Basic Geometry

BASIC GEOMETRY Introduction

The ability to create shapes and drawing views form the basis of drafting and geometric modeling skills. Most often, shapes and drawing views are created from sketches. A sketch is an approximate graphic representation of a 2-D or 3-D figure. The visual appearance of a sketch bears close resemblance to the intended object but its size if often in great error. A sketch could be an open or closed figure. Practically, every design begins with a sketch! 2-D sketches may be converted into shapes during drafting or modeling. A shape is an accurate 2-D graphic representation of the outline of a closed boundary. A shape is a planar model and consists of 2-D graphic elements such as points, lines and curves. When lines and curves are used to create design graphics, they are called features. There are basic shapes such as rectangle, circle, and ellipse that can be combined to form more complex shapes. In general, drawing views are composed of shapes and graphic elements. The objects modeled in design drafting have sizes which are expressed in units of length and angles. When these sizes are specified explicitly on a shape, a design model is created. CAD packages have functions for creating graphic elements and basic shapes, though the steps involved vary from one system to another. The user must get familiar with the locations and steps in the available package. Functions for line, arc, circle, ellipse, offset, trim, copy, move, mirror, fillet, etc. should be understand and used correctly. Point A point is a location in space or on a surface. However, a point can be identified as the intersection of two or more lines on a plane. In a mathematical sense a point is without dimensions. Practical or real points have finite dimensions and are often represented by a period .. A point on a plane has two coordinates (x, y). Fig. 1 shows a point as a period mark or the intersection of two lines.

Fig. 1 Point element

Fig. 2 Line element

Lines A straight line is the path traced out by (locus of) a point moving in a fixed direction. In theory, a line is a geometric entity that extends to infinity on both directions. A line segment is a portion of a line bounded by two points as shown in Fig. 2. A line segment is the practical representation of a line as used in drafting. Thus a practical or real line segment has finite dimension or length. The length of a line (line segment) is the distance between its end points. A line segment is a one-dimensional geometric object. The line segment of Fig. 2 has a dimension of 150 units. Types of Lines There are different types of lines defined by their orientation on a plane. Examples are horizontal, vertical, and inclined lines as shown in Fig. 3. Axes are reference lines that are perpendicular. They are assumed to have infinite length in both directions. The origin of the axes is at the intersection of the reference lines. On a plane there are two axes with one vertical (usually y-axis) and one horizontal (usually x-axis) as shown in Fig. 4. All CAD systems have fixed axes for references in measuring distances and angles.

Fig. 3 Planar line types

Fig. 4 Planar axes

Osakue, E.

Basic Geometry Curves A curve is the locus of a point with constantly changing direction. There are two types of curves: regular and irregular curves. Regular curves have constant radii; like arcs and circles. Fig. 5 shows arcs, while Fig. 6 shows an irregular curve. Irregular curves have variable radii; like parabolas, hyperbolas, splines, ellipse, etc. In CAD systems, special curves like splines, Bezier, and NURSB curves are available for modeling complex shapes. They are defined by parametric equations.

Fig. 5 Arcs Angles

Fig. 6 Spline

Angle measures the relative orientation of lines on a plane or the relative orientation of planes in space in o degrees ( ) or radians. However, the degree is the unit of angular measure in technical drawings. Angles are measured relative to a reference line segment. Conventionally, the rightward (positive) horizontal line o o direction is used as reference as shown in Fig. 7a. The upward vertical is 90 , the leftward horizontal is 180 o o o or -180 , the downward vertical line is 270 or -90 . These directions are the East (E), North (N), West (W), and North (N), respectively. Positive angular measurement is taken as counter-clockwise rotation and clockwise rotation is taken as negative angle. In Fig. 7a, four quadrants I, II, II, and IV are indicated. Inclined o o lines in quadrant I, have angle values between 0 and 90 , lines in quadrant II have angle values between o o o o 90 and 180 , lines in quadrant IV have angle values between 0 and -90 , and lines in quadrant III have o o angle values between -90 and 180 . Angles of lines above the horizontal line (W-E) have positive values o o o between 0 and 180 , and angles of lines below the horizontal (W-E) have negative values between 0 and o o o 180 . For instance, in Fig. 7b, the angles of lines A and B are respectively 31 and 117 and the angles of o o lines C and D are -120 and -21 , respectively.

a) Conventional measurement Fig. 7 Measuring Angles

o

b) Specifying angles
o

An angle with a value less than 90 is called an acute angle while an angle with a value equal to 90 is called o o a right angle. Any angle with a value more than 90 but less than 180 is called an obtuse angle. Fig. 8 shows examples of acute, right, and obtuse angles.

a) Acute angle

b) Right angle Fig. 8 Types of angles

c) Obtuse angle

Osakue, E.

Basic Geometry Geometric and Size Attributes Graphic models have both geometric and size attributes that are used for complete documentation of the shape and size of an object. Geometric attributes generally describe the orientation between graphic elements in a shape or form. Combining size and geometric attributes allow graphic models to be completely described without ambiguity. Below is list of common geometric attributes: 1. Horizontal lines are lines drawn parallel to X-axis are horizontal lines. 2. Vertical lines are lines drawn parallel to Y-axis are vertical lines. 3. Parallel lines are lines that are at a fixed distance along their length are parallel lines; see Fig. 9a. 4. Non-parallel lines are lines that are at variable distance along their length are non-parallel lines; see Fig. 9b. If non-parallel lines are sufficiently extended, they will intercept at a point. 5. Intersecting lines are lines that cross each other at a point are intersecting lines; see Fig. 9c. o 6. Perpendicular lines are lines that intercept at 90 are perpendicular lines; see Fig. 10. 7. Equal size means the size of one element is the same as another element; see Fig. 11a. 8. Collinear lines are two or more lines that lie on the same path are collinear; see Fig. 11b. 9. Tangent point exists when a line intercepts a curve at a point or a curve intercepts another curve at a point. It provides a smooth transition between graphic elements. Several examples of tangency are shown in Fig. 12. 10. Coincident point exists when two elements connect or touch each other at a common point. 11. Concentric elements exist if two arcs, circles or ellipses have the same center point; see Fig. 13a. 12. Eccentric elements exist if two arcs, circles or ellipses do not the same center point when one is inside the other; see Fig. 13b. 13. Inscribed shape exists when one shape is inside and concentric with another. The inner shape is said to be inscribed in the outer shape; see Fig. 14a. 14. Circumscribed shape exists when one shape is outside and concentric with another. The outer shape is said to be circumscribed on the inner shape; see Fig. 14b.

c) Intersecting lines a) Parallel lines b) Non-parallel lines Fig. 9 Line relationships

a) Equal lines a) Horizontal/Vertical lines b) Inclined lines b) Collinear lines Fig. 11 Equality and Collinearity

Fig. 10 Perpendicular lines

a) Arc and circle

b) Circle and line

c) Arc and line Fig. 12 Tangency

d) Two arcs

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Basic Geometry

a) Concentric circles

b) Eccentric circles

Fig. 13 Concentricity and eccentricity

a) Inscribed hexagon

b) Circumscribed hexagon

Fig. 14 Inscribed and Circumscribed hexagon The linear sizes of objects can be described in a variety of ways such as length, breadth, and height. While length may be used as a general term for linear dimension, breadth and height tend to be used for sizes in specific principal directions. For instance, breadth is generally associated with a horizontal dimension and height is associated with a vertical dimension. Width, depth and thickness are other terms used commonly for linear sizes. Width is often used instead of length, depth instead of breadth or height, and thickness instead of height. Radius and diameter are used to describe the size of arcs and circles, respectively. Though the term radius is conventionally used to describe the size of a circle, it is used only for describing the size of arcs in design drafting.
Dimensions in millimeters

a) Rectangle

b) Circle

c) Arc

Fig. 15 Sizes of graphic objects Fig. 15 shows a rectangle, circle and an arc. The rectangle measures 120x80 mm (width x height). The circle o measures 80 mm in diameter and the arc has a radius of 50 mm and an included angle of 100 . Sketches and shapes A sketch is an approximate graphical representation of an object. It may be a closed or open figure. A planar sketch is made up of lines and curves. Fig. 16 shows examples of planar sketches. A sketch models the shapes of objects approximately but the size may be in gross error. A shape is a closed 2-D figure that describes visual appearance accurately. A shape forms a closed path and models both the shape and size of

a) Open sketch

b) Closed sketch Fig. 16 Types of sketches

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Basic Geometry an object accurately. It is made up of lines, arcs, and curves or a combination of these. Simple shapes include polygons, circles and ellipses. A closed sketch may be converted into a shape by accurately specifying the size of its graphic elements. An open sketch cannot be converted into a shape without first converting it into a closed sketch. Once an open sketch is closed, it can be converted into a shape. Polygons A polygon is a closed planar figure with straight lines as sides. There are regular and irregular polygons. Regular polygons have equal sides and angles while irregular polygons do not. The most basic polygon is a triangle which has three straight sides as shown in Fig. 17a. Types of triangles include right, equilateral, isosceles, and oblique (scalene) triangles. Only the equilateral triangle with equal sides and angles is a regular polygon. Four-sided polygons are called quadrilaterals. Examples of quadrilaterals are square, rectangle, rhombus, rhomboid and trapezoid. Fig. 17b shows a rectangle which is an irregular polygon but a square is a regular polygon. A common regular polygon in design drafting is the hexagon which is shown in Fig. 17c. The vertices of these shapes are natural key points. Each line segment has a center that can be used as a key point in design drafting.

a) Triangle

b) Rectangle Fig. 17 Polygon examples

c) Hexagon

Circles A circle is a regular curve with the attributes of a center and radius or diameter. The center is the geometric point from which the radius is measured. The radius of a circle is the distance between the center and a point on the circle. The diameter is twice the radius and it is the distance between two opposite points on the circle. A radial line is a line segment that passes through the center of a circle and a point on the circle. A diametral line is a line segment that passes through opposite points on the circle and the circle center. A o circle has 360 . Fig. 18a shows the five key points (center point and four quadrant points) on a circle while Fig. 18b shows a circle of diameter 75 units and radius 37.5 units. The symbols R and D or stand for radius and diameter, respectively.

a) Key points b Dimension a) Oblate Fig. 18 Circle Fig. 19 Ellipses b) Prolate

Ellipses An ellipse is an elongated circle with equal but opposite arcs and five key points like the circle. Unlike a circle with only one radius, it has two radii, one major and the other minor and the major radius is the larger one of the two. The radii represent the distance between the farthest and closet points on the ellipse from the center. There are two basic types of an ellipse which are the oblate and prolate ellipses shown in Fig. 19. The major diameter of an oblate ellipse is vertical and the major diameter of a prolate ellipse is horizontal.

Osakue, E.

Basic Geometry Selected References G. R Bertoline, E. N. Wiebe, C. L. Miller and J. L. Mohler, Technical Graphics Communication, 2 WCB McGraw-Hill, 1997 C. Jensen, J. D. Helsel, and D. Short, Engineering Drawing and Design, Glencoe, 1996, 5th Ed. R. L. Mabrey, Engineering Graphics: Principles, Standards and Models, Addison Wesley, 1998. Madsen, D. A., Folkestad, J., Schertz, K. A., Shumaker, T. M., Stark, C., & Turpin, J. L. (2002). rd Engineering drawing and design (3 edition). New York: Delmar Thomson Learning.
nd

Edition,

Osakue, E.