Hume and the Historiography of Science Author(s): S. K. Wertz Reviewed work(s): Source: Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol.

54, No. 3 (Jul., 1993), pp. 411-436 Published by: University of Pennsylvania Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2710021 . Accessed: 23/10/2012 05:26
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

University of Pennsylvania Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Journal of the History of Ideas.

http://www.jstor.org

Humeandthe ofScience Historiography

S. K. Wertz

inwhich in Theperiod the were thelowest sunk peopleofChristendom in disorders andconsequently ofevery be ignorance, kind, may justly fixed attheeleventh century, abouttheage ofWilliam theConqueror; andfrom that toreascend, threw out era,thesunof sciencebeginning whichpreceded thefullmorning whenletters manygleamsof light, in thefifteenth wererevived century. (David Hume,History ofEngland, II, 508) In thisessayI shallexamine David Hume'shistoriographical of category I refer with the Character tothis itshallbe capitalized) (whenever concept word, inthe anditsapplication andinstitutions ofscience toimportant figures history in that his This of Hume's has not appear History ofEngland. aspect thought beengivenmuchattention, at leastnotinreference to Hume's History. Its six between whenwe first see the volumes werepublished 1754and 1762,a time in narrating ofthehistory of science, andHumeplayeda part that emergence even though it has gone largely unnoticed. Fromtheover forty beginning inthe we find onessuchas Francis Characters History Bacon,the RoyalSociety, theFrench and Isaac Academyof Science,Robert Boyle,WilliamHarvey, Newton.Hume evidently intended his Characters to be adoptedby future Hume meansan accountof eminent historians.' or By "Character" persons he reduces which totypes associated with their orcontribugroups profession tion (in this case science),theirstationin life, and theirrelation to the form ofhishistorical orreign. Characters an integral narrative government part
' David Hume,"A Character of SirRobert Walpole" (1742), in Essays:Moral,Political, and Literary, ed. EugeneF. Miller(rev.ed.; Indianapolis, 1987),575, whereHumeimagines that "... I shallflatter withthepleasingimagination, will myself that thefollowing character be adopted by future historians." Further references to theEssays,as well as theworks listed withpage numbers after citations. below,are parenthetical

411
ofIdeas,Inx. Copyright 1993byJournal oftheHistory

412

S. K. Wertz

theneeded besides theusualannual bysupplying periodization chronology. tothese brief intellectual andnarrative Conjoined of biographies descriptions theEuropean scientific arenumerous other historical groups references to science which illustrate Hume"adorning thefacts."2 nicely Consequently, when these episodes areviewed wemay together, claim that Hume legitimately wasoneofthe first historians ofscience andspecifically cultural that hehadan in accounting for thegrowth or development interest of what we nowcall in Great Britain. "science" Hume intwocommon usedthe term "science" senses: useas (1) a broad in thephrase "arts andsciences" when we speakofcolleges those housing disciplines, oras inthe title ofHume's "Of the essay, RiseandProgress ofthe Arts andSciences." ofknowledge Any body is called organized byprinciples for a science; thelaw would under sense(1). Thisis the instance, qualify ofscience; and(2) a narrow Aristotelian usewhich is synonymous conception orexperimental with natural science. These senses of"science" philosophy are from the Itisinteresting usually distinguishable context. tonote that like Hume, did use "science" Voltaire, to meannatural occasionally or experimental .a practice which didnotbecome common philosophy.. until theearly nineteenth century. Atthe outset letmedeclare that there arefour fundamental inthe issues inoneway ofscience that Hume historiography addresses oranother. Thenature ofscientific is the first. Hume views inscience notable as both change change andsudden inperspective shifts gradual (radical) andtheory. As evidence, the that he not prefatory indicates did conceive ofthe passage ofscience progress inonesteady ofrefinement movement inour upward ofnature. understanding his idea of progress involves setbacks and reascents. Rather, is Progress sometimes metwith andthen decline is often decline, followed byrisein achievement. Sucha viewis atypical for the for Enlightenment most Enlightenment held thinkers, e.g., Voltaire, toa gradual ofscientific theory progress, attheir time orwhere ending, wished toendtheir present they with narrative, Newton. didnot think Hume ofNewton as the crowning achievement ofnatural(experimental) tothe I argue philosophy. onthis Contrary scholarship subject, that William isHume' sparadigm of Harvey (1578-1657) achievement innatural orexperimental andtheemphasis in myargument philosophy, belowis on experimental. Thesecond issue involves the ofoutstanding portraiture orevents in figures the ofscience. is the What of such history Such point portraits? lead questions toa third issue which tothe ofscience pertains with placement a viewpoint or historical context. Hume is opposed totheview(known as internalism) that science is an isolatable, autonomous andthat the system great scientific gen2 D. Hume,TheHistory ofEngland from theInvasion ofJulius Caesar to TheRevolution of1688,ed. William B. Todd (Indianapolis, 1983),III, 82. Thisis nota negative phrase; Hume thought thisa legitimate and primary of history, function i.e., written history.

Humeand theHistoriography ofScience

413

From such a perspective science is iuses are the bearersof this system.3 or in an andhandled isolated from setting "objectively" itshistorical abstracted it.In TheHistory ofEngland from theoutside affected fashion as ifnothing orhistory a cultural-social process Humepositioned sciencewithin especially, their interaction. mutual andappreciated or ofscience. Is itearly ontheorigin Thelastissueis Hume'sambivalence early it was thelatter until he narrated Britain's relatively late?He thought inthe Thetwoviewswerenever reconciled hechanged hismind. history... .then is thathe changedhis discussionfrom Part of the explanation History. considerations. unrestricted torestricted (national) considered byhistorians to be the Comte(1798-1857)is usually Auguste theemphasis is history of sciencein which first thinker to call fora synthetic withotherpartsof social, of scienceand its interplay placed on the unity is that Humemadethecall life.4 contention andcultural My general political, is about Hume's from a Comte.A setofnewquestions asked writings before with doesscience not him. What associated Hume, place,for context previously in general? Whatis Hume'soverall ofthehistory of in history picture occupy Whatis Hume's general aboutthishistory of scisciencein England? theory ofhistory? HowdoHume's views tohistheory ence,andhowdoesitcorrespond viewsofearlier thinkers? Andhowdoesheview anddepart the arise from, from, of thehistoriography of science changein science?The evolution historical beginshere.S Humeemployed Character as Humescholars that It is wellknown among not inhisHistory,6 ofthat use is still butthevariety a historiographical concept examine his use of it withtheBritish regal Most scholars fully appreciated. or famous like like Queen Elizabeth and social individuals religious figures andJoan ofArc.Below we shallencounter hisuse ofCharacter Martin Luther I shallalso appraise them by with andothers. Newton, Bacon,Boyle,Harvey, thebroader viewofthehisandthen within within their context placing them ofscience. tory

Lundskjaerto theHistoriography ofScience, tr.Jean See Helge Kragh, AnIntroduction of science.. .theviewthat history Nielsen(Cambridge, 1987), 18ff, and ch. 9 on anachronical in thelight as presof theknowledge we have today, also known thepastshouldbe studied entism. 4 Kragh, 11ff. Introduction, these advancesin answering See, forexample,scholars who have made considerable "Hume and the Cultureof Science in the Early Eighteenth questions:Michael Barfoot, in Studiesin the Philosophy ed. M. A. Stewart of the Scottish Enlightenment, Century," and Concerns of the "Sciencesand theOrigins (Oxford, 1990), 151-90;RogerL. Emerson, 11Studies, Scottish Enlightenment," History ofScience,26 (1988), 333-66,also in Stewart's 12 (1987), 166inNewton HumeStudies, E. Force's"Hume'sInterest andScience," 36; James 216. 6 David Hume(London,1931),ch. XX, esp. 270ff. For example, J.Y. T. Greig,

414 Bacon Francis

S. K. Wertz

is inHume's History ofa scientist Character wellknown themost Perhaps he as towhether intheliterature there is somedebate Bacon,although Francis Bacon to Galileoandmakesa title. SinceHumecompares ofthat is deserving infull. Italsogivesus a good I shallgiveBacon'sCharacter toKepler, reference As Hume bywhatitincludes. concept historiographical ofthat representation narrates, ofJames the reign inthis island[sic]during ofliterature Thegreat glory were inLatin; composed [I],wasLordBacon.Mostofhisperformances norof his native theeleganceof that, he possessedneither though bythisman,as oftalents thevariety displayed If we consider tongue. an a companion, a wit, a courtier, a manofbusiness, a publicspeaker, Ifwe admiration. theobjectofgreat he is justly a philosopher, author, we inwhich the light andphilosopher, him as anauthor merely consider he was yetinferior to his estimable, very though viewhimat present, outat evento Kepler.Bacon pointed Galilaeo,perhaps contemporary itoutto Galilaeobothpointed philosophy: a distance theroadto true init.TheEnglishman advances considerable andmadehimself others, excelled revived that science, ofgeometry: theFlorentine wasignorant tonatural with experiment, together it, first that applied init, andwasthe the disdain, withthemostpositive rejected, The former philosophy. derived it with newproofs, fortified thelatter of Copernicus: system andrigid: hiswit, is stiff Bacon's style from reason andthesenses. both and he and unnatural is also often farfetched; often brilliant, thought seems to be the originalof those pointedsimiles and long-spun authors: Galilaeois a theEnglish which so much distinguish allegories ButItaly, not a prolix writer. somewhat though livelyand agreeable, with that satiated literary andperhaps, inanysingle united government, hastoo inancient andmodem times, both which ithaspossessed glory birth toso which bygiving ithas acquired therenown much neglected and English, which among the prevails spirit a man. Thatnational great on all bestow is thecausewhy they forms their happiness, which great suchpraisesand andon Bacon amongtherest, their eminent writers, and excessive.He died in as mayoften appearpartial acclamations 1626,in the66thyearofhis age. (V, 153-54) this Character. tobe madeconcerning points There arethree consequential place a British scientist's to assesshistorically in order Humeholdsthat First, or National context. have an international of science, one must in thehistory Hume of science, although willnotdo forthehistory considerations regional ofEngland. ofthehistory viewin theearlier to thislatter periods fallsvictim with themost Bacon"rejected, disdain, that positive Hume's statement Second,

ofScience Humeand theHistoriography

415

hisrejection ofCopernicanism was the ofCopernicus" that implies thesystem with Hume's whoagreed bias.Others andunreasonable result ofan imperious at thosewho that Bacon "sneered are Karl Popper, who thought assessment rotated around theearth, thesunandthestars truth that theself-evident denied and In a more recent study, Quinton.' atrest,"7 Anthony which was obviously thatBacon thisdistorted view of Bacon by showing PeterUrbachcorrects theearth's motion andconcluded Urbach tentatively.9 empirically questioned nor sneered atthe heliocentric didhecome that "Baconnever theory, concludes manner which in thehigh-handed andintemperate hisopinion to,or advance, (131). is insinuated" it[the Hume'sobservation that Galileo"fortified concerning A third point bothfrom reasonand the withnew proofs, derived system of Copernicus] thatscience does senses" (emphasisadded) shows us thatHume thought this outtocorrect an account given leaps.I point advance sometimes bysudden his in Science,who unfortunately restricts Cohen in Revolution by Bernard Hume's Treatise,so his accountis discussionto a solitary passage from 10 that Hume atleastsuggests TheBaconCharacter inmany respects. inadequate done was more "than an thatwhat Copernicusand Galileo had thought (Cohen's phrase) in the previoussystemof the world or improvement" in thehistory thissituation of Whether or notHume perceived astronomy. clearfrom theBaconCharacter. "New" is notaltogether science as a revolution buttheformer was notordinarily associforHumecouldbe "revolutionary," term for him term. Thelatter wasa political (Cohen with the obviously latter ated indiscussing itamong other the this things out, 521),becausehe selected points of 1688.HereHumewas just consciously the Revolution following Glorious Besidesthe historians incalling the1688event a revolution. ofprevious practice he sometimes he did use although word"revolution," used "reformation,""1 in withscience discussing "mighty theword"revolution" once in connection

8 Anthony Copernicus Quinton, FrancisBacon (Oxford, 1980),79: "he [Bacon]disdained and ignored Keplerand Galileo." 9 PeterUrbach, FrancisBacon's Philosophy ofScience(LaSalle, Ill., 1987), 131-32. Mass., 1985), 519-21. Cohen's '0 I. Bernard Cohen,Revolution in Science(Cambridge, discussionfirst Century Originsof the Conceptof Scientific appearedin "The Eighteenth Revolution," JHI, 37 (1976), 257-88. " D. Hume, A Treatise corr. P. H. Nidditch (2nd ofHuman Nature, ed. L. A. Selby-Bigge, and ed.; Oxford, 1978), xvii,412. See theHistory, III, 409, foruse of both"reformation" of herintention [Queen Elizabeth's], "revolution"; also History, IV, 8: "These declarations with madethebishops foresee with a revolution in certainty concurring preceding suspicions, was thechief cause of thesecret revolureligion"; Appendix III, "Butthechangeof manners tion of government, and subverted the power of the barons" (IV, 385), and (IV, 384), fromthe authority of Lord Bacon, and thatof "Whatever may be commonly imagined, VII. contributed thegreat and later thelaws of Henry very little towards Harrington, authors, revolution, whichhappened aboutthisperiodin theEnglishconstitution."

7 Karl Popper, TheOpen Society and Its Enemies(4thed.; London,1962),II, 16.

416

S. K. Wertz

revolution was madein madein religion [1453] Thus a general innovations oftheworld andmengradually attained that this human affairs throughout part this by passagesuggests with to... science" (III, 8 1). However regard situation, orsimply "notable change."'2 Humestill means "improvement" itswording that was notusedinthesenseofa radical theterm "revolution" Cohenclaimsthat until after 1789with theFrench orfundamental Revolution, change departure to thisobservation. conforms andHume'susageusually whichare examplesin Hume's writings But there are some interesting a political sensein addition to its One passagesuggests ambiguous. decidedly cyclicalmeaning: old repetitious, sensible for a fewofthegreater andmore canonlyaccount Philosophy leave all thesmaller and more of this[mental] events war; butmust andminute for as dependent onprinciples toofine delicate revolutions, hercomprehension. added) 438; emphases (Treatise, oneHumespeaks ofthe"struggle ofpassion and Inthesentence before this human life.However, Humeseemsto diversifies and intensifies reason"that In theessay"OfEloquence" ofrevolution. thestrong havepossessed concept sentences: he openswith thesethought-provoking of human kind,as theperiodsand revolutions Those,who consider fullofpleasure inhistory, with a spectacle areentertained represented andopinions andsee,with themanners, customs, andvariety, surprize, indifferent ofsuchprodigious changes ofthesamespeciessusceptible incivil be observed, that there oftime. Itmay, history, however, periods oflearning and uniformity than in thehistory is found a muchgreater science.... (97) usedin thepolitical "Revolutions" is probably sense,andHumecontrasts ... where the latter is subject tomore abrupt civilhistory with intellectual history Hume's explanation for this is that andscience aredependent learning changes. civil history is governed by the and example(98), whereas uponeducation common possibilities opensupinterpretive (97). Thischaracterization passions with of science. historiography contemporary
12 Cf. (V, 545), "From thememorable revolutions, whichpassed in Englandduring this in his period[1649],we maynaturally deducethesameuseful lesson,which Charles himself, later years, inferred; that itis dangerous for princes, evenfrom the appearance ofnecessity, to In theopening assumemoreauthority, thanthelaws have allowedthem." paragraph of the HistoryHume talks about "the sudden,violent,and unprepared revolutions, incident to Barbarians" (I, 3); also I, 24, 26, 39; and"Of National Characters" (examples ofmoralcauses as opposedtophysicalones),"Of thiskindare,thenature of government, therevolutions of publicaffairs, theplenty or penury in whichthepeople live,thesituation of thenation with regard to its neighbours, and suchlike circumstances" (198; emphasis added).

ofScience Humeand theHistoriography

417

in thedramatic chronology of the In anycase Humehas themainactors As he inplaceandhasalso briefly assessedtheir importance. ofscience history and philosopher him[Bacon] merely as an author "If we consider remarked, he we viewhim atpresent, very estimable, though inwhich [scientist], thelight even to Kepler" inferior to his contemporary Galilaeo, perhaps was yet inHume's "we" shallbe discussed included added).Whois possibly (emphasis Hume's list so far century, below. So forsciencein the earlyseventeenth to andBacon. Andpresentism appears Galileo,Kepler, includes: Copernicus, narration tointhe historical ofscience. viewswhich Humeadheres be oneofthe Robert Boyle that Concerning BoyleHumereports invented vonGuericke, byOtto thepneumatic engine, Boyleimproved newandcurious enabled tomakeseveral experiments andwas thereby is much bodies:hischemistry admired by ontheair,as wellas onother his a are with that art: contain greater those who acquainted hydrostatics of ofreasoning andinvention with than anyother mixture experiment thatboldnessand is stillremote from his works;buthis reasoning so many hadledastray Boylewas a great philosophers. which temerity a theory which ofthemechanical bydiscovering philosophy; partisan us toimagine therest, is so ofnature, andallowing someofthesecrets ofmen.He diedin 1691, andcuriosity to thenatural vanity agreeable aged 65. (VI, 541) endofHume's discussion ofthe ofJames atthe reign ThisCharacter appears II. As a common with the status with Hume closes a given reign him, practice from to diversity of uniformity oflearning that age,moving during particular deleand scienceare usually human nature. This is one reasonwhylearning "Amidst the in theHistory. Earlier Humehad remarked, gatedto Appendices which the during thick andignorance, overspread thenation, cloudofbigotry who, andprotectorship, there werea fewsedatephilosophers, commonwealth their conferences intheretirement reason, andestablished cultivated ofOxford, in physics discoveries and geometry" forthemutual communication of their that after the Restoration these menprocured patents (VI, 540). Humementions and eventually formed theRoyal Societyof Londonin 1660. He condemns than the sciences hiscourtiers rather but II for andmistresses Charles supporting chemistry and calls him a "loverof the sciences,particularly nevertheless thissituation with theone in Francewhere: mechanics." Humecontrasts and encouraged ... the Frenchacademyof science was directed, aroseinEngland somemenof [and]there bythesovereign, supported than and whoweremore sufficient tocastthebalance, genuis superior

418

S. K. Wertz and theregard nativecountry and on their who drewon themselves matheWren, Wallis,eminent of Europe.BesidesWilkins, attention andSydenham, anaccurate observer bymicroscopes, Hooke, maticians, there during this flourished of truephysic[medicine]; the restorer with andtheremenwhotrod cautious, a Boyleanda Newton; period leadstotrue the roadwhich philosophy. more secure only steps, fore the (VI, 541)

is neededfora trueor accuratecontrast and context Again,international whohasplacedHumein Agassiis oneofthefewscholars Joseph comparison. of science."3 Agassi notesHume on this of the historiography the context account: ofsaying that extent only tothe Bacon,but criticized Humehadalready theway, onlypointed to Galileo sincetheformer Bacon was inferior thewayandtravelled on it.Humedidnot both whilethelatter pointed himmoreleniently and thustreated thanhe refer to Bacon's errors, he musthave known that were Boyle's errors treated Boyle,though to Appendix History ofEngland, See Hume, bycomparison. negligible I." (V, 153-54) "Reignof KingJames Humetreatthat judgment athiscomparative I amnotsure howAgassiarrived it justthetwoCharacters, ed Bacon moreleniently than Boyle.In comparing than .that he treatedBoyle more leniently seems to me the converse.. Bacon elsewhere.14 with whatHumedoes with is in keeping Bacon...which that inthe ofscience there are history berecalled inthis connection Itshould in thepost-Butterfield era (ca. 1950): the twomethods commonly employed of ideas,and the whichtraces thehistory of one idea or a cluster diachronic, an individual scientist andtheaffairs (e.g.,Newton) which studies synchronic, and thatin an method, of his day.15Hume practices only the synchronic
1' Joseph and Theory, 2 Agassi,Towards an Historiography ofScience,History Beiheft (1963), 88n. 1' For instance in "Of Miracles," PartII, Hume criticizes Bacon's method of reasoning in nature, concerning thenovelorextraordinary i.e.,to record everything, or as Westfall putit, "unguided observation" (The Construction of Modem Science: Mechanisms and Mechanics Human Understanding, ed. [Cambridge, 1977], 114); see Hume's An InquiryConcerning CharlesW. Hendel(New York, 1955), section X on miracles, 139. On thelatter portion of of Bacon's Character, where Humeviewsthecontemporary adulation ofBacon as a reflection the English"nationalspirit"and some of the praise bestowedupon him as "partialand excessive" see RichardYeo, "An Idol of the Market-Place: Baconianismin Nineteenth Century Britain," History of Science,23 (1985), 251-98,esp. 259. ofScience"(commentary), 329 '5 Edward Harrison, "Whigs, PrigsandHistorians Nature, in Macmillan (1987), 213-14; "WhigHistory" Dictionary oftheHistory ofScience,ed. W. F. Bynum, E. J. Browne,and Roy Porter (London, 1981), 445-46; Herbert Butterfield, "The Historian andtheHistory ofScience," Bulletin oftheBritish Society fortheHistory ofScience, 1 (1950), 49-57,and Butterfield's other works. For an exampleof thediachronic method, see

Humeand theHistoriography ofScience

419

embryonic stage.His creation of a place forthesciencesand scientists in his be seenas part ofhissecularization History andbroadening may ofthescopeof Britishhistory. Britishhistories priorto Hume's contained no historical ofscienceandscientists, oratleastnottotheextent accounts that Hume's did. So muchforthecontext; letus nowturn to theBoylepassageitself. Inthe sentence Humecites, inconjunction opening with the Boyle, German Ottovon Guericke experimentalist, forhis (1602-86),who is mostfamous experimental studies ofairpressure... .for Hume,significant enough toinclude in his discussion.16 How Humeknewof von Guericke is notknown, buthis experiments werewidelydiscussedduring Hume's era, and it was perhaps through sources at theAdvocates' Library (see note41) that he knewofthem. Morespecifically, he mayhavelearned of theseexperiments from Voltaire.17 Butthere areother too. possiblesources, Hume'sAcquaintance with Science Attheage ofsixteen David hadalready young inhis himself distinguished course ofstudy attheUniversity ofEdinburgh. Among those works he probabwasNewton's oratleastknew lystudied Principia, ofitscontent."8 Atthis time (1727) ColinMaclaurin (1698-1746)was lecturing on mathematics andNewton'sPrincipia. Maclaurin hadtaken chair in1725which upthe is the year Hume left the University, "or perhapsnot until 1726," Mossnerconjectures.19 Maclaurin' s wife, hisbook, Anne, published AnAccount ofSirIsaac Newton's Discoveries Philosophical anditwasundoubt(London, 1748),posthumously;
HoraceFreeland Judson, TheEighth Day ofCreation: TheMakers oftheRevolution inBiology (New York,1979).Foran example ofthesynchronic method see R. S. Westfall, Never at Rest: A Biography ofIsaac Newton (Cambridge, 1980). 16 On this experiment see A. P. Usher, A History Inventions ofMechanical (Boston,1959 [1929]), 340-41. 17 TheLetters ofDavid Hume,ed. J.Y. T. Greig(Oxford, 1932),I, 226. Humeadmired Voltaire's TheAgeofLouisXIV(175 1),andhe mayhaveevengotten theideatoinclude science in hishistorical narrative from Voltaire sincethelatter devoted twoshort chapters (31 and34) tothesubject andwrote extensively aboutitinnumerous, various other writings, e.g.,Elements ofthePhilosophy ofNewton (1738/41), although Humeexplicitly deniessucha connection: "In thisCountry, they[e.g., Horace Walpole]call me his Pupil,and thatthatmyHistory is an Imitation ofhisSiecle de Louis XIV. ThisOpinion flatters very much myVanity; buttheTruth is, that myHistory was plan'd,& in a great measure compos'd, before theAppearance of that agreeableWork" (ibid.). 18 In Hume'sPhilosophical Development (Oxford, 1973) James Noxonargues that Hume probably never readNewton's Principia andthat hegotitsideassecond hand(68ff), andso does Peter Jones, Hume'sSentiments: Their Ciceronian and FrenchContext (Edinburgh, 1982),ch. 1. Thereis evidence to thecontrary (see Barfoot's in note5); furthermore, investigation Hume did read Nicolas de Malezieu's Elements de Geometrie (1722) while he was in France theTreatise, composing so it is probable that he could understand themathematical parts of Principia(see note21). 19E. C. Mossner, TheLifeofDavid Hume(Edinburgh, 1954),49.

420

S. K. Wertz

Humemust haveheard or was at least which ofthoselectures edlya product ofthe writes inher"An Account ideas.AnneMaclaurin with their acquainted "After this themathematical classessoon that oftheAuthor" LifeandWritings of an hundred there young upwards beinggenerally becameverynumerous, Humewas probably notamong hislectures year."20 every attending gentlemen from 1723 to 1725 or thoseyoung gentlemen (sincehe was at theUniversity If he in a less formal setting. up themathematics 1726),buthe at leastpicked notes from some he couldhaveeasilyreadlecture readMalezieu's Elements,21 whoattended gentlemen whowas one ofthosefortunate young acquaintance entitled "Of the Account, bookofMaclaurin's lectures. The first Maclaurin's in and the Various Systems of Natural Philosophy, Methodof Proceeding downthrough from theancient philosophers chapters contains Philosophers," with a detailed discusDescartes's followers (SpinozaandLeibinz)andending Mechanics. of motion that Maclaurin calls Rational sionof Newton'stheory order,so thatin a chronological Maclaurin'saccountfollowsa generally ofscience or work as ananalytical history sensethis canbe viewed rudimentary An earlier bookwhich couldhaveinfluenced Hume internalism. as expressing or TheProgress andAdvancement Plus Ultra, of herealso is Joseph Glanvill's Thiswork waswidely readand SinceTheDaysofAristotle (1668).22 Knowledge Bothof theseworksin one way or another Hume's youth. discussed during aboutsciencein Great Britain as a historiinfluenced Humetothink probably with the debate between us that heis acquainted Humeshows cal phenomenon. in theessay,"Of theRise and theories ofnature theCartesian andNewtonian of theArtsand Sciences": Progress towhich theprogress oftheCARTESIAN philosophy, What checked theend shewed sucha strong towards theFRENCH nation propensity madetoitbytheother nations of ofthelastcentury, buttheopposition The the weaksidesofthat philosophy? EUROPE, whosoondiscovered NEWTON'S theory hasundergone, severest which proceeded scrutiny, but fromforeigners; and if it can not fromhis own countrymen, itmeets of theobstacles, which atpresent overcome [1742]inall parts it willprobably to thelatest go down triumphant EUROPE, [then] added) (121-22;emphases posterity.

20 Colin Maclaurin, An Accountof Sir Isaac Newton'sPhilosophicalDiscoveries,a a newintroduction andindexofnamesbyL. L. Laudan(The facsimile ofthefirst edition with Sourcesof Science,No. 74; New York,1968),v. of Space," Studies of Hume's Conception 21 See MarinaFrasca Spada, "Some Features in History and Philosophy ofScience,21 (1990), esp. 382ff. 22 Joseph Sincethe ofKnowledge Plus Ultra, or TheProgress and Advancement Glanvill, I. Cope withan introduction by Jackson reproduction Days ofAristotle (1668), a facsimile (Gainesville, Fla., 1958).

Humeand theHistoriography ofScience

421

ofthecontroversy, he mayhaveforgotten WhenHumewrote thisdescription ormaynothaveknown criticisms ofNewton (see note 42). In about Berkeley's to Copernicus, Boyle,Desaddition Galileo,Kepler,Bacon, von Guericke, and Newton, Hume was awareof TychoBrahe(1546-1601)and his cartes, in astronomy; and in "Of National importance to theCopernican revolution "An ENGLISHMAN will naturally he remarks, be supposed to Characters," than a DANE; though TYCHO BRAHE was a native of havemore knowledge DENMARK" (198). In "The Idea of a Perfect Commonwealth" Humemenwhodetermined the"figure tions Christiaan Huygens (1629-95)as theinventor is themostcommodious forsailing"(E, 513). of a ship,which is also Hume'sfriend AdamSmith There "histories" (1723-90),whowrote sense.In theearly1740sSmith wrote TheHisofscienceinthechronological andTheHistory Ancient As D. D. Raphael and tory ofAstronomy ofthe Physics. Humehadan influence A. S. Skinner outintheir General point Introduction,23 from theTreatise. Butitis also quitepossible on theseworks which stemmed ranintheother too:Humeperhaps gottheidea of that theinfluence direction, not from In any history, Smith. writing a narrative history, justa chronological in event theidea of thehistory of sciencewas clearly theairof Scotland and andVoltaire all had France atthis time, andsurely Smith, Maclaurin, Glanvill, in one wayor another to Hume'sinnovative idea. contributed us see that Humechampioned Hume's inclusion ofBoyle'sCharacter helps in thelater ofBritish theexperimental sciences history. Boylewas the periods in the late 1600s he had to defend major advocateof experimentalism; from Hobbes's criticism ofthem andoftheinvention of experimental practices theairpump.24 Isaac Newton followsthatof Boyle, Newton'scuriousCharacter, whichimmediately readsas follows. In Newton and thisislandmayboastofhaving thegreatest produced and instruction rarest everarosefortheornament of the genuisthat in admitting no principles butsuchas werefounded species.Cautious to "hypotheses nonfingo"], but on experiment [presumably referring neworunusual: from resolute toadoptevery suchprinciple, however and ofhis superiority above therestofmankind, modesty, ignorance hisreasoning tocommon thence lesscareful toaccommodate apprehenthan to acquirefame;he was from these sions;moreanxiousto merit
23 AdamSmith, Essayson Philosophical Subjects, ed. W. P. D. Wightman andJ.C. Bryce (Indianapolis, 1982), 11ff. 24 See Steven and Shapin andSimonSchaffer, Leviathan andthe Air-Pump: Hobbes, Boyle, theExperimental Life(Princeton, 1986).

422

S. K. Wertz totheworld; buthisreputation atleastbroke out causeslongunknown his own lifetime, had whichscarcely during anywriter, witha luster WhileNewton seemedto drawoff theveilfrom attained. everbefore he showedat the same timethe of nature, some of the mysteries andthereby restored the ofthemechanical philosophy: imperfections inwhich everdidandeverwill secrets tothat they ultimate obscurity, He diedin 1727,aged 85. (VI, 542) remain.

Humeprobably of themechanical had in philosophy" By "theimperfections ofhidden orunderlying mechanisms, e.g.,gravmind(a) thehypothesization as Boyle,too,haddone, inexplaining motion "occult" forces, byinvoking ity, to periodically "wind"up the forGod to be present and (b) the necessity Hume's sinceit tendsto rundown(withan analogyto a clock).25 universe in but no such as were as "cautious admitting principles reading of Newton is a common one and probably owes something to on experiment" founded Hume'sallusion to Newton orhislectures. being"long Maclaurin's Account, refers to his poverty from whichEdmund unknown to theworld"probably him. rescued Halleyfrequently ofLife"Humemakes a synoptic about judgment In "OftheMiddleStation in a discussion ofthissort: should notgo unnoticed that GalileoandNewton the ofMenbytheir andCapacity, Ranks Genius Werewetodistinguish Philosogreat andUsefulness tothePublic, Virtue more than bytheir thefirst andmust be wouldcertainly Rank, challenge phers [scientists] is this Kind.So rare that Character, perhaps Top ofhuman placedatthe whocan laya justClaim has as yetbeenabovetwointheWorld there toexcelall the rest, toit.Atleast, GalileoandNewton seemtomeso far I cannot intothesameClass with them. that admit (550) anyother inHume'sopening whereas remark rank, HereHumeaddsGalileotothefirst to thissuperlative Sir Isaac is theonlyone admitted on Newton'sCharacter, is a national becauseHume'sHistory history. class,perhaps William Harvey is perhaps ofBoyle,William themost CharacOutside interesting Harvey terfrom ourtopical perspective: to theglory of havingmade,by reasoning alone, Harveyis entitled in of a one of the most without mixture capital discovery accident, any ofestablishbranches ofscience. He hadalso thehappiness important
25See theLeibniz-Clarke ed. H. G. Alexander 1956),esp. (Manchester, Correspondence, 11ff, Natural requirement; Hume,Dialogues Concerning fortheclassic debateon thislatter with thisdebate. Religion, esp. PartsIX and X, showshis familiarity

ofScience Humeand theHistoriography

423

and proofs; on themostsolid and convincing ing at once his theory and byhisindustry suggested tothe arguments hasaddedlittle posterity embelofthebloodis further ofthecirculation His treatise ingenuity. the accompany whichso naturally and spirit lishedby thatwarmth by CharlesI., manwas muchfavored Thisgreat geniusof invention. for of usingall thedeerin theroyalforests whogave himtheliberty Itwasremarked ofanimals. onthe hisdiscoveries generation perfecting ofage,ever, whohadreached years inEurope, forty no physician that of the circulation ofthe doctrine Harvey's adopted totheendofhislife, from the inLondondiminished extremely, hispractice blood;andthat So slow and signaldiscovery. great uponhimbythat drawn reproach in everyscience,even whennotopposedby is theprogress of truth He diedin 1657,aged79. (VI, 153orsuperstitious prejudices. factious 54) in Hume's History: referencthemes first, tworecurring Thispassageexhibits rolein theriseofscienceinGreat with regalpowerandtheir es to individuals Hume's anti-religious bias,which inthis case toCharles I; andsecond, Britain, of truth and about in his statement abouttheprogress exhibited is indirectly todiscuss facts giveHumea chance Thesociohistorical prejudices. superstitious scientists. Hume used the Harvey and prejudiceagainstimportant bigotry time ofthe ofthe medical profession onthe nature tomake a comment Character new aimtoinvent normally (1650s). So ThomasKuhnsays:"Nordo scientists invented Physicians ofthose byothers."26 intolerant andthey areoften theories, ofDescartes's oftheheart theory inEurope wereunder theinfluence overforty as a thefunction oftheheart which more than explained as a furnace Harvey's, to thearguments has added little pump.One of thereasonswhy"posterity is that medicine returned toHarvey's andingenuity" byhisindustry suggested after up Descartes's. giving explanation he believes that Hume"givesno clue whether DespiteCohen's assertion or by steadyand gradual scienceadvancesby suddengreatleaps forward as seen in "Of claimstheformer, especially (521), Humeactually progress" inwhich intheHarvey he Character, Eloquence"(97). Thisis also appreciated is and adds thatthe theory "a capital discovery" calls Harvey's theory is established means Hume something on "proofs." established By "proof" andby andcertain criteria), itis self-evident (Descartes's i.e.,that byintuition, circulation ofthe the toinstruction), i.e.,that sensual demonstration (as opposed bloodcan be self-administered. in the that there are some"revolutions" seemsto imply Hume's position sense of suddengreatleaps, not only slow gradualchange.For him the in thissense.But unlike other is probably seventeenth revolutionary century Humedidnotthink ofscientific solelyas slow change thinkers, Enlightenment
26 ThomasS.

(2nded.; Chicago,1970),24. Revolutions ofScientific Kuhn,TheStructure

424

S. K. Wertz

in Newton which or the was to culminate or advancement, progress steady Moreover, Encyclopedists. French as didthe physics, ofNewtonian refinement ofscience. In hisaccount ofthe inthe decline healsobelieved as a historian Hume inanappendix that adds manners (I, 160), and government Anglo-Saxon
..." (emphasis added).However, ble principle ofscience[sense 1] and virtue
everyno"... military despotism... had sunkthegenuis of men,and destroyed

or themedieval andnotthe period comefrom antiquity Hume'sexamples in thesciences there was decline Humethought whether era.Thus, modern a passagein theDialogues his age is an openquestion. However, during inthesciences hethought decline that Natural suggests Religion Conceming but likely: only possible hisagewasnot during andsciences, their the late ofarts who reason from though Those origin be refuted byconsiderations wants notforce, may perhaps inference is in continual of human which from thenature derived society, andslavery, andknowledge, liberty between ignorance revolution, for ourlimited itis impossible us,from so that andpoverty; riches not assurance what events or be to with may foretel may experience, inthis sense usesofthe word follow.) VI; other (Part expected. inanarchaic sense doesusethe word "revolution" seen Hume Aswehave revolution" is no "revolution" (in "continual Obviously repetition. meaning context andhasnot been usestill hasa political atall.Alsothis sense) Cohen's with theabovesentence from the for itsbeginning toscience except applied inthe Dialogue. passage ofHume the facts"; for isa good instance Character "adorning TheHarvey wasmuch favored "This man I," and"embellished byCharles great example, ofinventhe which so naturally genuis accompany warmth andspirit bythat which aboutthepassageis thestatement tion." Another thing interesting "This materials for but history; remarks that great it.Hume ageaffords follows itseems, Thestatement would, historian." any accomplished didnot, produce plausible that on Harvey; anditis equally thepassage contextually include for eventhough the materials history," is an instance of the"great science tothe Hume is a synoptic So inreferring ageas a whole, statement judgment. inhisvolumes onscience on several that this issobythe passages demonstrates the Stuarts. inPart VI implies thefollowing on "revolution" passage TheDialogues or lateorigin of science? From of theearly is Humean advocate query: itappears hewascommitofthe that the first few volumes History examining inthe heseems later 1625, narrative, ofscience but view, ted tothe early origin view first. lateorigin ofscience view. Letuslookatthe early tochange tothe

Humeand theHistoriography ofScience Science EarlyBritish

425

andmedieval lacksspecifusually oftheancient periods Hume' s treatment references to the to science,buthe does make a fewexplicit ic references ofthisis in Britain.27 One good illustration ofsciencein ancient development ofAlfred theGreat: hisdiscussion fortheencouremployed byAlfred expedient, Butthemosteffectual ... that hemight exactly more washisownexample oflearning, agement which hemadeuseofburning ofequallength, tapers the measure hours, rude when the an expedient suitedto that he fixedin lanterns, age, were ofclocksand watches ofdialling and themechanism geometry unknown. (I, 80)28 totally given of scientific knowledge during like theabove to thestatus References numerous. Related to the rise of mechanical historical periodsare fairly ofthedifferent usedbythe calendars oftime is Hume's mention measurements withthe aid of and thatthesewere computed British and Roman priests In his (of thecoursesof the sun and moon).29 considerations astronomical "But we shouldgive but an of King Alfred, Hume comments, discussion ournarration tohismilitary we toconfine merit, were ideaofAlfred's imperfect the inouraccount ofhisinstitutions for andwerenotmore particular exploits, ofarts andsciences" theencouragement execution ofjustice, andofhiszeal for ofsociety revolutions eyeonthegeneral (I, 75). He adds,"Thosewhocasttheir human mind hadreached nearofthe all improvements willfind, that, as almost there was a sensible state of perfection abouttheage ofAugustus, ly to their into andmanthenceforth relapsed gradually from that orperiod; decline point to astronomical and barbarism" (II, 519). As in his reference ignorance with an idea ofthelevelofmedical thereader considerations, Humeprovides oftheKing's VI (1500s).He narrates theincident atthetime ofEdward science
27 Hume'sgeneral calls past(which R. G. Collingwood is one oftherecent historiography

of Hume" (paper "illuminism") on whichsee S. K. Wertz,"Collingwood'sUnderstanding France, July, 1992). University of Nantes, Humeconference, readat the 19th 28 Humementions Oxford University. Alfred and endowed founded, repaired, (I, 79) that measurement of timeby us withsomeidea abouttheriseof mechanical Also Humeprovides of the Present State of "The author reference muchlaterin the History: makinganother from watches werefirst brought into England Germany. about1577,pocket England, says,that to havebeeninvented at Nuremberg" (IV, 370). Cf. StevenF. Mason,in his Theyarethought A History oftheSciences(rev.ed.; New York,1962), 109,whocitesthesame information. 29 History, contrary to what deal aboutastronomy, I, 49. For histimeHumeknewa great than more justonce:theCartesians, he mentioned Copernicus Cohenclaims;andintheTreatise Lectures (46), Malezieu (30), "the (152-53),Isaac Barrow'sMathematical esp. Malebranche Principia he obviously alludestoNewton's ofJupiter" (342), andin theIntroduction satellites as possible"(xvii);intheDialogues as universal to "render all ourprinciples whenhe promises HumediscussesCopernicus and Galileo in somedetail(PartsII and V).

426

S. K. Wertz

himmoreill and the becausethey weremaking physicians beingdismissed woman totake over Edward's care!(III, 398). ignorant admission ofa medically he remarks, Of Julius Agricola taught laws andcivility amongtheBritons, introduced He [Agricola] oflife, reconciled andraiseall theconveniences them to them todesire in instructed them letters and the Roman languageand manners, torender chainswhich those andemployed every experience science, to them. botheasyandagreeable (I, 10) he hadforged ofsciencein tothedevelopment ofroyal Outside contributing personages in thestimulation Humeconsiders twofactors and important ancient Britain, ofthe science... andthe NewWorld. discovery .the printing press riseofmodern Humesays: Of thefirst, time[1453],extremely faciliinvented aboutthat The artofprinting, tated theprogress of all theseimprovements [navigation, geography, ofgunpowder thewholeart of changed etc.]:theinvention astronomy, madeinreligion, suchas not weresoonafter war:Mighty innovations but even thosethat thosestatesthatembraced them, onlyaffected Andthus andworship: a general revolution totheancient faith adhered thispartof theworld;men was made in humanaffairs throughout with ofcommerce, science, attained that regard arts, situation, gradually in whichtheyhave ever since government, police,and cultivation, persevered. (III, 81) was stimulated byprinting. butalso itshistoriography Notonlyscienceitself to select and workfromafter the The historian had muchmorematerial Thelastclauseinthis "mengradually passage, ofthe press. emergence printing of commerce, attained thatsituation, withregard arts,science,government, in whichthey have eversincepersevered," strongly police,and cultivation, which inother oftheEnlightentheidea ofprogress we find historians implies ment. Humecontinues: theuseful, as well as themoreagreeable commences Here,therefore, has place in all theconsiderable, ofmodern and annals;certainly part evenmost oftheminute ofhistorical a great of variety narration; parts the ofselecting, as power byprinting, givetheauthor events, preserved thefacts which he relates.... wellas adorning, (III, 81-82) Hume's mention of "adorning the Thispassagefrom theHistory.. .especially facts"...provides a better for what Humemeans context reasoning" by"moral in history in mostofhis other than with writings. (reasoning particulars)

Humeand theHistoriography ofScience

427

served as Humealso seemstosuggest that thediscovery oftheNewWorld the a stimulus for invention andprogress ofart andindustry andbyimplication sciences. Forinstance:
It was duringthisreign [HenryVII] ... thatChristopher Columbus, A

setoutfrom for the discovery Genoese, Spainonhismemorable voyage of the western world;and a few yearsafter, Vasquez de Gama, a a newpassage Portuguese, passedtheCape ofGoodHope,andopened to the East Indies. The greateventswere attended withimportant to all thenations of Europe,evento suchas werenot consequences in thosenavalenterprises. The enlargment concerned of immediately increased andthe arts commerce andnavigation everywhere.... industry (III, 80)

The immense of references the History to geography number throughout in anykindof history. that Humeconsidered it an important factor indicate as "physical factors them Humeregarded geographical causes,"andhedefines as follows: "Byphysical causes,I meanthosequalities oftheairandclimate thetoneand which aresupposed towork on thetemper, insensibly byaltering a particular ofthebody, andgiving reflection habit though complexion, which, will the andreasonmaysometimes overcome among generality it, yetprevail and have an influence on their manners" of mankind, (Hume,"Of National him we survey the histories before we Characters," Essays,198).When English he was apparently he didthis: thefirst British historian togive understand why inhistory. either for For itsownsakeoras a factor geography anyimportance, is thought about this "Greenland tohavebeendiscovered period" (IV, example, 144 [1625]). Geography to theriseof scientific is stillconsidered significant butnotas muchas Humethought andin a different way. thought, ScienceNarrated Britain BesidesHume'snarration ofthedevelopment of sciencein Great that as subject andhishistoriographical invoke matter for his principles science he as well there are many instances whichshowthat used science as History, as a historical Humeinferred states ofaffairs from andreligion politics category. Forexample, in an appendix inventions and activity. theabsenceofscientific that and Manners," Humespeculated Government called "The Anglo-Saxon that an independent so little restrained "Itis easytoimagine bylaw and people, in maintaining a regular cultivated by science,would not be verystrict inthenext oftheir Humeindicates succession princes" (I, 161).Later appendix in Britain hadtowork. "Thebarons thedifficulty under which scientists early for andgentry tothearts, andhadnodemand ... gaveno encouragement anyof but manufactures: was heldin contempt themoreelaborate Everyprofession

428

S. K. Wertz

In regard tothe somelearning. Humementions (I, 463). However that ofarms" loveroflearning "Thatemperor beinga great ofMercia,he writes: Kingdom sent athisdesire, ofthat Offa, inanage very barren ornament, andlearned men, celebrated for hisknowledge, whoreceived a clergyman much Alcium, him over in the and even became his perceptor greathonoursfromCharlemagne, sciences"(I, 42). from theuniversal [bytheSaxons], causeswas neglected ofnatural knowledge andjudgments ..."(I, 51).3 This "negative interpositions beliefofmiraculous ofview,a wayofcovering a contemporary point is,from inferential approach" availableandreveals is no positive evidence there situation where a historical orthe of lackthereof. the historian's periods, knowledge given about something "The perfidious prince times about"ignorance." Humespeaksmany [Offal," hischaracter intheworld, andperhaps ofreestablishing Humesays,"desirous totheclergy, court ofhisownconscience, theremorses paidgreat ofappeasing esteemed in that and devotion so much ignorant all themonkish andpractised of what? Hume's age (I, 41-42)." One maywell ask,ignorant superstitious ofEnlightenment HereHumeis typical andsciences. answer wouldbe thearts in whoaresevere, historians judgeswholevyonagesdeficient nonsympathetic theHistoThisimplicit frame ofreference runs throughout andsciences.3' arts Humewas attentive tothestatus and other that andindicates, things, among ry ofthesciencesin different periods. development Humeusually notesrather thisbias or frame ofreference, In accordwith the absence of science in any given period.For example,in his harshly Humecomments that: "The of theAnglo-Saxons, of themanners discussion of receiving slowly,from putthepeople in a situation conquest [Norman] andofcorrecting their rough therudiments ofscienceandcultivation, abroad, is indicative inferential manners" approach andlicentious (I, 85). Thisnegative A statement which fortheHistory. of Hume's use of scienceas a category which character though thecondemning ofhisjudgments, removes somewhat is that: inferential makesa negative point, as beingyetinitsinfancy [1625]. science... must be considered Every thegrowth of all and polemical retarded Scholastic divinity learning of thatdeed by trueknowledge. Sir Henry Saville,in thepreamble and astronomical whichhe annexeda salaryto the mathematical in Oxford, was almosttotally abansays,thatgeometry professors in The of that I] age [James donedandunknown England. bestlearning oftheancients. was thestudy (V, 155)
Hume statesthat"... the When discussing even earlierEnglish history,

ed. in ThePortableVoltaire, ofNations, Essay on theMannerand Spirit 31 Cf. Voltaire, B. R. Redman(New York,1949),549-50.

30Cf. History, I, 50-51.

Humeand theHistoriography ofScience

429

Thereare three generalpointsin the above passage whichneed to be inevaluating emphasized Hume'sHistory from thestandpoint ofthehistoriography ofscience. First we havetoturn totheTreatise tofind a description ofthe state ofnatural philosophy before Copernicus: moral is in thesamecondition as natural, Here,therefore, philosophy with toastronomy before thetime ofCopernicus. The ancients, regard tho'sensible ofthat that maxim, nature doesnothing invain, contriv'd suchintricate systems oftheheavens, as seem'dinconsistent with true and gave place at last to something philosophy, moresimpleand natural. To inventwithout scruplea new principle to everynew phaenomenon, insteadof adaptingit to the old; to overloadour with hypotheses a variety ofthiskind;arecertain that noneof proofs, these is the we onlydesire, principles justone,andthat number of by tocover ofthe falsehoods, ourignorance truth. (282; Hume's emphases) And in "The Sceptic,"Hume discussesthe merits of the Ptolemaicand Copernican systems (E, 164-65). The second pointis Hume's recognition thatscience was still in its the 1600s. One factor "infancy" during to thedevelopment contributing of science in GreatBritainwas individuals who promoted science but who themselves werenotconsidered scientists orwhodidnotcontribute to directly the advancement of scienceby novel experiments or hypotheses. Hume's inclusion ofSirHenry Savillefallsinto theabovementioned classofindividuHume'shistorical als.Also,from the about ofscience the generalization infancy historian has to infer that Humeformulated philosophical hisjudgimplicitly ment on thebasisofthedependence ofscienceuponregalindividuals. Thisis inpart duetohisuse ofCharacter as a historiographical inhishistory. concept Hume's estimation is questionable of scholastic and has Third, theology beencriticized historians andby historians of history.32 His by philosophical bias is one of thecornerstones anti-religious of his emphasis upon science. hisHistory historical movement orchange interms Moreover, pictures ofbasic conflicts between and earlymodern organized religion science,as theyare in individuals manifested or groups.Within thisconflict or correlation the which Humefinds most is that interpretation suitable stifles organized religion man's geniusand liberty, thusslowingdownor stagnating theprocesses of history. Science,on the other toward hand,has advancedman historically in theHistory The "sunof science"metaphor enlightenment. (II, 508) makes this clear.Clarifying this movement is oneofthechief point abundently values whichHume places on the writing of history as a way to make the past andinstructive thereader. for He wrote intelligible about theEnglish nation in
32 Someof the Hume historians following whowere critical were William Robertson, Edward Gibbon, William Godwin, andHenry Hallam. See Francis Palgrave, "Hume andhis Influence upon History," Quarterly Review, 83 (1844),536-92.

430

S. K. Wertz

thedevelopment ofitsstruggle, which ofscience. His thoughts terms involved in thefollowing arevividly illustrated passage: Allthe efforts ofthe Baconcouldnot anestablishment great procure for Theonly the ofnatural cultivation philosophy.... encouragement which in Englandhas ever givento any thing the sovereign thathas the this of was short-lived establishment ofJames appearance science, [a the College at Chelsea];an institution quitesuperfluous, considering whichat that timeso universally unhappy propension possessedthe nation for polemical theology. (V, 132) The illustrations within a historical as intheBacon ofscience perspective, thatis, instances exampleabove,have been mainly negative; of scienceare of religion. But thereare exceptions.. coupled withinstances .such as his thevariety To judgefrom Saville.33 Character ofSirHenry ofreferences cited, inwriting anoutline Humewasinterested more thanjust ofthe ofscience history Isles.InhisHistory Humeincludes notonly ontheBritish individuals whomay theactivity havemadescientific orpractised contributions butalso thosewho itinonewayoranother, thescientific supported enterprise bypromoting as he in the with Great. s had doneearlier Alfred the Hume' idea ofhistory History inthehistory what heincludes ofEngland; from that emerges is,hisunderlying exhibit that thehistory ofscienceis an integral feature ofhisgenassumptions of history and thathe viewed science as a cultural-social eral conception process.34 as Alfred suchfigures theGreat Asidefrom andSirHenry Saville,Charles II arealso granted inthe riseofscience inBritain. I andCharles For significance Humeboth than ofthese aremore individuals inthis kings important anyother in hisHistory. For instance, Humeremarks respect that CharlesII's "genius, turned towards himto study mechanics had inclined naval affairs, happily branches he ofall ofbusiness, both lovedthemostandunderstood which, the in best"(VI, 446). As Humepoints out,thekingsdid twosignificant things the rise of science in Britain:CharlesI encouraged promoting Harvey's II gavea patent anatomical andCharles for theformation research, oftheRoyal

Society.

Some Objections Considered to my presentation One possibleobjection of the above Characters of scientists is that I portray Humeas intending those tobe an integral ofhis part I think this inhistheory narrative. that is not butis reflected of justappearance
33 According to Robert S. Westman, "The Astronomer's Role in theSixteenth A Century: Preliminary Study," History ofScience,18 (1980), 146,a fullstudy ofSaville's lifeandworks is verymuchneeded. 34 See especially C. Jacob,The Cultural Margaret Meaningof theScientific Revolution (New York,1988).

Humeand theHistoriography ofScience

431

ofRichard III (d. 1485) thecloseofhisdiscussion ofthe reign history. Towards thehistory of Englandthrough a Hume concludes:"Thus have we pursued thedawnofcivility series ofmany barbarous ages; tillwe haveatlastreached in ourhistorical andhave theprospect, bothof greater certainty and science, tothereader a spectacle more abletopresent of worthy andofbeing narrations, we find Humeadvocating thelateorigin hisattention" (II, 518). It is herethat andscience"andnotthat ofscienceview.Noticehe says"thedawnofcivility a century that wouldbe nearly later with the havebeenreached. they ..perhaps ofLondon oftheRoyalSociety anditsillustrious members likeBoyle founding the ofscience, 1485 What would constitute dawn especially around andNewton. thefirst three volumes ofthe History as I havedone inGreat Britain? Inspecting Humehadinmind, butofcourse that "dawning" abovegivesus anideaofwhat We haveseenAlfred Great, cameinlater periods. the is alsodetermined bywhat suchas theprinting inventions clocks, Julius pressandmechanized Agricola, as those individuals andevents which ledtothe ofthe NewWorld anddiscovery ofscience. dawning oneofthebestexpressions ofHume'sphilosophy ofhistory comes Again, ofRichard III: from hisnarration ofthereign and thedeclineof artand science, are The rise,progress, perfection, and intimately witha connected curiousobjectsof contemplation, Theevents ofnoparticular canbe period narration ofciviltransactions. thedegreesof advancement accounted butby considering fully for, menhavereached in those which particulars. (II, 519) thisstatement concerning the implications, Besides having historiographical is a justification ofthestate oflearning and ofhistory ofhis inclusion objects It is notuntil thenineteenth with Marx, scienceintheHistory. century Burkle, that Hume andEngelsthat historians theinterrelationship beginto appreciate andeconomic Humealso scientific andpolitical sees between developments. moretopically orwith inhisesdealswith a synchronic thissubject approach oftheArts andSciences."35 Thesciences, Hume say,"OftheRiseandProgress werenaturally arose in Greecebecause its geographical regions speculates, dividedintoseveraldistinct i.e., theregions give riseto their governments; Humelater for a great mantheory theory governments. givesupthegeographic in sucha ofthehistory ofscience, becausehe couldsee theweakness probably this the oneofthe Character suggests theory alongwith theory. Harvey's clearly the French geniusin Englandoffset academyof science.Men of superior efforts oftheFrench Humewas notan inductivist histosovereign. organized
3S Essays,111-17. Hume observes (124)that "a republic is most favourable tothe growth andin "OfCivilLiberty" that it "made itschief ofthesciences," (90) he saysofFlorence progress inthe arts andsciences, after itbegan toloseitsliberty bythe usurpation ofthe family ofMEDICI.ARISTO, TASSO,GALILEO, more than RAPHAEL, andMICHELANGELO, were notborn in republics."

432

S. K. Wertz

of scientists as blackor white where thecriterion rianof sciencewhopainted Newtonian sciencetextbook.36 whiteness is theup-to-date of commission thereare the sins of omission.One Besides the merits bestknownforhis workon exampleis WilliamGilbert, particular glaring Humewas unaware ofGilbert from the remarks magnetism (1600). Apparently inwhich lived.In hisdiscussion Gilbert oftheperiod he madeinhisnarration inpassing Humementions the (IV, 350) queen'sphysicians ofQueenElizabeth, ofGilbert was among them.37 (Hume's omission Gilbert butdoes notnotethat I colors hiswholeaccount ofthe toElizabeth queenandher andhisrelationship of Locke...comes from thehistory omission.. .thatof John reign.)Another is not a Character ofLockeatall....evenas a philosopher. Infact there medicine. orthefather ofEnglish botany whois recognized as a pioneer William Turner, is absent from Hume's History, and so is Dr. Henry in thesixteenth century, is Edmund Halley, Fifth experiments.38 Power(1623-68)andhismicroscopical in Annual well known and more space the given in astronomy were whosefeats is Halley's omission (1772).39 Isaac Newton'sanecdote Register (1759) than withhas agreedthat putsit,"History interesting because,as Westfall doubly butfinanced from Newton the publication outHalley, whonotonly encouraged thePrincipia wouldnothavebeenwritten" (151); hisownslender resources, If hisindebtedness toHalleyinthePreface. himself andNewton acknowledges didnot he couldnothaveleft Halleyout.Buthe probably Humehadreadthis, itsimportance, andso omitted it.A more toappreciate readitorat leastfailed medieval Grosseteste omission is theBritish (ca. understandable pair:Robert both ofwhom devoted themselves Bacon (ca. 1214-95), 1175-1253) andRoger Bacon wrote on experimental sciencein theOpus to scientific investigations. andgavea rudimentary of on light account wrote a treatise Majus,Grosseteste of sciencein GreatBritain wouldbe therainbow, and no complete history without them. of sciencein Hume's History is therecitalof thehistory Even though sources,40 thisaspectof his historical upon secondary, primarily dependent
an Historiography also Maurice A. seminal Towards ofScience; 36See Agassi's work, (Detroit, 1973),Part2; James W. McAllister, Finocchiaro, History ofScienceas Explanation of Science,"British Journal of thePhilosophy of "Theory-Assessment in theHistoriography Introduction. Science,37 (1986), 315-33; and Helge Kragh,
37

in theChurch Happy and Other Occurrences ofEngland, during QueenElizabeth's Religion, and Letters Papers ofState, Records, (Oxford, Reign:Together with an Appendix ofOriginal 1824),IV, 521-22 (doc. #276). 38 Henry In Three Books: Containing NewExperiments Power, Experimental Philosophy, ... (The Sourcesof Science,No. 21; New York,1966). Microscopical, Mercurial, Magnetical 39 On Halley's Character, see "Some Particulars of the Life of Dr. Halley,"Annual AnnualRegister (1772), 34-37. Register (1759), 283-90; Newton'sanecdote, the thatHume paraphrased manypassages from 40FrancisPalgrave, op. cit.,suggests that manyhistorians had to followhis histories of earlier British historians, butit is also true "Hume he had discovered; see HughTrevor-Roper, lead becausethey had to use thearchives in David Hume, as a Historian," A Symposium, ed. D. F. Pears(London,1963),99.

of Annals ofthe Reformation andEstablishment Hume cites John Strype's (1643-1737)

ofScience Humeand theHistoriography

433

ofmodem tothe contributions hisoriginal isoneof development work historical holdthe Advocates' Library heexpanded Infact ittoday. as weknow history W.K.Dickson while hewasthe Keeper. materials included scientific which ings relates:
ofa Librarian ...that the personality Library madetothe Itis inadditions

of Hume's thegreater listsduring part The purchase bestappears. ofliterature, chiefly cover a wide range They are preserved. Keepership onjurisprudence, history, standard classics, andworks books, foreign andscience.41 of ofthePhysiological Library Humewas a member mentions, As Barfoot inscience, which interest manifests Edinburgh (15If) andhehadan ongoing tried (andas I have andthroughout hiswritings Library itself atthe Advocates' ina significant hisHistory this includes way). here that toshow Conclusion initsinfancy: science is still Hume writes that In "OfCivilLiberty" (91)], in this Men [e.g.,Thomas Locke,Bacon mentioned Sprat, ofReligion, in the much been so disputes have great occupied country, the minute hadnorelish for that seeming and they Philosophy, Politics, turn of criticism. And this thinking ofgrammar and though observations itmust be oursense andreasoning; must have considerably improved wehavenot inthose even sciences above-mentioned, that, confessed, the toposterity: And utmost which wecantransmit standard-book, any a more area few towards justphilosophy; wehave toboast essays of, any degree but havenot, as yet, reached well, indeed, promise which, ofperfection. (92) I think he would haveincluded Humehas saidabout Given what Newton, inlight Newton in inthis Hume saidabout ofwhat Newton especially group, I quoted which ofthe Arts andSciences" RiseandProgress "Ofthe (121-22) above. isthe onewho like wehave itseems From the Harvey Characters surveyed, with superlaunqualified that Hume speaks work for Recall posterity. hasthe tives: ofhaving is entitled to theglory alone, byreasoning made, Harvey inoneofthe most ofaccident, a capital discovery mixture without any ofestablishofscience. He hadalsothe happiness branches important
44 Juridical Review, 4' WilliamK. Dickson,"David Humeand theAdvocates'Library," (1932), 9.

434

S. K. Wertz on themostsolidand convincing and proofs; ingat once his theory and hasaddedlittle tothe arguments suggested byhisindustry posterity ofthebloodis further embelingenuity. His treatise ofthecirculation whichso naturally the accompany lishedby thatwarmth and spirit genuisof investigation. (VI, 153)

De MotuCordis(TheMotion Heart[ 1628]),appears tc ofthe Harvey's treatise, a degreeof perfection has reached and may be one of thosefewessaysthat Hume that be calleda "standard-book" (92). So itis at leastcurious rightfully first rank ofmen(alongwith GalileoandNewton), inthe didnot include Harvey that Newton wouldhavethemosi Thisis surprising, becauseonewouldsuspect hisPrincipia wouldbe the"standard-book." praiseworthy Character andthat Arts andSciences"Humemakes itcleai ofthe Butin"OftheRiseandProgress "... ifitcan overcome theobstacles that wordis stillouton Newton's theory: ofEurope, itwillprobablygo down which itmeets atpresent [ 1742]inall parts Hume to thelatest (122; emphasis added).Apparently triumphant posterity" ofNewton's criticism42 concepts ol hadhisdoubts.. .maybeitwas Berkeley's notaboutHarvey'streatise. absolute spaceandtime...but in theconclusion in theTreatise, where is also reflected of This situation ofhuman anatomy nature, having fully explain'dthe ceed[ed]in theaccurate (I, IV, VII) attheendofBook I. In nature ofourjudgment andunderstanding" the section(XII) "Of the Prideand Humility of Animals"we can see the oftheTreatise, andit influence ofHarvey on Hume'smethodology enormous in fullhere: is worth quoting andexperiments on observations 'Tis usualwith anatomists tojointheir humanbodiesto thoseon beasts,and from theagreement of these toderive anadditional argument for anyparticular hypothexperiments thestructure inbrutes is the esis.'Tis indeed that where ofparts certain, ofthese alsothe the sameas inmen, andthe causes parts same, operation we discover andthat whatever ofthat cannot be different, to operation be true without hesitation to be oftheone species, maybe concluded Thustho'themixture ofhumours andthecompocertain oftheother. be presum'd ofminute tobe somewhat different sition parts may justly in menfrom what itis in mereanimals; andtherefore anyexperiment will not theeffects of medicines we makeupontheone concerning totheother; oftheveinsandmuscles, alwaysapply yetas thestructure ofthelungs, thefabric andsituation oftheheart, thestomach, theliver thesameinall animals, arethesameornearly thevery andother parts, which in one speciesexplains muscular the samehypothesis, motion, oftheblood,must be applicable ofthechyle, thecirculation progress
1975), 209-27.

Book III Hume describes himselfas an "anatomist,"and as having "... pro-

inPhilosophical 4' George Berkeley, De Motu (1721/52), Works, ed.M.R.Ayers (London,

Humeand theHistoriography ofScience

435

to everyone; and according as it agreesor disagrees withtheexperiwe maydrawa proof ments we maymakein anyspeciesofcreatures, on thewhole.Let us, therefore, of its truth or falsehood applythis of enquiry, whichis foundso just and usefulin reasonings method andsee what toourpresent ofthemind, concerning thebody, anatomy discoveries we can makebyit.(325-26) Humemakesthe In thefirst Inquiry (section IX, "OftheReasonofAnimals") "Theanatomical observations formed samepoint: upononeanimal are,bythis to all animals; and it is certain extended speciesofreasoning [analogy], that, whenthecirculation oftheblood,for is clearly tohaveplace instance, proved or fish, thesame in one creature, as a frog itforms a strong presumption that principle has place in all" (112). Suchconfident, praiseworthy descriptions of it of his make clear theanatomy and physiology that rather than day Harvey achievement. Newton was Hume's idol of scientific Why?Because Harvey's areonesthereaders canperform onthemselves... canconvert experiments .they theideasintoimpressions.43 One cannot do this with themotion oftheplanets, or very fewnatural werein theposition to do so. philosophers andhistory ofscience, In light oftwentieth-century this Humephilosophy andintriguing. The "measurement" orperiodian perspective is mostunusual inmovement from for is nodifferent zation theseventeenth the century previous andso on. Pierre ones.Copernicus madeone change, Duhem Kepleranother, to Hume's butfordifferent reasons:"Whatare (1905) held a view similar assumedto have been intellectual revolutions have almostalways generally been slow, long prepared is an evolutions.... merely Respectfortradition for ofEngland important precondition scientific progress."44 Theearly history he wouldhaveagreed with that Humenarrated that Duhem. strongly suggests In "Of Commerce," historical Humedefines change:"A longcourseoftime, witha variety of accidents and circumstances, are requisite to produce those which affairs" so much thefaceofhuman great revolutions, diversify (E, 260). In "Of NationalCharacters," Humelaments: All thesciences andliberal arts havebeenimported tous from thesouth in thefirst ardor of [GreeceandItaly];anditis easyto imagine, that, the whowere when excited andbyglory, application, byemulation few, and stretch addicted to them, wouldcarry them to thegreatest height, andevery toreach the ofperfection. Such every nerve, faculty, pinnacle illustrious and begot an examplesspreadknowledge everywhere, for thesciences.(E, 210) universal esteem
(Cambridge, 1988), 184,186,discussing 43 See Alec Fisher, TheLogicofReal Arguments in theveinsof thearm. Harvey, TheMotionoftheHeart,and how thevaluesfunction I Pierre Kragh, (Paris,1905-7),I, 111,quotedfrom Duhem,Les origins de la statique 18. Introduction,

436

S. K. Wertz

of Bacon, Boyle, Harvey, examples"are the Characters These "illustrious Hencethepurpose ofthehistory of scienceis to spread andtherest. Newton, esteem forthesciences." knowledge of thesciencesand "begotan universal It is true ofintellectual oftheEnglish literatrue Butthisis generally history. E. C. Mossner in theHistory. Indeed, yearsago madetheobservature found of British authors were collected tionthatif Hume's "character-sketches" of EnglishLiterature."45 the first "History together, theywould constitute true ofsciencebecauseHume's historical s observation is evenmore Mossner' to the"Miscellaneous limited Transactions," on scienceeventhough remarks rolein theHistory.. .in the and"Appendices," they playa prominent "Notes," foster "a Scienceandphilosophy ofEngland. as part ofthestory narrative itself calm sunshine of the And for the sun of mind."4 virtue,... [the] manly, steddy itmay radiate. Historical change itmust be given a placewhere science toshine Within a political onefinds framework, is not justpolitical. inHume'snarrative in Hume'snarrative. forces at work andintellectual social,economic, inwhat with science. hehaddonehistorically As I said Humewasnot unique sciencein his philosophical and historical had popularized Voltaire earlier, as todeclare that: In theRevolution inScienceCohengoesevenso far writings. inthat Voltaire howsignificant and recognized remarkable "Thisis all themore in scienceof suchmajorfounding as werethecreations figures fundamental beyond GalileoandNewton" (204). The samemaybe saidofHume.He went of scienceintoa national, political in theway he wove thehistory Voltaire inthe that their interaction. andappreciated history Foreseeing progress history is an insight notappreciwas partially ofscience uponregalfigures dependent thenextcentury.47 ateduntil Texas Christian University.

"An ApologyforDavid Hume,Historian," Proceedings oftheModem 1sE. C. Mossner, 56 (1941), 657-90; 679 and 687. LanguageAssociation, 1956, 1967),73. ed. H. E. Root (Stanford, ofReligion, History 4 D. Hume,TheNatural 47 I wishto thank Texas) fortheir theMellonFoundation and Rice University (Houston, also Professors Van Helden;andJudith Grabiner; MarkKulstad, andAlbert support, especially on earlier of thispaper. drafts comments and P. B. Wood fortheir M. A. Stewart