influenced by any of the others. Studies
indicate, however, that they operate in most developing countries and negatively affect women’s
education, (Emebet, 2003 p.36).
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2.1.5. Major Quality Indicator
2.1.5.1.Class size student/section ratio
Class size is a subject of considerable debate among educators, psychologists and philosophers.
The issue at stake is whether or not class size is not quality determination. Theoretically, an optimal
class size is a size that allow for sufficient interaction between teachers and student through
question/answer session, group activities and student assignment. Nardos (1998) states that class size
should allow the teacher to observe pedagogical principles such as knowing ones students by name
and attending to the particular needs of each student (Befekadu, Berhanu and Getahun, 2000/2001).
Broadly speaking, there are two schools of thought regarding the effect of class size on quality of
education. The traditionalists argue that if the size is too large, the teacher could not perform any of
these activities effective or could not perform them at all. Therefore, the quality of education will be
low. However, the latest thinking is that is not absolutely necessarily for teacher to lead all teaching
and learning activities. Innovative techniques could be introduced to help students take a charge of the
learning process. Examples of innovative techniques are peer evaluation, group work and computer
assisted instruction. These techniques reduce teacher burden and result in considerable financial saving
for the institution and quality of education will not fall. Notice that according to this view, the negative
effects of large class size can be partially compensated using these new techniques. In the absence of
this technique, however, quality will suffer from large class size. (Befekadu, Berhanu and Getahun
2000/2001)
In developed countries like UK 25-30 students per class is considered a reasonable size for an effective
teaching learning process. But such small sizes have considerable implications, more teachers and
more class rooms. In developing countries such as Ethiopia cannot afford such class sizes. Thus, a
higher size is to be expected, the issue, however, is how high can they go without seriously affecting
the quality of education?
According to some educations in Ethiopia high schools. Particularly, in grade nine, the number of
student in each class room has passed the 100 mark in some urban schools. In the upper grades 65
students per section is regarded as a good number because it is the lowest number we can find in some
schools. Even with this number for instance, it is not possible to take students to the laboratory to do

17
experiments, practical learning in which students actively participate cannot be conducted as sited in
(Befekadu, Berhanu and Getahun, 2000/2001).

Class size in Addis Ababa University has also increased significantly in recent years. In the
economic department of AAU, which we are the most familiar with, for example, the number of 2 and nd

3 year students (where there is one section per year) has increased from 43 students per sections in the
rd

early 90’s to over hundred since the mid 90’s without any increase in the teachers or instructional
materials such as large class size inhibits teachers from giving written assignments because it could
take along time to grade. Because of that, students at many faculties of AAU are evaluated by one in a
semester, usually objective type questions for their final exam which surely is inadequate to evaluate
form AAU without writing a paper save for the revered senior thesis. That is partly many educators
and businessmen complain about the low level of language proficiency (both oral and written) among
University graduates. This observation indicates that there is a clear relationship between class size
and quality of education in Ethiopia knowledge learn in classroom. It should be noted that class size is
only one variable that contributes to quality of education. (Befekadu, Berhanu and Getahun
2000/2001)
2.1.5.2.Student/teacher ratios (STR)
The student/teacher ratio is also indicates the quality of education as class size refers to the average
number of in a given lesson; student/teacher ratio is a measure of the over all burden on teachers. In
other words, it measures the utilization of teachers force. In the new Education and Training policy, the
recommended student/teacher ratio for senior high school is 40. The Ministry of education data
schools that student/teacher ratio has been increasing over the last five years.
In the 1995/96, the national average was 33 students per teacher. By 1999/2000, this has risen to 43.
According to Getachew and Luiseged (1995), twenty-five years ago, the national average was 30
students per teachers. This indicates that the utilization of the secondary school teacher force has been
increasingly but only slightly.
Like all indicators of quality, regional variation are evident in student/teacher ratio. In 1999/2000
academic year, the three highest student/teacher ratios were observed in Tigray (61), Addis Ababa (50)
and Amhara (49). Data data supplied by Addis Ababa Administration Education Bureau indicate that

18
the average student/teacher ratio is 50 for acedamic year of 2000/01. There are some regions with
student/teacher ratios for below the national average. For example, Afar (23) and Somali (19).
2.1.5.3. Number of qualified teachers
Another important indicator of quality of education is the number of qualified teachers. The
governments’ education policy has clearly indicated what the standard for teacher qualification ought
to be. According to the New Education and Training Policy, the minimum qualifications for teachers at
all levels are:
 First cycle (1-4) schools teachers should have obtained the certificate from
teacher training institute (TTI)
 Second cycle (5-8) school teacher should have obtained diploma from
teacher training college (TTC).
 Senior secondary (9-12) school teachers should have obtained degree in the
subject they are assigned to teach.
However, not all teachers meet these minimum qualification at the moment. This is particularly true at
primary level where teachers are not always recruited through the proper channels. It is not uncommon
for example, to see in primary schools around the country failures and dropouts from high schools
teaching primary students witout any training in teaching techniques. The Ministry of Education
estimates that there are over 17000 teachers unqualified and under qualified currently teaching at
lower and upper primary levels. To remedy this chronic problem the Ministry of Education has
recently launched an aggressive campaign to raise the standard of teaching at all primary teachers
using a variety of modes of education including distance education and summer schools. The
objectives is to upgrade unqualified or underqualified teachers in the first five years of education
sector development program (Education Bureau of Education,2006).
When teacher is qualified it often means obtaining a diploma or degree in a subjects he/she is
assigned to teach. example, a teacher wh o teach history in high school should have degree on the
subjects of history. It rarely refers to acquiring the necessary teaching skills. It is generally assumed
that graduates can teach without proper training in teaching techniques and instructional decisions.
This of course, is not always the case. Therefore, efforts to upgrade teachers should also include

19
equipping graduates with the necessary teaching skills to ensure quality of education at high schools
and higher education levels.
Qualified and motivated teachers are perhaps the most important variable in providing quality of
education at each stage and build strong base for the next stage of schooling. The problem of
qualification goes beyond the formal criteria and is possibly worse because formal achievements of
diploma does not necessarily imply that person has really learned what the diploma signifies. The
problem is a series decline in the quality of higher education institutions. In the developing country
such as Ethiopia, we need qualified teacher who can use their imagination to make the limited resource
go along way. But the vicious cycle becomes apparent if the teachers are trained in a poor education
environment. They are required to teach in a poor education environment than they went through.
Clearly, the issue of teacher qualification and its impact on quality of education is series concern for
the country.

Even when qualified, teachers need to be motivated to be effective in teaching. This

necessitates putting a proper material and incentive in place to keep them going in the face of
difficulties. As stated earlier, the material incentives provided to teachers is too low to be a sources of
motivation. The good news here is that the government has recognized this problem and seems to be
willing to address it. In addition to the professional upgrading stated above, the governmentis planning
to put in a place of a new career structure that recognizes the newly acquired qualification. (Ministry
of Education, 2006). The degree to which both of these initiatives will help ease the problem of the
shortage of qualified teachers or whether more radical solution need to be derived remains to be seen.
2.1.5.4. Availability of facilities
In developed countries where choice is the norm, parents visit schools to look at availability and
condition of facilities before making decision on where they enroll their children. Even in developing
countries like Ethiopia, the Ministry of Education believes that school facilities have impact on the
access, quality and equity.
School faculties are tools to attract students in general and girls in particular. In developing
countries, where students to a given school have to choose among several schools, facilities play an
important role in attraction students to a given school facilities also ensure that students learn in state

20
environment. In Ethiopia, the choice of schools in the public sector is very limited almost non-existent.
The expansion of private schools is good sign that parents will soon have choice, at least those that can
afford it. Therefore, the Ministry of Education should set a minimum standard to help parents make the
right decisions. For example, each school should have :
• Separate latrine facilities for boys and girls
• Adequate water supply point for washing and drinking
• Counseling services for personal education related problems
• Adequate laboratory facilities appropriate to the level of education
• Sufficient play group for personal and educational purposes.
Judged against these minimum standard, facilities currently available at schools are well below what
needed. For example, among schools that responded, below 30 percent reported to have latrine
facilities. There is no indication of the condition of these latrines. Similarly, only 2 percent reported to
have a clinic services, against there is no indication of the condition of these clinics
The present of pedadogical centers is very encouraging. Among schools, 71 percent
reported to have a pedagogical center although there is no indication in the survey about the quality of
education of these centers. This Ministry of Education survey also asks schools if they operated under
a shift system and about 69 percent they do in 1990/2000 Fasil (1990). Since double shift system was
introduced during the second five year plan (1968-1973). Since double shift system automatically
doubles the school capacity, it recognized as the major factor in increasing enrollment all over the
country. However, its impact on quality was immediate concern. Shift students spend less time on
lessons no-shift students do. Where there is shortage of teachers,some teachers may have to teach
double shifts. This increase teachers burden, and by definition, decrease their effectiveness(Ministry of
Education, 2006).
2.1.5.5. Indicator of Internal efficiency
Internal efficiency refers to the best use of school resources within the school and output. It
measures the relationship between school and outputs. A school is internally efficient when its
educational goals are satisfied, the wider goals of the society are the subject of external, efficiency
discussed below student/teacher ratio, student/section ratio, and average school size are indicator of

21
resource utilization. Schools with the highest figures for these indicators are send to have used the
resources at their disposal efficiency (Befekadu, Berhanu and Getahun, 2000/2001).
However, this interpretatiobn needs careful consideration on the one hand, in a country where
nearly half of the school age children are out of school, it may sound un reaseonable to teach classes
with half their view, over crowded classes are the underlining reasons for poor quality education.
Therefore, educational planners and policy makers should consider the intervention between quality
and access indicators. Increasing access to education elite out commensurate investment in
infrastructure is bound to have negative effect on quality
2.1.5.6. Indicator of External Efficiency
The objective of the society are used to measure external efficiency, which can be judged by
the balance between social cost and benefits, or the extent to which education satisfied man power and
employment needs. More specifically, the external efficiency of school may be judged by how schools
will prepare pupils and students for their roles in the society, as indicated by the employment prospects
and earning of students. Such as measures depend on external criteria rather than on the results entirely
within the school as sited in Befekadu, Berhanu and Getahun,2000/2001)
This is a function of a number of factore. The chief among them is the relevance of the curriculum to
the development needs of the country. For a number of years, the ethiopian education system has been
accused of being a carbon copy of foreign education systems. Some of the accusations are that the
system has been dominated by:

• Foreign languages at the expense of local languages

• World history and world geography at the expense of teaching local history
and local geography.
2.1.5.7. Gender Specific Indicators
At the present widely accepted that educating girls is the most important contributors to
improvements in quality of life at household as well as at national levels. Girls, when they become
mothers, make important economic decisions at household level. Therefore, educating girls help the
household and the nation in a number of ways including the following:
• Make better household decisions
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 • Improve family planning
• Participate in the nations social, political and economic affairs
The Ministry of Education looks at three specific indicators involving female student
• Proportion of female students in a given school year
• Gender gap and
• Gender parity incident
2.2 Emperical Literature
Problem of education is the highest among the east African countries for
example according to the table 2.2.1 below the illiteracy rate of Ethiopia is the highest among the sub-
saharan Africa.
Table 2.2.1 which shows the youth and adult illiteracy rate in Eastern and sub-saharan Africa

According to the above table 2.2.1 the illiteracy rate of both youth and adult is the highest among the
sub-saharan African countries

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