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System requirements 1. 2. 3. 4. Charge controller Battery bank Inverter Balance of System (BoS)
Storing energy produced by the PV array during the day, and to supply it to electrical loads as needed
To operate the PV array near its maximum power point To power electrical loads at stable voltages To supply surge currents to electrical loads and inverters
Types of Battery Nickel Cadmium Lead Acid Nickel Metal Hydride Lithium Ion
Li-ion battery
Li-ion battery
Fastest growing battery technology Offering high energy density and low weight. Requires protection circuits to limit voltage and current for safety reasons.
Most economical For larger power applications Used where weight is of little concern.
Nickel Cadmium battery Long life High discharge rate Extended temperature range is important. But it contain toxic metals
Nickel metal hydride battery Higher energy density compared to nickelcadmium Contain no toxic metals. Reduced cycle life.
Dominant Energy Storage medium is Lead-Acid batteries (Mostly used in off-grid systems)
Advantages
Simple and cheap to make
Disadvantages
Cannot be stored in discharge condition Low energy density makes them bulky
Low self discharge rate Today, 98% of these batteries are recycled Capable of high discharge rates
Rated capacity: Amount of charge available in ampere-hours (Ah) when battery discharged at specified rate.
Basic terminology
Cell A cell is building blocks of battery it comprises a number of positive and negative charged plates immersed in an electrolyte that produces an electrical charge by means of an electrochemical reaction. Nominal voltage The cell voltage that is accepted as an industrial standard. (Cell voltages of 1.20 and 1.25V are used for NiCd and NiMH batteries). Cycle life Cycle life The number of cycles (charge/discharge) a battery provides before it is no longer usable. A battery is considered non-usable if its nominal capacity falls below 60 to 80 percent.
Depth of Discharge (DoD) It is a measure of how much battery is discharged in a cycle before it is charged again. 60% DoD is equivalent to 40% state of charge (SoC).
Comparison of batteries
Operational temperature
-20 to 60C
-40 to 60C
-20 to 60C
K factor Depending upon the End Cell Voltage & Back-up duration, these factors are manufacturer dependent. Here, K-factor is 19.35
Aging factor The effect of age of battery is reflected in its storage potential Here, Average aging factor is considered to be 0.8
Depth Of Discharge It is a measure of how much battery is discharged in a cycle before it is charged again. Typically consider Depth Of Discharge as 0.6 if autonomy required is 1 day and 0.8 if autonomy is 2 days and above
The additional advantage could be Increased battery life Preventing reverse current
A charge controller limits the rate at which electric current is added to or drawn from electric batteries.
Types
PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) - Helps to remove buildup on the plates in a battery extending a batterys life. MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracking) - Adjusts the output voltage level to get maximum power output
Charge controller
Pulse = Stop and start like with your heart beat Width = Time the pulse is turned on and time is the pulse is turned off. Modulation = Controls more or less volume of the charge.
PWM is used as switching signal to control the charge flow to get steady output
The most basic charge controller simply monitors the battery voltage and opens the circuit, stopping the charging, when the battery voltage rises to a certain level.
Bulk: Is normally the first step. It will allow enough / max power through the controller to bring the voltage up to a set voltage. Absorb stage: Is a tapered charge which the solar energy controller will slowly taper down the amps as the battery reaches full charge Does not allow the battery charge to go over the bulk voltage limits Float: The charge controller will auto switch to the float charge, which is a lower voltage closer to the nominal battery voltage. During this stage as you use more power from the batteries the unit will adjust the input amps up and down to hold this float voltage.
Pulse-width modulation (PWM), as it applies to motor control, is a way of delivering energy through a succession of pulses rather than a continuously varying (analog) signal. By increasing or decreasing pulse width, the controller regulates energy flow to the motor shaft
What we want is to maximize power output and charge the batteries faster ?
MPPT is used to set the operating point at maximum power output It is programmable controllers with computer interface.
Inverters are used for conversion of low voltage Direct Current from the PV modules into high voltage Alternating Current which is fed into the power grid
Square wave
These types of inverters are mostly used in residential buildings in remote locations which are devoid of the utility grid and is powered by renewable energy sources.
SOLAR POWER CONDITIONING UNIT (PCU) is used as control system for grid tie inverter
Inverter sizing
Applications Remote housing Water pumping Telecom Costing Module cost is 30-40% of system cost, battery cost is recurring and appliances cost is often included in system cost. System cost is in the range of Rs. 1.25-1.5 Lakhs/kW
Loss Analysis
PV Losses
Battery Loss
PV Mismatch
PV Soiling PV Thermal Loss DC Cable Loss MPPT Charge Controller Battery Inverter including Transformer AC Cable Loss Total System Loss
1-3
1-3 5-10 1-2 1-2 10-15 4-6 0.5-1 25-40
7. Impact Assessment
Customer concerns
Seasonal load requirement Type of load
Terrace/roof orientation and tilt Location, shape, size and level of roof/terrace
Site survey
Total Rated Power Consumption = Rated Power x No. of Loads Total Avg. Power = Total Rated Power x Load Duty Factor Total Energy Consumption = Total Avg. Power x Hours of use
Use alternate energy sources for high power loads Reduce electrical energy and battery storage requirements eg. SHWS, gas cook top, gas heaters etc.
Use inverter-ready fridges and soft starters for large 3 ph. appliances, eg. air conditioners, pump motors, etc.
Mode
Battery requirement
Charge controller
Inverter
PV Capacity
DC / AC
Off-grid / Grid-support
Size of battery
Mounting system Rooftop/Terrace mounted/Ground mounted PV array also determine orientation and tilt of PV array based on latitude and usage pattern.
5.1 PV Sizing
1. Load Wh = Daily energy requirements 2. Average daily peak sun hours (PSH) in design month for selected tilt and orientation of PV array. 3. System Efficiency Factor (SYSEF) SYSEF = DCEF x BEF x ACEF 4. Where DCEF = PV Loss Factors x DC Cable Loss Factor x Charger Efficiency 5. PV Watts peak (Total Wp)= Load Wh/(PSH*SYSEF)
6. Select PV module voltage based on system voltage. (System voltage is integral multiple of PV module voltage)
7. Select module Wp and size based on available space. 8. No. of PV Modules = Total Wp/Module Wp 9. Use nearest larger number of modules
2.
3.
4.
List No. of modules in array and Standard Testing Condition Wp rating of array.
5.
For use with MPPT charge controller, string voltage needs to match average MPP window of controller.
3. Max. charge current >= 1.25 x array max. power point current.
4. Nom. load current = Max. DC Load Power/System Voltage. 5. Controller output current rating >= 1.5 x nom. load current. 6. Output current overload rating should exceed peak load current. 7. Output overload duration should exceed peak load current duration. 8. Standby power consumption should be minimum. 9. Consider charge profile, power conversion efficiency, environmental specifications, protections and monitoring functions.
Inverter output power rating 1.5 to 2 times (min. 1.2 times) max. load power to allow for future expansion.
Inverter nom. load current = Max. load power/Nom. output voltage Ensure max. inverter DC input current does not exceed C5 rate of battery.
I (string cable) >= 1.25 times Isc (array) when string fuse is not used.
Minimize total DC cable losses to typ. 2-3% of plant DC power rating. Consider twice the cable run from combiner box to Controller. String fuses/MCBs used with large size PV generators to avoid module reverse currents under fault conditions. Fuses/MCBs must be rated for DC. I (string cable) >= Itrip (string fuse) when string fuse is used.
2.
Estimate power and energy output of the plant based on selected array and battery size and system efficiency factors.
3.
4.
Summarize design.