Kumpulan Paper Sustain Kyoto

Sustainable Future for Human Security (SustaiN2010)
11-12 December 2010, Kyoto, J apan

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EFFECTS OF LOCAL COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION ON SMALL HYDRO
POWER PLANT SUSTAINABLE OPERATION: CASE STUDY OF WEST JAVA,
INDONESIA
Nilam Bekti Sumardhani
*
, Hisashi Kobayashi
Graduate School of Agriculture, Ibaraki University

*Corresponding author: nbekti@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Small hydro power plant (SHPP) becomes one of the practical choices to overcome low
electricity ratio in Indonesia because of its mature technology and its potential area are spreading in
Indonesians archipelago, especially in some remote or isolated areas which have not been connected
yet with Indonesia national electric company (PLN) grid connections. More than 1400 SHPP have
been built in Indonesia; however, there is not enough evaluation relevant to the sustainable operation.
This evaluation will show the effectiveness of local community participation to the sustainability
factor and successfulness of small hydro power plant.
Keywords: local community participation, remote area, small hydro power plant (SHPP), sustainable
operation
INTRODUCTION
As an archipelago country, Indonesia has more than 17.000 islands and has population about
230 million (World Bank, 2009) [1]. With such a big population and about 6 % economic growth a
year, Indonesia is facing a significant increase in electricity supply needs. However electrification
ratio of Indonesia is about 64.3 % (ESDM, 2009), and the remaining 36.7 % Indonesian people have
no access to electricity, especially, who are living in remote or rural area. To provide more electrical
share utilization to most of Indonesian people, Indonesian government has been planning to increase
this electricity ratio to 93 % by 2025, with 17 % renewable energy resources as shown in Figure 1
(ESDM, 2005)

[2]. To generate electricity which has compatibility with remote areas, one of the
promising power plants is small hydro power plant (SHPP). There are some differences in definition
of SHPP relate to the capacity. In this study, we defined SHPP as a small scale of hydro power plant
which has a power capacity under 1 MW.
SHPP is one of renewable energy which has mature technology compare to other renewable
energy systems. Besides, there are a lot of potential sites in Indonesia which are decentralized in some
remote areas. In addition, as one of the important part of power plant, turbine could be manufactured
in some places in Indonesia with high local content. Key factor for maintaining sustainability of power
plant operation is good manageability operation. SHPP will make local people to take a part in the
development and operation, empower them to develop activities. In some certain condition when
SHPP can be connected to grid, the village could get income from electricity selling, besides for their
own electric needs.
Referring to the Integrated Micro-hydro Development and Application Projects (IMIDAP)
data, more than 1400 SHPP was constructed in Indonesia [3]. However it is very hard to find data that
represent current situation of those SHPP. Thus, this study aim to evaluate constructed SHPP in West
Java, Indonesia. One of related research is a research conducted by JICA in 2006. According to this
research, some SHPP only operate for some years due to the technical problem, environmental
management, etc. JICA also highlight about community participation. It seems that stopped SHPP did
not have strong relationship with the community. Thus this study also tries to evaluate how community
participation can work to the sustainable operation of SHPP.

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Figure 1. Blueprint Energy National Indonesia [2]

Sustainability is very wide topic and this paper try to define some sustainability factor
focused on sustainable operation of SHPP. One of define feature of sustainability of SHPP is that
SHPP can operate during the designed lifetime. According to Ilskog (2008) [4], is can be seen that
sustainability factors are maintained by 5 aspects, those aspects are technical, economy, social,
environmental, and organizational. Using these 5 aspects, we try to evaluate SHPP sustainable
operation condition and to formulate some factors that effect to sustainable or non-sustainable
operation of SHPP by conducting study cases. The objective of the study is to evaluate SHPP
sustainable operation condition and to formulate some factors that effect to sustainable or
non-sustainable operation of SHPP by conducting study cases.

METHODOLODY
The methodology used in this study will comprise the following three stages.
1. Site selection
Site will be selected using research in past, data from SHPP stakeholders and initial interview.
Then categorize SHPP based on the operation condition, divide them into well operate SHPP, operate
with some problem SHPP and non-operated SHPP. As the evaluation target which is based on the
power capacity of 200 kW to 1MW of SHPP. Those are built by the government, NGOs, communities
and utility companies such as PLN in West Java after 1990.
2. Implementation process analysis
Through case study, we make investigation on existing SHPP in selected rural areas. Find
empirical facts relate to technical, economy, social, environmental, and organizational of the
implementation. Analyze actual implementation process through hearing and questionnaire especially
to local community. See how local community participation can contribute to promote SHPP
implementation process and identify the mechanism.
3. Identify promote and obstruct factors to sustainable operation of SHPP
Define sustainable operating SHPP as SHPP that operate during designed lifetime or more.
Identify SHPP implementation effect to stakeholder and local-community, to environmental living
change, etc. Extract problem on SHPP implementation, sustainable operation, etc by hearing and
questionnaire to local community, official government, researcher and developer, clarify factors that
will promote or obstruct the SHPP sustainable operation.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
As my preliminary study, some investigated data were collected based on the visited sites of
SHPP which will be shown those profiles as follows in Subang city and Sukabumi city, West Java. We
briefly summarized visited SHPP into Table 1.

SHPP
Coal 32.7%
Natural gas 30.6%
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Table 1. Visited Small Hydro Power Plant Feature
A SHPP B SHPP C SHPP D SHPP
Start operation
(year)
1991 1997 1997 2004
Funder GTZ and bank
loan
Japan Embassy Local government Company,
UN(community)
& NGO (IBEKA)
Developer Entrepreneur NGO (IBEKA) University
research centre
NGO (IBEKA)
Capacity (kW) 12.5 60 30 60 x 2
Turbine Crossflow T-7 Crossflow T-12 ND Crossflow T-7
Operating
condition
Non-operating Operating Non-operating Operating
Source: JICA report & field survey

1. A SHPP
It is located in Subang city, about 90 minutes from Bandung by car as shown in Figure 2. It
was implemented by local entrepreneur funded by Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ),
Germany Financial System Development GTZ and bank loan in 1991, supported by NGO
5)
. Total
installed capacity was 12.5 kW. According to NGO staff, the community based approach was really
done. The community was informed and involved in the implementation process, during on going and
after commissioning. This power plant had electrified 124 households for lighting and used for
production activities such as ice candy production. In 1996, Indonesia national electric company
(PLN) grid reached this village, made SHPP customer moved to grid connection. This SHPP little bit
collapse but on 1999, this SHPP became first SHPP that sell electricity to grid then. Unfortunately it
was stop to operate now because the turbine is broken now and water flow in catchment area was
reduced significantly.

Figure 2. Location of A SHPP at Subang, West Java

2. B SHPP
It is located in Cicemet, Sukabumi city, about 9 hours from Bandung by car and off road car
as shown in Figure 3. This area has strong culture between local people such as collective trust to the
informal leader. Actually it was very limited time to do social preparations on the implementation
process but the informal leader did manage local people very well. One of collective actions which
were shown on SHPP implementation was, when the turbine implementation day came, all of people
include women and children went down the mountain and carry materials. They have to walk, climb
the mountain for about 6 hours, brought materials to the location. Men carry hundreds kilograms of
turbine, women carry cables, children carry drinking and the rest are carried traditional music
Subang, West Java
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instrument, played it to give support. They were working by turns, they worked together. Though
collected financial from people do not enough to cover O&M cost, informal leader give full back-up
of technical and financial support, so this SHPP is still running now. Very well maintained power
house could be seen in Figure 4.

Figure 3 Location of B SHPP at Cisolok, Sukabumi, West Java

Figure 4. Power House of B SHPP in Cicemet, Sukabumi, West Java

Figure 5. Broken intake canal in C SHPP

Cisolok, Sukabumi, West Java
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3. C SHPP
It is located in Sukabumi, not far from Cicemet. It was built by universitys research group
funded by local government. Unfortunately I still could not grab how intensive were the social
preparation had been done. According to my initial interview, local people work as paid labor on the
implementation process. Due to some technical and civil problems, this SHPP stop their operation in
very short time. Local people operate this SHPP, they collect some money from people who connect to
this SHPP but it could not cover the O&M cost. Bearing and belt broken frequently, intake canal also
broken (see figure 5), so people became unsatisfied and did nothing to repair it.

4. D SHPP
It is located in Subang city, about 90 minutes from Bandung by car. Power capacity of this
SHPP is about 120 kW. It was the first joint venture between company and local community. The
NGO in charge has done very intensive social preparation. The NGO presented their plan to the local
community; adjust installation charge and electricity cost together, also lead local community to select
the operator. After commissioning, local people are doing the maintenance and management through
cooperation. Generated electricity is selling to grid besides provides connection to local people. So,
they have monthly income. After O&M cost had been taken, the rest profit divide to company and
local community. They are using this profit to give scholarships, built health centre, gave micro credit
for small scale business and etc. Along discussion with NGO staffs, local people learning to manage
environment, especially in water catchment area. This SHPP is running very well today. Table 2 shows
temporary result of my study.

Table 2. SHPP operating condition and some effected factors.
A B C D
Local
community
participation

Income from
selling electricity
or financial
support system

Environmental
management

Operating
condition

Source: JICA report and field survey
Note. = well operate
= operate with some problem
= non operate
= little amount

As we can see summary in table 2, local community contribution as collective actions appear
significantly in B SHPP and D SHPP and it is not significant for A SHPP and C SHPP. The first and
fourth SHPP sell their generating electricity, therefore, they have stable income. The second SHPP
collects some money from local people but the amount is too little. However B SHPP has informal
leader who gives full back-up in finance.
Big factor that made A SHPP stopped technically is that there is not enough water flow in the
catchment area due to logging activity in catchment areas. In the other hands, people protect the
environmental system in B SHPP and the D SHPP because they feel the advantages of SHPP directly
and they know that the will loose the benefit if SHPP stop to operate.
Based on this preliminary investigation results, it requires more deep analysis and details
data and variable for more complete conclusion. As the future work, I will do more specific researches
on mechanism on how local community participation effects on SHPP sustainable operation, by
hearing and questionnaires to official, developer & community. In addition, it will be conducted some
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sustainability factors from technical, economy, social, environmental & organizational aspects. And
finally, systematic scheme of SHPP sustainability which can promote will be summarized and propose
some significant factors for maintaining sustainability of SHPP.

References

[1] World Development Indicators database, World Bank, 27 September 2010,
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/POP.pdf
[2] Departemen Energi dan Sumberdaya Mineral, 2005, Blue print pengelolaan energi nasional
2005-2025, Departemen Energi dan Sumberdaya Mineral (www.esdm.go.id)
[3] www.mikrohidro.net
[4] Elisabeth Ilskog, 2008, Indicators for assessment of rural electrificationAn approach for the
comparison of apples and pears, Energy Policy 36, 2665-2673
[5] IBEKA and JICA, 2006, Report on situation of existing of micro hydro project in Indonesia.

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LONG RUN RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES ON NUCLEAR
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN PREPARING NUCLEAR INDUSTRY IN
INDONESIA
Sidik Permana
Nuclear Physics and Biophysics Research Group, Physics Department,
Bandung Institute of Technology
Institute of Science and Technology Studies (ISTECS) Chapter Japan
Indonesia Nuclear Network Japan (INN-J)
Corresponding author: psidik@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Geneva conference sponsored by the United Nation (UN) in 1955, On the peaceful uses of
atomic energy had been held to promote a nuclear energy utilization path only for civil or peaceful
purposes. Nuclear energy contributes 16 % of electricity sharing to the world electricity consumption
in more than 30 countries. Indonesia has been developing its own capability on nuclear science and
technology for more than 50 years since 1954 and aiming to have a new era of nuclear industry in
Indonesia. 40 years Indonesians experiences on operating research reactors since 1965 for preparing a
new era of nuclear industry in Indonesia can be used as a basis on science and technological
capabilities for constructing its own nuclear industry. In relation to research and development (R&D)
activities on nuclear science and engineering, Indonesia becomes the leading country on nuclear
technology in South East Asia especially on operating experiences in nuclear research reactors.
Nuclear industry which is based on non electric application has already pursued such as for agriculture,
medicine and hospital utilizations, and so on. In case of electric based utilization such as nuclear
power plant (NPP), Indonesia has a plan for the first 2 NPPs will be constructed within 2010-2015 and
it will be doubled in up to 2025 for fulfilling 4 % nuclear electric share to the total national energy mix
scenario as well as others new and renewable energy sources.
Keywords: peaceful uses, nuclear energy, Indonesia, nuclear industry, energy mix
INTRODUCTION
Nuclear energy had attracted many countries to be used as a deadly weapon or mass
destruction explosive from the beginning of nuclear reactor had been invented up to the end of world
war two. At beginning of nuclear technology application, nuclear energy had been used for military
purposes such as submarine (U.S Nautilus) and followed by Russia and it continued by conducting
nuclear weapon. Two deadly nuclear bomb histories were Hiroshimas and Nagasakis bomb at the end
of World War II. Geneva conference which was sponsored by the United Nation (UN) in 1955, On
the peaceful uses of atomic energy had been held to promote a nuclear energy utilization path only
for civil or peaceful purposes [1]. Those peaceful uses of nuclear energy are applied for irradiation of
agriculture, farming, health, medicine, hospital, and industry. Water desalination, enhanced oil
recovery, coal gasification and liquefaction as well as hydrogen production are some applications of
future nuclear energy utilization. Generating electricity from nuclear energy as nuclear power plant is
more generally recognized and worldwide used in more than 30 countries and it is about 16 % of
electricity sharing to the world electricity consumption. This paper will evaluate the nuclear program
in Indonesia and propose some programs for implementing nuclear industry in Indonesia. The first
nuclear plant as one of the peaceful use of nuclear technology application for generating electricity
was started by Russian government in Obninsk on June 27, 1954 [2] to generate 30 MW and started as
a massive program of NPP after Geneva conference. Up to 2006, more than 440 NPPs in the world has
been constructed and in operation in more than 30 countries which contribute 370 GW electric
production or equal to 16 % of world electric demand. Those NPP which was commercialized around
the world does not include a lot of nuclear reactor for research and development in research centers or
national laboratories as well as industries and universities. Recently it has at least 27 new NPP which
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is under constructed and it will be multiplied by next decades. In Paris ministerial conference, on
March 2005, 8 countries has given a positive signal for utilizing nu nuclear technology such as
Morocco, Indonesia, Iran, Poland, Turkey, Bangladesh, Egypt and Vietnam. And more than 30 other
countries were interested in utilizing nuclear technology at that conference.

Figure 1. History on Research and Development on Nuclear Science and Technology in Indonesia [3]

NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN INDONESIA
Indonesia is one of the countries which commit to use nuclear energy for its national energy
utilization program, has been developing its own capability on nuclear science and technology for
more than 50 years since 1954 or at the same years with the first NPP in the world was operated in
Obninsk Russia. Followed by establishing Lembaga Tenaga Atom (LTA) or Indonesia Atomic Agency
in 1958 and changed into Badan Tenaga Atom Nasional (BATAN) or National Nuclear Energy Agency
(NNEA) in 1964. The idea for constructing NPP in Indonesia was released in 1968 and as a program
action to prepare the readiness of Indonesian capability to build NPP, in 1972, Indonesia started some
studies for introducing NPP and made an commission for preparation of NPPs construction
(KP2-PLTN, Komisi Persiapan Pembangunan-PLTN). Therefore, Indonesia has prepared a lot of
activities in research and development of nuclear technology especially for NPP utilization which was
started from the first research reactors in 1965 which was formally opened by the first president of
Indonesia, Soekarno in Bandung. After obtaining some experiences from the first research reactor and
requiring some additional facilities for research and development programs, in 1979 with the same
year when Three Mile Island (TMI) accident happened, Indonesia constructed the second research
reactor located in Yogyakarta. This reactor was called home made reactor because of from designing
and constructed processes were performed by Indonesian scientists and engineers with the help of
General Atomics (GA) supervision. In 1987 or one years after Chernobyl accident in Ukraine (former
Soviet Union), the third research reactor (G.A Swabesy) was established with relatively high power
generating for research reactor class. About more than 40 years Indonesians experiences on operating
research reactors since 1965 for preparing a new era of nuclear industry in Indonesia can be used as a
basis on science and technological capabilities for constructing its own nuclear industry. Nuclear
industry which is based on non electric application has already pursued such as for agriculture,
medicine and hospital utilizations, and so on [2].

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In case of electric based utilization like nuclear power plant (NPP), Indonesia until now does
not have any NPP since the program for introducing NPP was released almost 40 years ago. In relation
to research and development (R&D) activities on nuclear science and engineering, Indonesia becomes
the leading country on nuclear technology in South East Asia especially on operating experiences in
nuclear research reactors. It has several plans for constructing the first NPPs since 1980s, it was
postponed up to end of 1990s and more additional delayed time. Recent Indonesia energy program,
NPP will be constructed within 2010-2015 and it will be doubled in up to 2025 for sharing energy
utilization to the total national energy mix scenario as well as electric share from others new and
renewable energy sources [4]. Indonesia has also similar starting point with other Asian countries in
R&D activities and nuclear programs for non-energy activities. However, in order to implement the
nuclear programs for generating electricity application which related to nuclear power plant (NPP), it
needs several times to be smoothly constructed after some postponing program since 1980s because of
some political issue or economical crisis [5]. In recent period some pro contra nuclear activities
happen such as anti-nuclear activities protesters was happened during 2008 and some NGOs who pro
nuclear organization make a declaration go nuclear recently 2010. As well in other countries,
conducting nuclear program is not only in state of technical or economical capabilities but also public
acceptance and dealing with some pro-contra nuclear program in the level of society as well as in
policy making domain within government and parliament. As whole picture of nuclear science and
technology condition in Indonesia can be seen as timeline process since 1954 up to now as shown in
Figure. 1.
ENERGY RESOURCES IN INDONESIA
Indonesia has enough resources such as oil and gas, coal and hydro to develop itw own
economic growth for decades. However, those natural resources do not stay for long time but will be
exhausted for the next decades and it will be quickly exhausted when rapid consumptions rate happen
without any additional exploration or mining. It affects to the supply of power generation with
reducing supply will reduce electric generating volume of each power plant. Indonesian citizen,
especially resident and industries will always facing a cut-off electric supply or regularly on-off based
on the regulation in each area. As shown in Table 1, fossil fuel based energy will be remaining Gas and
Coal for the next two decades and no more oil resources to be used for generating electricity as well as
for transportation if there are no more reserves are founded. However, about 70 % percent of
Indonesian coal resource is becoming an export commodity which remains only 30 % for national
utilization [6], therefore Indonesian coal resource will be no more than 100 years or less.
Table 1. Energy Resources in Indonesia Fossil Energy (ESDM, 2004) [5]
Fosil
Energy
Resource
Reserve (Proven
+ Possible)
Annual
Production
Ratio Reserve/Production
(without exploration)
(year)
Oil
86.9 Billion
Barrel
9 Billion barrel
500 Million
Barrel
18
Gas 384,7 TSCF 182 TSCF 3.0TSCF 61
Coal
57 Billion
ton
19,3 Billion ton
130 Million
ton
147

Other resources as shown in Table 2 can be utilized for replacing fossil resources which was
decreasing by the time, meanwhile energy demand increases rapidly by the time. Those resources have
been called as new energy and renewable energy resources. How to maintain the remaining resources
from fossil fuels and gaining new fuel and renewable fuel to fulfill national energy demand in a
schematic and systematic as well as in effective way called national energy mix provided by some
contribution from fossil fuel and non-fossil fuels. To make it optimal for supporting energy demand
should be not only a resource based approach but also a technological capability approach.
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Technological approaches mainly come from idea to utilize some new and renewable energy resources.
Because without any technical supported capability, those non-fossil fuels are only a potential
capacities not usable capacity. Therefore, research and development in science and technology related
to those new resources fuel should be emphasized as well as low technology utilization for some of
well established sources.
Table 2. Energy Resources in Indonesia non fossil Energy (ESDM, 2004) [2,5]
Non-Fosil Energy Resource Installed Capacity
Hydro 75,670 MWe 4,200 MW
Geothermal 28,170 MWe 1,189 MW
Mini/Micro Hydro 500 MWe 86.1 MW
Biomass 49,810 MWe 445 MW
Solar 4.8 kWh/m2/day 12.1 MW
Wind 9,290 MWe 1.1 MW
Uranium *
34,112 ton (e.q. 1000 MWe
for 170 years)

Thorium **
1,500 ton (e.q. 100 MWe for
75 years)

*) Source : BATAN, 2009. Uranium utilization is calculated based on uranium resources in Kalan, Kalimantan
(West Kalimantan) 24,112 ton and Kawat (East Kalimantan) 10,000 ton. There are several areas where indicated
have a potential of Uranium resources such as Papua.
**) Thorium, from estimated area based on alluvial Thorium in Bangka Belitung

Figure 2. Radioactive Resources In Indonesia (ESDM, 2005) [5]

Based on uranium resources, NPP in Indonesian can be constructed by its own fuel resources.
If Indonesia want to use their own resources by adopting once through fuel utilization system, from
two sites in Kalimantan can provide 170 years for a single 1 GWe NPP class and additional Thorium
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resources can be used for 75 years NPP utilization. Once through fuel cycle system means fuels are
used and all spent fuel are not used again. By recycling processes some 95-97 % spent fuel can be
reprocessed and recycled as a new fuel such as MOX fuel (mixed oxide fuel) based on uranium and
plutonium recovery. This recycling option can maintain much more uranium utilization for longer
operation. Some other radioactive resources are indicated in some areas in Indonesia to shows in a
broaden area can be found nuclear fuel resources as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 3. National Energy Mix in Indonesia (President Act, 2006) [7]

Figure 4. Power Plant Projection in Jamali Connection 2005-2050 [3]

To optimize all fuel resources in a National Energy Mix in Indonesia, president initiated to
make a government act to provide effective and rational energy sharing based on resource potency and
technical capability as well as economic and environmental issues. As shown in Fig. 2, Indonesia is
planning to reach 17 % energy share from new and renewable energy utilization up to 2025 and
nuclear contribution is included with other resources such as biomass, hydro, solar energy and wind
energy which about 5 % in total energy mix. By 2025, NPP contributes 4 % of electrical share and it
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will be 21 % in 2050 to accommodate increasing energy demand and reducing CO2 emission which is
mainly coming from fossil fuel. It was estimated 478 million ton of CO2 emission will be released in
2025 and 3,322 million ton in 2050.

Figure 5. Research and Development on Nuclear Science and Technology in Asia

NUCLEAR ENERGY UTILIZATION PROGRAM IN INDONESIA AND ASIA
In general nuclear energy has been introduced to be applied in various technical field and
application which can be categorized as non-energy utilization and energy utilization. Non-energy
utilization can be classified as utilization of nuclear radiation from radioisotopes or neutron
applications. In case of energy utilization, this is the basic nuclear application for electricity such as
nuclear power plant (NPP), desalination, hydrogen production and so on which are basically from the
excess heat application from the reactors. These features of nuclear science and technology
applications can be applied as a multi-purposes technology utilization which means from a single
technology, it can be achieved more application and benefit for instance from one NPP can be applied
for generating electricity and in the same time, some excess heat from the reactors can be used for
desalination process, hydrogen production. Those nuclear energy applications are conducting and will
be conducted by BATAN or NNEA National Nuclear Energy Agency and in cooperation with some
radiation facilities which related to industries, medical facilities, farming, so on. As mentioned in the
previous section, as a country who commit to conduct a nuclear program as a part of national energy
program, Indonesia with other Asian countries has started his own R&D activities and nuclear
programs for non-energy activities and preparing nuclear programs for generating electricity
application (NPP) as shown in Fig 4. Japan as well as India had started to begin their R&D in nuclear
science and technology program and after imported some NPP from outside country such as USA,
Canada or UK, they started to learn much more about NPP as well as their capability of basic R&D in
nuclear science and technology. To start their Nuclear Industry, Japan as well as India needs about 10
years and requires additional 10 years for producing their own technology after bought a license from
established nuclear manufacturer. Korean started their R&D in nuclear development later than Japan
and India and also from Indonesia. However they can improve their capability and pursuing their
nuclear industry for commercial NPP after 20 years experience in Nuclear R%D. Brazil has similar
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030
Japan
1966, (UK)
NPP Commercial
1954, R&D start
1956, Atom Agency
1957, Research Reactor
2010, 30% (54 NPPs) 2017, 40%
India
1964,
NPP Commercial
1957, Atomic Agency
2010, 9% (19 NPPs,
4 Under Con.
2030, 25% (63 GWe)
South
Korea
1978,
NPP Commercial
1957, NST Start
1959, Atomic Agency
2010, 40% (20 NPPs,
17 GWe).
2030, 35 GWe
1962, Research Reactor 2010, Export NPP,
4 NPPs to UEA
South
Africa
1984,
NPP Commercial
For nuclear weapon
2010, 5% (2 NPPs,
1.8 GWe).
2025, 25% (20 GWe)
1959, Agency
1989, Nuclear Weapon
Program Stop
Brazil
1982,
NPP Commercial
1956, Agency
2010, 3% (2 NPPs,
1 Under Cons.)
2025, 8 NPPs
China
2010, 3% (13 NPPs,
11 Under Cons.)
1991,
NPP Commercial
(5 %) 80 GWe by 2020,
(16%) 200 GWe by 2030
and 400 GWe by 2050
Indonesia
2015
NPP Commercial
1954, R&D start
1964, BATAN Established
1965, 1rst Research Reactor
Vietnam 2017
NPP Commercial
1976, Nuclear Agency
1983, 1rst Research Reactor
UAE
2017
NPP Commercial
1996, Signed NPT
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condition with Korean for obtaining commercialized NPP after 20 years experiences in research
reactors. China was longer period for conducting commercialized NPP which about 30 years from
starting the first research reactor. In case of UEA, R&D program is the shortest time or maybe does
not have any reactor research facilities, but they are willing to construct some NPPs, even they still
have a lot of oil resources. Indonesia has a long experience in conducting R&D in Nuclear program.
More than 50 years from the first statement for conducting R&D in Nuclear program and more than 45
years in experiencing reactor research operation. However, up to now, no NPP has been constructed
yet, only some postponed planning. The first NPP plan was released almost same period with Korean
at 1980s [8], however, it was postponed, and up to know it still in planning. Hopefully based on the
strong leadership and commitment to the government blue print of energy, NPP can be constructed
soon. As stated by the ministry of research and technology in their National Research Agenda, 7
focused areas will be the priority to be conducted for developing national science and technology
achievement. Those focused areas are (1) food security, (2) energy, (3) Information and
communication technology, (4) technology and management for transportation, (5) defense and
security technology, (6) health technology and drugs, (7) Advanced material to support technological
development in each focused area. Those fields should be integrated by two supporting success factors,
basic science factor and social humanity factor (ARN, 2010) [9]. Focused on energy area, there are 3
research group themes those are (1) research on improvement of the national electrification, (2)
research on new energy and renewable energy resources, (3) research on energy conservation. Based
on this approaches energy sector becomes one of the priority not only because of resources aspect as
well as economy and environmental issues, but also to pursue an innovative technology based
approach. It brings all Indonesia human resources more focused on priority sector especially on energy
sector as well as bringing government mind set not only dealing with energy program as resources
based approaches and majority resources approaches but also diversifications and multipurpose
approaches of energy based on technological capability, research and development experiences as well
as human resources.

CHALLENGES OF NUCLEAR INDUSTRY IN INDONESIA
It has been already known that stability and sustainability on fuel supply for generating
electricity or some others energy applications will become a crucial issue. In addition, transmissions
and distributions of electricity or energy should be well prepared from power plant to residents or
industries and other consumers. In case of nuclear energy utilization, fuel loading is arranged yearly
and its nuclear power plant (NPP) will operate continuously a year after fuel charging process. It is
continuously operating up to 40 to 60 years as the NPP life time. There are several scenarios for
sustaining fuel supply which will be optimized in regards to fuel resources and technological
capability in Indonesia as well as economic and fuel independent supply issues. Derivative
technologies from fuel management field such handling and fuel fabrication technologies, fuel
reprocessing and discharging technologies, fuel partitions and transmutation technology, and so on. In
case of constructing NPP, some integrated technologies will be emerged such as mechanical field,
material, electrical, geological field, and reactor physics and so on. Social aspect in relation to public
participation in arranging regulation of reactor operation as well as economic impact because of
constructing the NPP near by the local society such as infrastructure transportation, employee,
incentive for the people who live near to NPP facilities, and so on.
NPP as a business product which was well commercialized in the world for more than 60
years as a mature technology should be involved in a business scheme in Indonesia. Therefore the
status of NPP is not in a level of research and development stage which is under the ministry of
research and technology or human resources belongs to ministry of education. However, NPP should
be under the framework of business and industry. Therefore, ministry of trade, industry and some
companies should be involved in this NPP scheme. Furthermore it can be established a new era of
nuclear industry in Indonesia for non-electrical and electrical based utilization. One of the lacks of
synergy in Indonesia is that research and development side such in research center or university do not
match with the industry therefore, incubation business for nuclear industry should be initiated by
government by accommodating all stake holders who commits and interested on NPP program nuclear
- 14 -

industry in Indonesia. There are three basic institutions which give a strong program for nuclear
industry such as regulatory side, industry side and research and development side from research center
and universities. Regulatory side is government or coordinative local government. Those stakeholders
can solve some of the issues for introducing NPP such as how to make a synergy in Organizing a
consortium of NPP for instance, to solve the economical aspect related to investment whether
government provides a credit for NPP or investment from private company or government or a
consortium. Infrastructures readiness should be also emphasized according to the international
standard infrastructures. According to basic infrastructure for a nuclear power project made by the
IAEA [10], there are 19 aspect which have to be fulfilled by the government who want to implement
their NPP program, those aspects are: 1. National Position, 2. Nuclear safety, 3. Management, 4.
Funding and financing, 5. Legislative framework, 6. Safeguards, 7. Regulatory framework, 8.
Radiation protection, 9. Electrical grid, 10. Human resources development, 11. Stakeholder
involvement, 12. Site and supporting facilities, 13. Environmental protection, 14. Emergency planning,
15. Security and Physical protection, 16. Nuclear fuel cycle, 17. Radioactive waste, 18. Industrial
involvement, 19. Procurement.
Those aspects can be well conducted with the synergy from all stakeholders, and more
important aspect is that public acceptance and public participation should be involved for all processes
especially local government and local society or people in the area that NPP is located. Public trust
and confident in all regulation will be the biggest challenging aspect. Public need a strong leaders and
high confident regulation from the government. Now days many of local governments have been
interested on nuclear program and conducting some agreements with research center to make a
feasibility study to build a NPP in their area.

CONCLUSIONS
More than 40 years of Indonesians experiences on operating research reactors for preparing
nuclear industry in Indonesia and developing its own capability on nuclear science and technology for
more than 50 years since 1954, can be appreciated as the basis on science and technological
capabilities for constructing and pursuing NPP soon. Indonesia becomes the leading country on
nuclear technology in South East Asia especially on operating experiences in nuclear research reactors.
Nuclear industry which is based on non electric application has already pursued such as for agriculture,
medicine and hospital utilizations, and so on. Indonesia is preparing to build the first 2 NPPs which
will be constructed within 2010-2015 and it will contribute 4 % electric share to the total national
energy mix scenario up to 2025. New and renewable energy resources can be well maintained not only
based on energy resources approaches but also should be conducted by technological capabilities
approaches. While preparing and fulfilling all international standard as a basic infrastructure for a
nuclear power project, increasing public trust and confident in all regulation especially in providing
well information on benefit and challenging on utilization of NPP should be well prepared and
continuously improved. Go nuclear now is one of the issues not only in relation to energy crisis,
economical aspect and environmental challenges, but also a strategic position of Indonesian in Asia
Pacific especially in ASEAN countries. If Indonesia does not go nuclear now, Indonesia will be
surrounded by neighboring countries who wish to have a nuclear program soon such as Vietnam,
Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore and so on for their own national energy security. In this situation,
without any nuclear industry in Indonesia, some of Nuclear human resources will be invited and
transferred to neighboring countries as an experts and will be difficult to bring them back to Indonesia
when nuclear program is not in reality soon. Hand by hand with all stakeholders, local government,
public and local society, to make a statement go nuclear as a part of solution for our energy program.

References

[1] West, J.M. and W.K. Davis, 2001, the creation and beyond: Evolutions in US nuclear power
development, Nuclear News, June 2001
[2] http://www.icjt.org/an/tech/jesvet/jesvet.htm
[3] MPEL, HIMNI, METI, IEN, WIN, 5 NGOs, PLTN Menjamin Ketahanan Penyediaan Listrik
Nasional, Naskah Pernyataan Sikap, Jakarta, February 2010. (In Indonesian)
- 15 -

[4] Book of presentations of Tokyo tech COE-INES-Indonesia International Symposium, 2005,
Prospect of Nuclear Energy in Indonesia, Bandung, Indonesia
[5] Departemen Energi dan Sumberdaya Mineral, 2005, Blue print pengelolaan energi nasional
2005-2025, Departemen Energi dan Sumberdaya Mineral (www.esdm.go.id) (In Indonesian)
[6] Ali Herman Ibrahim, General Check-up Kelistrikan Nasional, 2008 (In Indonesia)
[7] Peraturan Presiden No 5 Tahun 2006, Tentang Kebijakan Energi Nasional, 2006 (In Indonesian)
[8] www3.ntu.edu.sg/home/sulfikar/nuclear-revival.pdf
[9] Agenda Riset Nasional 2010-2014, Kementrian Riset dan Teknologi, 2010 (In Indonesian)
[10] IAEA-TECDOC-151,l Basic infrastructure for a nuclear power project, and IAEA NuclearEnergy
Series No. NG-T- 3.2

- 16 -

ISOLATION AND CLONING OF RNA FRAGMENTS CODING GENE FOR
PRODUCTION OF BIOHYDROGEN
Riska Ayu Purnamasari
1*
and Suci Lathifah
2

1
Undergraduate School of Biochemistry, Bogor Agricultural University
2
Undergraduate School of Nutrition of Community, Bogor Agricultural University
*Corresponding author: disiniada_riska@yahoo.co.id
ABSTRACT
Biohydrogen becomes a promising alternatives energy carrier to fossil fuels since it is clean
renewable, contains high energy content, and does not contribute greenhouse effect. Therefore, using
cheap and renewable resources, such as lignocellulosic materials as the feedstock for hydrogen
production, in particular, dark fermentative hydrogen production has a great potential to give major
contribution to future energy supply. Indonesia as a developing country with a lot of agricultural waste
such as lignocellulosic materials for the production of traditional industrial activities as well
biohydrogen rich indigenous microbes producing biohydrogen. In the other hand, production of
biohydrogen from biomass of agricultural waste has been hindered with a high production cost
because enzymes needed for the process has to be imported with relatively a high price. Through
engineering genetics using the genes, these enzymes can be produced with lower cost.
Keywords: Biohydrogen, Cloning, Isolation, RNA, Trichoderma reesei
INTRODUCTION
National economic growth causes the need for electric energy as the prime mover of
development continues to increase. In 1990 predicted growth rate of electricity demand in Indonesia
about 8.2% annually. Meanwhile, the prediction is actually very much different from the fact that in
1992 the electricity demand in Indonesia rose by surprise, namely 18% on average each year. Table 1
below illustrates the national electrical energy demand projections [1].

Table 1. The national electrical energy demand projections.
Sektor
1990 2000 2010
GWh % GWh % GWh %
Industri 35305 68.0 84822 69.0 183389 70.0
Rumah Tangga 9865 19.0 22239 18.0 40789 16.0
Fasilitas umum 3634 7.0 6731 6.0 12703 5.5
Komersial 3115 6.0 8811 7.0 21869 8.5
Total 51919 100.0 122603 100.0 258747 100.0

Electrical energy requirement above is expected to be met by the centers of power plants,
both built by the government and non-governmental organizations. As an illustration, in 1990 the
energy demand of 51 919 GWh electricity has been met by all existing power plants with installed
power capacity of about 22 000 MW, so that by the year 2010 forecast of electricity demand will reach
258 747 GWh per year which is expected to be met by the electrical energy supply system with a total
capacity of 68 760 MW [1]

. Table 2 shows the estimation of electricity supply in Indonesia.
Based on estimates of electric energy supply in Indonesia, then the energy required to replace
the role of fossil energy must have a nature not easily discharged, sustainable, effective in producing
an abundant fuel and does not cause greenhouse gas emissions that pollute the air like a gas of SOx,
COx, and NOx. Various renewable energy sources and renewable energy has existed until now, but the
source of energy that almost has all the advantages mentioned above is hydrogen. Hydrogen is a clean
and environmentally friendly fuel, which produces water instead of greenhouse gases when combusted.
It can be produced by renewable raw materials, such as organic wastes, and possesses a high-energy
yield (122 kJ g-1) due to its light weight. Furthermore, hydrogen could be directly used to produce
- 17 -

electricity through fuel cells [2].
Table 2. Estimation of electricity supply in Indonesia.
Sumber energi 1990 2000 2010
MW % MW % MW %
Batu bara 1930 8.8 10750 28.4 28050 35.3
Gas 3530 16.0 7080 18.7 14750 21.5
Minyak 2210 10.0 1950 5.2 320 0.5
Solar 11020 50.1 9410 24.8 4060 5.9
Panas bumi 170 0.8 500 1.3 430 0.6
Air 2850 13.0 7720 20.4 10310 15.0
Biomassa 270 1.2 290 0.8 460 0.7
Lain-lain 20 0.1 160 0.4 370 0.5
Total 22000 100.0 37860 100.0 68750 100.0

Indonesia is an agrarian country. Lives of most of society is sustained by agricultural
products. The development process in Indonesia to encourage the growth of industries using
agricultural raw materials (agro). The development of food industry is more profitable for society and
government, but also accompanied by the emergence of several new problems in various sectors. One
of the negative impact of the industry is the emergence of aquatic environmental pollution arising from
industrial waste. Tapioca industry conditions are often cause environmental problems that require
serious treatment.
Rabaey et al. (2004) mentioned that organic waste can be utilized as a source of electrical
energy. Based on a wide range of electricity-producing options that never existed, the fuel cell is one
example of alternative energy technologies that have prospects for development. Energy fuel cell can
be derived from hydrogen-containing materials or that produce electrons. Electrons can be generated
as a result of microbial oxidation of organic material.
Biohydrogen become a promising alternative to replace fossil fuels as environmentally
friendly, containing high energy content, and do not contribute to the greenhouse effect. Therefore,
using cheap resources and renewable, such as lignocellulosic materials as a raw material for hydrogen
production, in particular, dark fermentation hydrogen production has the potential to greatly contribute
to future energy supply. Indonesia as a developing country with a lot of agricultural waste such as
lignocellulosic materials for production of industrial activity. Lignocellulosic waste was used to
produce biohidrogen. On the other hand, biohidrogen production from agricultural waste biomass has
been hampered by high production costs because the enzyme needed for the process to be imported
with a relatively high price. Through genetic engineering using genes, these enzymes can be produced
with lower costs.
Cellulase is an enzyme complex based on its activities can be grouped into three, namely
endoglukanase, cellobiohidrolase or eksoglukanase, and 5-glucosidase. Several microorganisms are
reported to produce different cellulase complex. In bacteria, for example, enzymes are present on
multi-enzyme complex called selulosom and consists of several subunits. While cellulase from
Trichoderma reesei contains two eksoglukanase, at least four endoglukanase and one 5-glucosidase.
The enzyme -1 0.6-glucanase is one endoglukanase, which hydrolyzes 1,4-glucoside
randomly at multiple sites in the central part of the cellulose chain, thus opening a new site for
subsequent hydrolysis by eksoglukanase. Eksoglukanase is the main component (40-70%) cellulose
fungi. These enzymes remove mono-and dimers from the edge of the glucose chains. While
5-glucosidase hydrolyzes the glucose dimer into glucose. The process of hydrolysis of lignocellulosic
biomass to ethanol production is believed to run more efficiently if it used a mixture of these
enzymes. In the framework of the production of enzymes in hydrolysis of biomass needed to support
the development biohidrogen, this study aims to clone the gene encoding -1 0.6-glucanase quickly
and efficiently.

LITERATURE
Lignocellulose Waste
Waste is waste that is dirt or contamination component consisting of a substance or
substances which have no usefulness to society. Industrial waste can be classified into three groups,
namely liquid waste, solid waste, and waste gases that can pollute the environment [3].
- 18 -

Lignocellulose is a major component of woody plants and non-timber plant, and consists of
cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. In general, the content of cellulose in lignocellulosic biomass
agriculture ranges from 40-50% [4]

which is a potential raw material for hydrogen
production. Conversion of lignocellulosic biomass into hydrogen requires several steps, one of which
is the hydrolysis of cellulose into glucose which can be done chemically using acid or a biochemically
using cellulase enzymes.

Biohydrogen
Hydrogen is a source of clean and efficient energy. These gases have the highest energy
content (143 Gjton-1) per unit and is the fuel that is not chemically bound to carbon
[4]
. Thus, hydrogen
burning will not cause the greenhouse effect, ozone layer depletion, or acid rain. This is because the
process of firing in the air would only produce water vapor and heat energy.
Biohydrogen production can be done in two ways, namely changes in fotobiologis and
through fermentation techniques Fotobiologis technique can only be done in the daytime when there is
sunlight
[5]
. This is because photosynthetic microbes use sunlight as a source of energy. Meanwhile,
the technique of fermentation can take place day or night (in darkness)
[6]
.. This depends on the type of
microbes used in fermentation. Most of the aerobic and anaerobic bacteria produce biohidrogen by
photosynthesis and fermentation approach (fotofermentasi)
[7]
.
Some advantages include the production biohidrogen can be performed at normal
temperature and pressure so that production costs can be lower than the physical and chemical. In
addition, it is well to take advantage of waste and organic waste as fermentation substrate
[8]
.

Glucanase
The enzyme 5-1.6-glucanase is one endoglukanase, which hydrolyzes 1,4-glucoside
randomly on several sites in the central part of the cellulose chain, thus opening a new site for the next
hydrolysis by eksoglukanase. Eksoglukanase is the main component (40-70%) cellulose fungi. This
enzyme is widely found in most bacteria, fungi, and higher plants. There are two types of glucanase,
the first is the exo--1 ,3-glucanase hydrolyze laminarin glucose residues sequentially cut from the tip
of a non-reducing polymers or oligomers. As a consequence, hydrolysis results solely in the form of
glucose monomers. The second type is, endo--glucanase cut the link -1, 3 on the side of a random
along the polysaccharide chains that release of smaller oligosaccharide.
Research conducted on barley plants, has determined the form of three-dimensional structure
of -1 ,3-glucanase, which is determined by x-ray crystallography. The enzyme has a structure of
alpha / -barrel. Basic flow of a full arm's length above the surface of the molecule, perpendicular to
the axis of barrel, and proposed to be side bound polysaccharide substrate. There are basic pieces
parallel to the main axis of the molecule. Long enough to accommodate 8 pieces of chain residue
-1 ,3-glucan is extended. The two catalytic glutamic acid residues (E231 and E288) located
approximately one third of all cuts. It was assumed that the glycosidic oxygen is located between two
residues. Glikosidic oxygen protonation by the catalytic residues followed by stabilization
aksikarbonium ion intermediate by catalytic nukleopil. Serves as nukleopil E231 and E288 catalytic
function as a proton donor. Adjacent to the residues E288 and E279 are the residues K282. This
residue seems important in influencing the location of the protonation of the catalytic acid E288.

Trichoderma
Colonies of the fungus Trichoderma white, yellow, light green, and dark green. Further
explained that culture molds Tichoderma viride on laboratory scale is green, this is caused by the
existence of a collection of conidia at the tip of these fungal hyphae. The composition of cell-celled
fungus Trichoderma many rows to form fine threads called hyphae. Hyphae of the fungus is shaped
flat, insulated, and branch out to form webbing called mycelium. Miseliumnya can grow rapidly and
can produce millions of spores, because of its Trichoderma is said to have a high competitive power.
In its growth, the surface will look pure white, and bermiselium dull. As adults, the mycelium has a
yellowish green color.
This mold has a part of distinctive among other berseptat mycelium, much branched, conidia
and spores berseptat most tip of the branch function as sterigma. Konidiofornya verticillate branching
- 19 -

shape. At the end of the konidiofornya grow cells that resembled a bottle (fialida), these cells can form
singly or in groups. Konidianya bright green clusters to form into a ball and hyphae files stand out
clearly among conidia spores. Trichoderma reproduce asexually by forming spores at the end fialida or
branches of hyphae.

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) as the Genetic Material
Nucleic acids is the first successful macromolecules isolated from the cell nucleus. Nucleic
acids form a linear chain which is a mixture of monomer units of nucleotides as builders. This
molecule stores information cell growth and reproduction. Nucleotide monomers as the primary
structure of nucleic acids obtained from hydrolysis of nucleic acids. The process of further hydrolysis
of nucleotide monomers will produce phosphoric acid and nucleosides. Hydrolysis process is
conducted under alkaline conditions. If the hydrolysis was continued back to the nucleoside
compounds in aqueous acid solution will be produced and the sugar molecule with a heterocyclic
nitrogen bases. Nucleic acid in a cell composed of DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) and RNA (Ribo
Nucleic Acid). Both types of these nucleic acids have different purine base which is a constituent
molecule. For RNA prepared by the sugar D-ribose and uracil bases. As for the DNA prepared by the
sugar 2-deoxy-D-ribose is the sugar D-ribose OH groups are lost at C atom No. 2 and thymine bases.
The difference lies in the RNA with the DNA of one additional hydroxyl group on the ribose
sugar ring (so called ribose). Nitrogen bases in RNA similar to DNA, except for thymine bases in
DNA is replaced by uracil in RNA. So still there are four choices: adenine, guanine, cytosine, or uracil
to the nucleotide. In addition, the conformation of double helical RNA does not form as DNA, but
varied according to the type and function.
The basic structure of RNA similar to DNA. RNA is a polymer composed of nucleotide
darisejumlah. Each nucleotide has a phosphate group, a ribose sugar group, dansatu group nitrogen
bases (base N). Polymer composed of alternating bond between gugusfosfat of one nucleotide with a
ribose sugar group of another nucleotide. DNA RNAdengan difference lies in one additional hydroxyl
group on the ribose sugar ring. Nitrogen bases in RNA similar to DNA, except for thymine bases in
DNAdiganti with uracil in RNA. So still there are four choices: adenine, guanine, cytosine, or
urasiluntuk a nucleotide. In addition, the form of RNA does not form helical conformation of DNA
gandasebagaimana, but varies according to type and function.
RNA is present in nature in many kinds / types. As the genetic material, RNA tangible pair
ribbon (UK double-stranded RNA, dsRNA). Classical molecular genetics teaches that there are three
types of RNA are involved in the process of protein synthesis such as messenger-RNA,
ribosomal-RNA, transfer-RNA. At the end of the 20th century and early 21st century is known that
RNA is present in berbagaimacam form and engage in the process pascatranslasi. In regulating the
expression of genetikorang now known micro-RNAs (Mirna) involved in the "reduction of genes" or
gene silencing and small-interfering RNA (siRNA) that are involved in defense against viral attack.

Function of RNA
An important role of RNA lies in its function as an intermediary between DNA and the
genetic expression proteindalam process because it applies to all living organisms. In this role, the
RNA produced as a copy of the code sequence of nitrogenous bases of DNA in the transcription
process. Kodeurutan these bases are arranged in the form of 'triplets', three-base sequence of N, known
as namakodon. Each codon is related to a single amino acid (or a code to stop), monomeryang make
up proteins. See genetic expression for more information. Penelitianmutakhir of RNA function show
evidence supporting the theory of 'RNA world', which states that at the beginning of the process of
evolution, RNA is the genetic material of living organisms using universal before DNA[9].

METHODOLOGY
Tools and Materials
Tools used are volumetric pipette, bulp, micro pipette, tips, pipette drops, spatula, centrifuge
tubes, petri dishes, Beckman centrifuge, analytical balance, autoclave, laminar flow of water, Bunsen,
lighters, needle inocula, hot plate, stirrer, vortex mixer, the pH meter, eppendorf tubes, ovens, mortars,
spatula, tube racks, small bottles, aluminum foil, plastic, sterile, ice bath, bath water, UV light, gel-doc
- 20 -

(Gel Documentation).
The materials used were yeast extract, malt extract, for bakto, N2 gas (liquid nitrogen),
extraction buffer (0.2 M trizma base, 0.3 M LiCl, 0.01 M EDTA, PVP (MW 36,000) 1%, 5 mM
thiourea, aurin trikarboksilat 1 nM, and 2-merkaptoetanol 2%), deprofat solution (phenol: chloroform:
isoamilalkohol, 25:24:1), the solution klorofororm: isoamilalkohol (24:1), 3.3 M Na-acetate pH 5.2,
absolute ethanol, DEPC-H2O, 8 M LiCl, 70% DEPC ethanol, agarose, TBE buffer (Tris-Borat-EDTA)
0.5X, loading buffer, hazarium Trichoderma fungi.

Making Media
Liquid media. A total of 10 grams of malt extract and 2.5 grams of yeast extract were
weighed in analytical balance and then reconstituted with distilled water until its volume to 500 mL in
1000 mL erlenmeyer flask. The process of dissolving liquid media assisted with magnetic stirrer until
the media is completely dissolved. Once dissolved, the media was placed in 20 bottles. The bottle
containing the liquid medium is covered with aluminum foil and sterilized in an autoclave for 15
minutes at a temperature of 121oC pressure of 1 atm, then hushed to room temperature.
Solid media. A total of 5 grams of malt extract, 1.25 g yeast extract, and 5 grams bacto to be
weighed in analytical balance, then reconstituted with distilled water until the volume is 250 mL in
500 ml erlenmeyer flask. Dissolution process aided by the stirrer to completely dissolve the
media. Once dissolved, the media and the test tubes and Petri dishes are sterilized in an autoclave with
a temperature of 121oC pressure of 1 atm for 15 minutes. Once sterilization is completed, the media
poured in 6 test tubes with a volume of each tube volume tubes then tilted sideways and to form
solid media. Media for this tilt is used as a stock molds. Rest of the media that has been poured in
sterilized petri dish and left in place and to form solid media for diameter measurement.

Subcultures Moulds
Molds that will be subcultured prepared in advance. As much as 1 ose namely Trichoderma
fungi inoculated into the culture medium, ie liquid media, for tilt, and petri dish. Teresbut mold then
grown for 1 week at room temperature (22-27 oC). Once the mycelia grew heavy rains of up to
approximately 2.5 grams, fungi were isolated to obtain RNAnya.

RNA Isolation
RNA isolation was done by a combined method of Chang et al (1993) and Liu et al (1998). A
total of 2.5 grams of fungal mycelium is inserted into the mortar, add liquid N2 and crushed to truly
become a fine powder (for milling is always added to liquid N2 in order to maintain low temperature),
then earn fine powder which is inserted into a centrifuge tube already containing 10 mL of extraction
buffer (0.2M Trizma base, 0.3M LiCl, 0:01 M EDTA, PVP [BM 36 000] 1%, 5 mM thiourea,
auritrikarboksilat 1 mM, and 2-merkaptoetanol 2%).
Strong whipped mixture, add 1 volume deprofat solution (phenol:chloroform:isoamilalkohol,
25:24:1), vortex mixer and then divoreteks with 3x30 seconds. The mixture then centrifuged at 15 000
rpm, 4
o
C for 15 minutes. Supernatant was transferred to a new centrifuge tube, extracted again with
chloroform: isoamilalkohol (24:1) as much as one volume and centrifuged again at a speed of 15 000
rpm, 4
o
C for 15 minutes.
Return supernatant was transferred to a new sntrifus tube, then added 1/30 volume of 3.3m
Na-acetate pH 5.2 and 1/10 volumes of absolute ethanol. Mixture and then precipitated in ice diving
30 minutes, and centrifuged again at a speed of 15 000 rpm, 4
o
C for 25 minutes. Return supernatant
was loaded into a new centrifuge tube, then added 1/10 volume of 3.3 m Na-acetate pH 5.2 and 5.2 for
the volume of absolute ethanol was deposited on the ice for 120 minutes.
These tubes are then centrifuged again at a speed of 15 000 rpm, 4
o
C for 25 minutes, then
taken peletnya. pellet was washed with 500 L 70% ethanol-DEPC and centrifuged again at a speed of
8000 rpm, 4
o
C for 5 minutes. Taken the pellets, washed with 500 L 70% ethanol-DEPC and
centrifuged at a speed of 8000 rpm, 4
o
C for 1 minute. Pellets were taken and diluted with
DEPC-ddH2O of 750 L. Once dissolved, the solution is transferred into Eppendorf tubes. RNA was
separated from DNA by the addition of 250 L 8M LiCl until finally 2M concentration, and settling
for one night (4-16 hours) at 4
o
C.
- 21 -

After the incubation period is finished, done with speed centrifugation 12 000 rpm at 4
o
C for
25 minutes. taken the pellets and rinsed with 70% ethanol-DEPC as many as 500 L. Speed
centrifugation was performed with 5000 rpm at 4
o
C for 5 minutes. Dissolved the pellets into
DEPC-ddH2O as many as 50 L.

Quantitative Determination of RNA
Dipipet pure RNA sample of 2 mL were then added 198 mL of Molecular Water (MW). Prepared
blank was 200 mL MW. Once completed, the sample was measured absorbansnya value at wavelength
230 nm, 260 nm, 280 nm, then the value of the concentration and purity RNAnya calculated.
The concentration of RNA is obtained by multiplying the absorbance at a wavelength of 260 nm with
say 40 and the dilution factor (fp).Because the A260 = 1, the RNA concentration was 40 ng /
mL. DNA purity is determined by the purity index. RNA is said pure if it has a purity index>
1700. High purity of the protein (A260/A280) and polysaccharides (A260/A230).

Electrophoresis
Making 1% agarose gel. A total of 0.3 grams of agarose plus 30 mL 0.5X TBE, and dissolved
in the microwave for approximately 30-90 seconds. After completely dissolved, the solution was
allowed to warm, then add 1.5 L ETBr, then poured into a mold which is equipped with a comb. The
mixture was left untouched for about 30 minutes until a gel. Later incorporated in the gel
electrophoresis equipment and soaked with 0.5X TBE buffer.
Mixture 1 mikroL RNA sample, 1 L loading buffer, and 4 L DEPC MQ-mixed into the
Eppendorf tube. Once mixed, pipette the solution and inserted into the wells of
electrophoresis.Electrophoresis process carried out for approximately 45 minutes at a voltage 50
volts. After running the process is complete, the gel removed from the electrophoresis instrument. Gel
is then viewed with the aid of UV light. RNA is seen later documented in the gel-doc.

Primer Design
Primer design specific primers to amplify specific cDNA complete coding region (cds) -1
0.6-glucanase was designed based on the same gene sequences available in GenBank, from the same
organism used in this study that T. harzianum. Primers designed using Primer3 program which can be
accessed online. Preparation of primary done by considering the length of nucleotides, melting
temperature (Tm) and complementation in the region 3 '.Amplification with these primers is predicted
to generate DNA fragment about 1300 bp, similar to the size of the complete coding region -1
0.6-glucanase.

DNA amplification
For DNA amplification of RT-PCR, single strand cDNA synthesis kit SuperScriptTM
performed using First-Strand Synthesis System for RT-PCR (Invitrogen) with total RNA template
using random hexamer primers supplied in the kit. Single strand cDNA was subsequently used as
template in PCR using primers spesifk process that has been designed previously. PCR reaction
program was as follows: one cycle of initial denaturation at 94oC for two minutes, 35 cycles each
consisting of denaturation at 94oC for 15 seconds, primer annealing at a temperature of 48 oC for 45
seconds, and extension at 70 C for two minutes . Furthermore, the reaction is terminated by
extension at 70 C for four minutes. RT-PCR results are checked on gelagarosa.

RT-PCR product cloning and DNA sequence analysis
RT-PCR product cloning and DNA sequence analysis of DNA fragments results of RT-PCR
was isolated from the gel using QIAquick Gel Extraction kit from QIAGEN, ligated in cloning vector
pGEM-T Easy and then inserted into competent E. coli host cell. E. Preparation coli competent done
with heat shock procedure (Sambrook et al., 1989.). E. coli transformation were selected on LB agar
medium containing ampicillin, IPTG and X-gal. The existence of the target DNA insertions in the
white colonies growing on selection medium analyzed by colony PCR using universal primers SP6
and T7. Plasmad recombinant terklon containing DNA fragments isolated from the colony again tested
positive on PCR analysis of colonies, and then performed sequencing to determine the DNA sequence
- 22 -

of the fragment terklon. DNA sequence obtained was analyzed by BlastN and BlastX to confirm the
truth of the DNA fragments terklon as a complete coding region of DNA -1 0.6-glucanase.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Making the Media and Subcultures Moulds
Sterile process is required to obtain a pure fungal RNA and has a high concentration. All
media are sterilized autoclave 121oC, 1 atm for 15 minutes. In addition, the subculture is done in a
sterile laminar air flow. All equipment used in the process of sterilization by autoclave subculture at
121oC, 1 atm for 15 minutes and at the time of use should be sterilized with alcohol and heated with a
Bunsen flame.
Growth of Trichoderma can be seen on potato dextrose as a green color after 5 days
incubation in culture at 25-280oC temperature range. Selection of carbon and energy sources have
become important factors in the production of extracellular hydrolysis by fungal filament. To get the
maximum enzyme production, yeast extract added to the shake flask culture media at a concentration
of 4%.

Figure 1. Results Subcultures Moulds.

Isolation RNA
The successful isolation of RNA can be seen from the level of purity and concentration of
RNA obtained. The process of isolation that we have absolutely sterile for good quality RNA
isolation. Soaking the equipment in DEPC will help the process of sterilization as a solution of DEPC
function eliminates the enzyme ribonuclease that can degrade RNA. In addition, the use of gloves is
strongly recommended to prevent the reaction between the sample with the enzyme ribonuclease is in
hand and also in human sweat.
Analysis by agarose gel electrophoresis and absorbance measurements at wavelengths of 260,
280, and 230 showed that high quality RNA was successfully isolated from the mold Trichoderma
reesei. Besides not degraded, RNA obtained also showed purity of the protein (A260/A280) and
polysaccharides (A260/A230). The amount of RNA concentration absorbansnya seen from the value at
wavelength () 260 nm. Meanwhile, the purity of RNA was seen from the absorbance ratio is
expressed RNA of a sample purity is said pure if the ratio above 1.7. Based on experimental data,
obtained RNA concentration of 192 ng / mL and 240 ng / mL. (Table 3).

Table 3. Results of measurement of RNA with a spectrophotometer
RNA 260 280 230 260/280 260/230 [ ] ng/L
1 0.048 0.033 0.033 1.469 1.455 192
2 0.060 0.048 0.054 1.245 1.108 240

The key to success to get a fungal RNA with a high quantity of life growth is also to
determine the amount of mycelium is harvested. Fungi that are harvested for RNA isolation generally
contain about 6 x 108 cells or equivalent with 1 to 1.5 grams of mycelium biomass, which indicates
that the metabolism of molds is at an exponential rate.
- 23 -

Agarose gel electrophoresis
Electrophoresis process is done by placing samples of RNA into the well (well) on the gel in
a buffer filled with 0.5X TBE buffer and electricity.The addition of loading buffer or loading dye prior
to RNA is inserted into the gel wells serve as ballast density enhancer DNA or RNA, so the sample at
the bottom of the gel. Sample molecules will move in the gel matrix toward the positive pole. RNA
molecules will move toward the positive pole because RNA has a negative charge on phosphate
group. Agarose gel used has a concentration of 1%. The higher the concentration, the more solid gel
and the slower the molecule running.
After the electrophoresis process is completed, agarose gel irradiated with ultraviolet light
(UV). If the sample molecule is fluorescent in UV light in the gel contained RNA isolation. Gels were
then didokumetasi by using gel-doc. In figure 1 seen the tapes (band) on a different lane.Location of
the band on the gel shows the weight that was conceived by RNA isolation.

Figure 2 RNA Trichoderma.

Figure 2 shows the movement of RNA mold when electric current was applied to the gel, the
negatively charged molecules will move toward the positive electrode and positively charged
molecules will lead to a negative electrode. The success of separation by means elektriforesis
influenced by several factors, such as voltage, agarose gel concentrations, and buffer used.

RT-PCR product cloning and DNA sequence analysis
After the RNA will be obtained cDNA synthesis. total cDNA was successfully synthesized
through reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) using total RNA as template. With the oligo-dT primers,
only mRNA that can be synthesized into cDNA because of its Polia at the 3 'end while the rRNA and
tRNA do not have. PCR using primers for-ekson2 ekson1 of actin gene which produces DNA size of
approximately 450 bp which shows that the region which is amplified cDNA-ekson2 ekson1 not
ekson1-ekson2 DNA from the actin gene. DNA between ekson1 and ekson2 size of approximately 640
bp, greater than cDNAnya because it contains introns are removed during the formation of
mRNA. CDNA with primers Teramplifikasinya ActF and ActR with the size of 450 bp indicates that
the total cDNA synthesis via reverse transcription process has been going very well. This also shows
that total RNA is isolated having a very good quality, because in addition can be used to synthesize
cDNA was also free of DNA contamination.

The success of RT-PCR reactions for isolate a gene, is influenced by various factors, one of
which is quality of RNA used. In addition to intact (Not degraded), RNA was also must be free of
contaminant DNA and other compounds such as proteins and polysaccharide. The presence of
contaminant DNA polymerase can be targeted for amplification so that the results obtained be
non-specific. Whereas protein and polysaccharide contamination will inhibit the polymerase so that
the work may result in the failure process amplification. Therefore, RNA degraded by RNase or
contaminated by other components including DNA is one indicator RNA isolation failure. Quality and
quantity of RNA is high on this study, very qualifies as a template in RT-PCR reaction at a later stage.
- 24 -

Besides the purity of RNA used, the success of RT-PCR reaction also heavily influenced by
the specificity primary and pasting temperature. Specificity primers that will better ensure high
complementation between the bases of primers with the bases from both ends DNA fragment to be
amplified so the chances of success amplification higher target DNA fragments. In primer design,
there are several general provisions for primary ideal. Primary among them is the length between
18-28 nucleotides, composed of 50 - 60% G + C and the two primers have comparable melting
point
[6]
.

The second cloned DNA fragment RT-PCR separately into E. coli using pGEM-T Easy
vector also gives results as expected. Results of PCR analysis of colonies white that grow on selection
medium showed that more than 50% colonies that were analyzed tested positive for suspected to
contain DNA inserts is the target DNA RT-PCR results. Recombinant will results shows that the circuit
procedures cloning experiments consisting of recombination of DNA fragments of RT-PCR results
with pGEM-T Easy vector, transformation with heat shock, and culture on selection medium
containing antibiotics, quantitative method effective enough and efficient. After this, for the next step
will do the analysis with dideoxy sequencing, and BlasN analysis.

CONCLUSION
This study succeeded in separating the RNA by using electrophoresis techniques. The
success of separation by means elektriforesis influenced by several factors, such as voltage, agarose
gel concentrations, and buffer used. With an experimental approach RT-PCR using specific primers,
vector pGEM-T, dideoxy sequencing, and BlasN analysis has successfully cloned and characterized
relatively easy and quick cDNA regions complete encoding of the 5-1.6-glucanase Trichoderma reseei.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
A big thanks to God because He given the ease of completing the writing of this papers Next,
we also say thanks to the lecturers who have provided guidance during the writing. Similarly, thanks to
my friends and those who have been so helpful.

References
[1]. Djojonegoro W. 1992. Pengembangan dan penerapan energi baru dan terbarukan. Lokakarya
Bio Mature Unit (BMU) untuk Pengembangan Masyarakat Pedesaan, BPPT, Jakarta.
[2]. Nakashimada Y. 2004. High Rate Production of Hydrogen from Various Substrat and Wastes.
Adv Biochem. Engin. Biotechnol 90:63-67.
[3]. Agustina, Siti, Pudji R., Widianto, Tri, dan A., Trisni. 2008. Penggunaan Teknologi Membran
pada Pengelolaan Air Limbah Industri Kelapa Sawit.
www.bblk-libtang.go.id/eng/admin/upload/TEKNOLOGI MEMBRAN.pdf. (17 Maret 2009).
[4]. Djajadiningrat, Surna T, Harsono H. 1990. Penilaian Secara Tepat Sumber-sumber
Pencemaran Air, Tanah, dan Udara. Yogyakarta; Gadjah Mada University Press.
[5]. Purwanto J. 2005. Optimasi Konsentrasi Gliserol dan pH untuk produksi biohidrogen oleh
Enterobacter aerogenes. Skripsi. FMIPA. IPB. Bogor.
[6]. Rahman MA, Furutani Y, Nakashimada Y, Kakizono T, Nishio N. 1997. Enhace Hydrogen
Production in Altered Mixed Acid Fermentatuion of Glucose by Enterobacter aerogenes.
Journal Ferm Bioeng 83:358-363.
[7]. Elam,C.C,GregoirePedro, .E,Sandrock G,Luzzi A,Linblad P,Hagen,E-F. 2003. Realizing the
H2 future:the International Energy Agencysefforts to advance H2 energy technologies.Int J
Hydrogen Energy 28 : 601 607
[8]. Koesnandar dan Mahyudin AR. 2006. Biohydrogen Production: Prospect and Limitations to
Practical Application
[9]. Sambrook, J., E.F. Fristsch, & T. Maniatis.(1989). Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual.
New York, Cold Spring Harbour Laboratory Press.

- 25 -

DISCOURSE ON THAILANDS PLANTATION FORESTRY
(Eucalyptus camaldulensis): POLITICAL ECOLOGY ANALYSES

Hidayat Herman
Researcher of LIPI, Currently as Visiting Fellow Research in CSEAS-Kyoto University

*Corresponding author:dayat15@yahoo,com

ABSTRACT
Over the past two decades the emerging pulp and paper industry has grown in Thailand.
Substantial companies, such as Advance Agro, Siam Cement Group, Phoenix Pulp and Paper
invested substantial capital to promote plantation forestry and pulp and paper because the
atmosphere was conducive for investment. As a result, timber consumption increased at the end
of the 1990s. In order to overcome the shortage of timber supply, two actions were taken by the
government and the private sector. The government carried out economic incentives and provided
forest plantation concession areas to the private sector and local farmers. The positive impact of
this scheme was that the Companies could provide their raw material and farmers could expand
their income generation and more jobs were created for rural communities.
The purpose of this paper is to examine the role of stakeholders (government, private
sectors, academics, NGOs, and local farmers) in the implementation of plantation forestry, which
focusing: (1) how government (Royal Forest Departments policy) on plantation forestry; (2) how
private companies and local farmers responded to forest plantations and the economic incentives
provided by the government; and (3) the paper aims to examine NGO and academic critiques on
the ecological damages of the industry, such as soil erosion, lack of water and land disputes.

Keywords: forest plantation, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, government, Siam Cement Group, Royal
Forest Department (RFD), farmers, academics and NGOs.

INTRODUCTION
The initial question rises in terms of plantation forestry. In case of Thailand, how does
the country to overcome timber shortage and extend plantation forestry? As a consequence of the
rapid growth of forestry industries in the end of 1990s to the beginning of the 2000s, wood
demand reached 17.2 million m3 in 1999 and rapidly developed to become 20.1 million m3 in
2006. There are two ways in which the Thai government is overcoming the shortage of timber.
Firstly, the Thai government invites stakeholders such as private companies, academics and local
farmers to be actively involved in planting and developing plantation forestry (Eucalyptus
camaldulensis) for commercial trees. Secondly, the government launched economic incentive
policies, providing accessibility to credit, tax relief on machineries import and other goods for
paper factories and infrastructure (highways and port facilities). These policies taken by the
government eventually led to widely expanded plantation estates throughout the whole country
and highlighted how significant plantation forestry could be for providing the raw material for
pulp and paper industries. Thailand and her people subsequently welcomed plantation forestry,
especially Eucalyptus trees. According to some studies, Bunvong Thaiutsa et.al., (2003), Forestry
Research Center of Kasetsart University (1989), Thailand Development Research Institute (1991),
and Forest Research Center for Royal Forest Departments Paper (2008), it was recommended
that Eucalyptus camaldulensis was a suitable plant according to soil and climate conditions and
promoted as commercial trees for Thai people. These findings have raised questions as to what
the specialties are of Thailand compared with other countries? For instance, Chinas specialty
that plantation forestry mostly highlighted aiming to boost greening areas, because of highly
polluted air. In the case of Vietnam, Philippines and Indonesia, it has mostly been emphasized on
- 26 -

the balance of economic and environmental issues, aiming to recover natural forest and to boost
wood production in the production forest for domestic wood demand and to expand forest
coverage by launching reforestation and forest rehabilitation program in protected and
conservation forest. These conditions lead to preventing ecological disasters such as floods, soil
erosion and drought.
There were two arguments to support Thailands specialty. Firstly, the Thai government
adopted and legitimized plantation forestry for economic benefit rather than environmental
issues. Therefore, focusing on Eucalyptus trees was adopted for their commercial value for
farmers and private companies, aiming to boost production, provide income generation and jobs
for rural communities. Secondly, the government encouraged easier procedures to obtain timber
concession areas, gave subsidies to farmers, access to credit, tax holidays and provided
infrastructure to private companies and farmers who wished to plant and develop plantations. The
government supported private companies creating synergic cooperation with local farmers under
the scheme of contract farming. This contract requires the company to give seedlings, fertilizers,
accessibility to credit from banks and a guarantee of market at harvest time for timber products
from the farmers. The schemes provide a win-win solution for both parties (company and local
farmers). As a result, plantation forestry in Thailand was rapidly grown from 560,000 ha in 1990
to become 4.9 million ha in 2000 (FAO 2001a). Therefore in order to deal with these policies, it
is significant to understand general policy and its impact of Thai government on plantation
forestry.
Hence, the aim of the paper is to examine three research objectives as follow: (1) to
examine the impact of the Royal Forest Department (RFDs) policy on plantation forestry on
private companies and local farmers; (2) to discuss how private companies and local farmers
responded to forest plantations and the economic incentives provided by the government; and (3)
to investigate the debates from academic and NGOs on ecological damages.

STUDY SITES AND METHODOLOGY
Study Sites
The study sites were located in Khon Kaen Province, Hua Naklang village, Tusala sub-
district, Mancha Khiri district, 50 km from Khon Kaen city and in Samchan village, about 10 km
from Khon Kaen city (figure 1 Map of Khon Kaen). Geographically, Khon Kaen province is
located in Northeast Thailand and about 449 km from Bangkok.There are two rationales to select
this province. First, the Khon Kaen province is mostly covered in forest plantations (Eucalyptus
camaldulensis) planted by the local farmers and private companies, based on field surveys that
indicated that soil and climate conditions were appropriate for these plantation trees. Second, the
villages were selected could be categorized as dependent farmers or so called contract farming
with Siam Cement Group (SCG) Company for instance in Hua Naklang village, Tusala and
Mancha Khiri.

- 27 -

Figure 1 Map of Khon Khaen area among Thailand Source: From Google, Khon Khaen
in Thailand, 2008.

Methodology
The theoretical framework to discuss development on plantation forestry in Thailand as
unit analysis, we apply the approach of political ecology with emphasizes the role of
stakeholders (central and local government officers, private companies officers, academician and
NGOs, and local farmers) to understand the complex interrelation between local people, national
and global political economies and ecosystem (Blaike and Brookfield 1987). Besides, it is widely
accepted that debates concerning political ecology refer to the social and political condition
surrounding the causes, experiences, and management of environmental problems (e.g. Bryant
1992; Blaikie and Brookfield, 1987;Tim Forsyth 2003; Greenberg and Park 1994). A variety of
authors over the years have revealed different approaches to the meaning of ecology in political
ecology (Tim Forsyth 2003: 2-4). First, some authors have approached political ecology by
explaining environmental problems as the phenomenological interaction of biophysical process,
human needs, and wider political systems. Blaikie and Brookfield wrote:
The phrase political ecology combines the concerns of ecology and a broadly
defined political economy. Together this encompasses the constantly shifting
dialectic between society and land-based resources, and also within classes and groups
within society itself (Blaikie& Brookfield 1987: 17).

Second, there is the use of political ecology to refer in general terms to the politics of
environmental problems without specific discussion of ecology (Bryant 1992: 13), for
example, describes political ecology as an inquiry into the political forces, conditions
and ramifications of environmental changes, and may include studies of environmental
impacts from different sources; location-specific aspects of ecological changes; and the
effects of environmental change on socio-economic and political relationships (Lowe and
Rudig 1986).

The study focuses on review of academic debate on these issues of plantation forestry
and the scope of period is limited in 1980s-2000s. Because during last two decades Thailand
began carried out a vast plantation forestry especially local tree species for reforestation in
protection and conservation forest and Eucalyptus camaldulensis in production forest as main
sources of raw material of pulp and paper industries. As a consequence of rapidly developed of
pulp and paper industries invested by domestic and foreign companies as well in 1990s.

Khon khaen Map
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- 28 -

Method for data collection
The majority of data and information was collected through three techniques. Fist,
literature reviews of books, forestry statistics of Thailand (2007), the internet and journals about
Thailands forest policy and plantation forestry. Second, fieldwork was carried out in July 2009 in
Bangkok and Khon Kaen province. Using guided interview questionnaires to conduct in-depth-
interviews with stakeholders (Royal Forest Department officer; Forestry Research and
Development officer; academics in the Faculty of Forestry of Kasetsart and Khon Kaen
Universities; private company officers, local NGOs and local farmers-purposive sampling) to
obtain information on forestry plantations. Third, field observations were made of forest
plantation programs owned by farmers in Thailand.

ROYAL FOREST DEPARTMENT POLICIES
The Royal Forest Department (RFD) plays a significant role in policy development for
plantation forestry. As mentioned in the first research objective, it was the RFDs policy on
plantation forestry that led to commercial tree plantations for Eucalyptus camaldulensis. There
are four main issues to be discussed, namely an overview of forest policy, plantation forestry, the
progress of plantations and foreign agency support.

An Overview of Forestry Policy
Thailand was covered by 158,652 sq.km or 30.92% forest in 2006 (Forestry Statistics of
Thailand 2007). In the first phase forests were brought under state ownership and management.
The Royal Forestry Department (RFD) was authorized to classify the allocation of forest use and
issued concessions. As part of the policy implementation, the institutional structure was built up
and adjusted, and various government programs were implemented. The legal status of the
permanent forest areas was established either as protected areas or forest reserves. In the latter
phase, timber concession was given to private companies and the state-owned FIO
1
which were
eventually cancelled when the logging ban was issued. In 1985 the government issued adoption
of National Forest Policy in an attempt to consolidate sectoral policy in the country and to place
forestry within the context of overall national development for instance: (1) promoting shared
forest management between government and private sector; (2) specifying the target forest areas
at 40% of the countrys area (15 conservation forests and 25% commercial forests); (3) reducing
forest destruction by improving agricultural technology; (4) intensification of private forest
plantations to meet the needs of forest industries; (5) creating incentives for private forest
plantations, etc. (ITTO Objective 2000:81).
While the government issued a logging ban on natural forests in 1989 to prevent
deforestation and forest degradation that eventually affect to soil erosion and flood, reforestation
and afforestation program were highlighted as significant strategies to supply wood demand and
protect forests and land. As a result, a reforestation program was encouraged by the government
(RFD) in 1991 aimed at encouraging the private sector, FIO and farmers, to engage in tree
planting. The tree planting identified the need for partnerships between the public and
(commercial) private sectors. Forest laws and regulations were reviewed and revised. For instance,
in 1992, the government issued the Forest Master Plan with a focus on rural development and

1
Forestry Industry Organization (FIO) is a Government Forestry Enterprise Company. It was
originally established on July 25, 1956 by RFD (Royal Forest Department). The main task of
FAO is to carry out tree plantation forestry in concession area, logging in non-concession of the
states project areas (dam and reservoir sites), and the use or sale of confiscated wood either
illegally cut or illegally imported into Thailand.

- 29 -

community forestry (Ibid: 81). Hence, RFD was directed to encourage local communities to
participate in tree planting and cooperate with the private sector.

Plantation Forestry
Since logging in natural forests was banned in 1989, timber production in Thailand has
shifted from natural forests to planted forests, particularly teak and rubber wood and non-forest
sources supplemented by imports. Tree plantations are an integral part of the reforestation
program. RFD has the authority to issue timber concession areas to government agencies (FIO)
and private companies. The governments farm program (1994 to 2001) was a response to the
deteriorating wood supply situation with a target area of 1.28 million ha. The program subsidized
the private sector and farmers to plant trees (ITTO Objective 2000: 8). The program encouraged
the private sector and farmers to plant specified economic tree species on their lands at 1,250
seedlings/ha. The government gave seedlings and fertilizer to farmers. The aim was to make use
of all unutilized marginal farmland and areas for environmental benefit, and to reduce rural
poverty. Planting was subsidized by the government with US$ 469/ha and the farmers were free
to harvest the trees at the beginning of year six. The program absorbed about 80,167 farmers and
the planted areas covered 169,400 ha, mostly located in the northeast and central regions.
Unfortunately, the program only reached 13 percent of the target, with the main reason provided
being that more attractive subsidies were offered for rubber, but the inherent obstacles to
investing in tree crops below have obviously been important as well. Because Thailands farmers
have been accustomed to attaining a lucrative business from rubber plantations, the risks from
trying Eucalyptus trees were too great (ITTO Objective 2000: 41-42).
The government functionalized research centers to produce the best alternative trees to
be planted for commercial aims. Two surveys were published in 1989, one by the Forestry
Research Center of Kasetsart University and submitted exclusively to South-East Pulp Co. Ltd.,
the other conducted by the Thailand Development Research Institute and entitled Potential of
Commercial Fast Growing Tree Plantations in Thailand, followed by Forest Research Center for
Royal Forest Departments paper (2008). These centers findings recommended large-scale
eucalyptus plantations as the best solution to the industrys raw material problem (Oliver 2005:
91). These valuable findings were adopted by the RFD, where they then issued the National
Forest Policy that declared the need for commercial tree plantations of fast-growing species,
such as Eucalyptus camaldulensis, to supply the raw material for the pulp and paper industry.
Thai forestry academics believed that tree plantations would revive and improve the negative
impact on existing forests from cultivation and illegal logging, as well as the village peoples
encroachment on the forest for farming and the shifting cultivation by the hill tribes. They also
believed that tree plantations would contribute to economic production and generate local and
national income and employment (Kuaycharoen 2004: 9).
Estimates of the actual area of commercial tree plantations vary considerably. According
to RFD statistics, by 1981, 2.6 million rai had been reforested, with another 1.125 million rai
reforested between 1987 and 1990 (Table 1).Some scholars predicted reforestation as follows:
Hurst (1990) put the area of timber plantation planted by the RFD by 1982 at 2.5 million rai, by
the FIO at 312,000 rai, and by the Thai Plywood company at 18,750 rai, but they estimated the
survival rates at a third to 10%, which would give an actual area under state sector tree
plantations of 280,000-930,000 rai. Apichai Puntasen et.al (1992) gave an estimate of 500,000 ha
of eucalyptus plantations nationwide for 1987 (Carrere&Lohmann 1996: 91), while FAO (2000)
estimated around 443,000 ha (ITTO 2000) (Table 2).

- 30 -

Table 1 BOI-Promoted Eucalyptus Plantation
Name of Company Year
approved
Area (rai) Export (%) Investment
(mil.baht)
Kian Chunprasert
Suan Siam Kitti Reforestation
N.R.Eucalyptus Agr, Co.,Ltd
Siam Forestry Industrial Ltd
Siam Vana Forestry Industrial
Suan Siam Kitti Reforestation
Rich Forest Co.,Ltd
Siam Agrotex Co., Ltd
Vanapan Co.,Ltd
Vanapan Forestry Co.,Ltd
1988
1988
1987
1986
1986
1986
1984
1984
1984
na
1,500
20,000
15,000
3,000
3,000
10,000
10,000
5,200
3,000
3,000
0
80
0
0

20
0
0
0
0
55.0
120.0
110.0
23.15

70
200.0
97.0
46.0
46.0
Total 73,700 767.15
Source: Oliver 2005.
Thailands account for land use is widely called rai. 1 ha = 6.25 rai or 1 rai= 0.16 ha.

Table 2 Plantation Area by Species in 2000
Species 1,000 ha
Rubber
Teak
Eucalyptus spp
Acacia mangium and other A.spp
Other broadleaved species
Pinus merkusii and other P.spp
Other conifers

2,019
836
443
148
541
689
148
Total 4,824
Source: FAO (2001).

Private companies, such as Advance Agro and Siam Cement Company, are actively
engaged in eucalyptus plantations. The first group, Advance Agro Alliance Company, planted
40,000 hectares and farmer contracted 60,000 ha, mostly located in the central and eastern
regions of Thailand. Siam Cement Company, in paper and packaging, planted 25,600 hectares by
the contract farming system, mostly located in the northeast and through non-members residing
within a radius of 150 km around the factory (more than 50,000 hectares (Table 3). The pulpwood,
3-5 years old, is harvested and sent to the factories with an average price of approximately
US$ 30 per ton depending on log diameter class (Laemsak 2008:118). In 2004-2006, the Ministry
of Agriculture and Cooperatives promoted farmers intensively planting Eucalyptus by agro
forestry systems.

Table 3 Eucalyptus plantation in 1994-1996 (1,000 ha)
Actor Area (ha)
Planted by the Government 108,8
Planted by the Private Sector:
Advance Agro (AA) 100
Siam Cement Group (SCG) 75,6
Total 284,4
Source: Journal of Forest Management (2008).

- 31 -

PRIVATE SECTOR RESPONSES TO FOREST PLANTATIONS
The private sector, including private companies (SCG, Advance Agro, Phoenix etc.),
FIO (Forestry Industry Organization) launched strategies to get raw material (timber), to boost
production and access to the market, cooperating with individual farmers and members of
cooperatives.

SCG Company responses to the governments policy
The Siam Cement Group (SCG) responded positively toward the RFDs (Royal Forest
Department) policy of plantation forestry concession because the investment atmosphere was
good for investors and SCG Company in particular as well. SCG staff highlighted response to the
policy such as lower taxes, credit provided for the Company, simple procedures for obtaining
land tenure, timber concession areas and the provision of good infrastructure (road and port
facilities) as their reasons. Credit availability from the bank for the private company depends on
rationality of the feasibility study. In case of SCG Company looked for bank as partner, with The
Farmers Bank
2
for tree plantation and factory mill establishment. Because of his close
relationship between The Farmers Bank and SCG Company could obtain a hundred million
US$ dollar credit to invest in plantation forestry, pulp and paper mills and others.
3
The Company
searches for raw materials (timber) with other parties. For example, the Company looks for
cooperation with government agency such as FIO (Forest Industry Organization) for planting
trees in the district of Khon Khaen and surroundings and with local farmers to procure timber
through MOUs (Memorandum of Understanding) with the scheme of Contract Farming. The
paper products of SCG Company are 65 percent sold in the domestic market and the remaining 35
percent is for overseas markets in Southeast Asia, Hong Kong, Japan, USA and Europe
(Interview, on July 9, 2009).

Private Company (SCG) with Government Enterprises (FIO)
SCG Company conducted a joint venture in 2003 with FIO, one of the state enterprise
forestry businesses belonging to the RFD, planting eucalyptus trees on 12,000 Rai of land in
Khon Kaen area. The SCG Company provided the capital, in the form of seeds and maintenance
until harvest, while FIO provided the land, counseling, guidance and inspection of plants until
harvest. The SCG Company provided capital from land clearing, weeding, planting, maintaining
to harvesting the plantation per rai 4,000 Baht x 12,000 rai= 48,000,000 Baht. The harvest after
six years of one rai produced 14 ton x 12,000 rai =168,000 ton. The price in 2009 reached 900
Baht/ton x 168,000 ton=151,200,000 Baht.
The profit after six year reached 151,200,000-48,000,000 Baht=103,200,000 Baht. Then
the profit each year reached 103,200,000: (12,000x 6) = 1,433.3 Baht/per rai. The profit at
harvesting time (after six years) for the SCG Company received 60 percent (0.6 x 103,200,000) =
61,920,000 Baht. Meanwhile FIO received 40 percent (after six years) (0.4 x 103,200,000) =
41,280,000 Baht.
The profit at harvest time, after tax, was distributed 60/40 to SCG and FIO respectively.
According to Salee, an SCG staff member, this cooperation provided a profit for both parties. For
instance, FIO could develop management and networking. On the other hand, SCG as the

2
The Farmers Bank is categorized among the fifth biggest financial conglomerate in Thailand such as
Bangkok Bank, Bank of Ayudhya, Bangkok Metropolitant Bank and Bank of Asia. The major share holder
of The Farmers Bank is Royal Family Group. For further information see Akira, Suehiro, Capital
Accumulation in Thailand 1855-1985, 1989:247.
3
The close relationship between SCG Company and The Farmers Bank occurred because the majority
shareholder of SCG is the Thai King (Bumibol). The data is based on an interview with Kriangsak Salee, a
Promotion Department Manager of SCG (Siam Cement Group) Company on July 9, 2009 in Khon Kaen.
- 32 -

investor could obtain bank credit and conduct contract farming with local farmers, thereby
creating jobs and increasing the socio-economic strength of the rural areas.
The target of SCG for pulp production was about 414,000 tons (37% of the total national
target) and for paper about 1.7 million m3 (40% of the total national target) in 2008 (Table 4).
4

This target was reached by the company launching cooperation with other actors (FIO, Oji Paper,
and Local farmers) for providing raw materials (Eucalyptus trees). For instance, in 2010, the
SCG cooperated with Oji Paper from Japan to carry out plantation concessions of around 22,000
ha in Laos, because forest land in Thailand is very limited. So far, fundraising and technical
preparation have been conducted by both parties (Oji and SCG Company), while the Laos
government has provided state forests and approved for plantation concessions to plant
Eucalyptus camaldulensis.

Table 4 Production of Pulp and Paper in Thailand Year 2006-2008 (1,000 tons)
Product Domestic Production SCG
Prod in
2008
% of share in
Domestic Prod 2006 2007 2008
Pulp 1,129 1,169 1,106 414 37%
Paper
-Printing Writing
- Paper and board
- Kraft Paper
-Others (Newsprint
& Sanitary Paper)
4,308
1,221
239
2,600
248
4,322
1,108
348
2,625
241
4,235
1,014
369
2,604
248
1,687
390
147
1,150
-
40%
38%
40%
44%
-
Total 5,437 5,491 5,341 2,101 39%
Source: Sustainable Report of SCG Company, 2008.

Private Company (SCG) with Local Farmers
SCG conducts strategic partnerships with local farmers for securing raw material. The
guarantee of providing raw material (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) is significant to the company.
Therefore, the company holds contract farming with local farmers in order to ensure the
provision of raw material. Within these contracts, SCG is obliged to provide seedlings of
eucalyptus, fertilizer and guarantee a market at harvesting time for famers and the farmers are
required to sell their product to SCG at the agreed price. Independent local farmers not contracted
by SCG can sell to other traders if the price is agreeable between the two parties.
In this context, SCG likes to support local communities where it operates by sustaining
their economic growth and increasing income generation. Farmers as suppliers of timber are
considered the first priority for purchasing their products. The SCG policy supports job creation
in rural areas that decreases migration to urban areas, such as Bangkok, by villagers.
Major examples in 2007-2008 programs of contract farming through local hiring are as
follows:
1. Promotion of converting cash crop to eucalyptus planting for farmers at the village level
and establishing centers for seed distribution in the provinces of Kanchanaburi and Khon
Kaen
5
in order to produce raw material for pulp production. The advantages include

4
For further information, see Sustainable Report of SCG Company in 2008, pp. 26.
5
The field survey was carried out on July 7-18, 2009 in Khon Khaen area. The province of Khon Kaen
such as Mancha Khiri, Tusala, Shamchan, etc., are located in northeast of Thailand. Some areas could
produce paddy rice based on rainfall, irrigation system is very little, and the land is infertile. But, some of
land areas are very suitable for eucalyptus plantation that these trees no much need the water. This
information based on interview among scholars in Khon Kaen University, July 9, 2009.
- 33 -

increasing income for farmers and providing alternative sources of raw material for SCG
Paper. As an illustration, raw material produced from the companys plantation is around
75 percent and 25 percent from contract farming (Table 5).
2. Establishment of a Community Occupational Training Center which has programs such
as traditional Thai Massage, and production of handicrafts produced by housewives and
the unemployed in the nearby community of Phoenix Pulp and Paper Mill
6
and SCG. In
addition, the Company provides the market for the communities by inviting them to sell
their products and services in SCG Paper exhibitions held in every mill as well as
purchasing their products to be souvenirs for special guests and customers.

The benefits of contract farming for farmers are: 1) they receive free fertilizer from SCG
in the first two years (2004-2005); 2) they received discounts of almost 40-50 percent for
seedlings in 2006; 3) they have access to credit from the local bank as a member of the village
cooperative; 4) they are guaranteed a market of logs at harvesting time (with spot price). In
contrast, the losses for farmers are in terms of the spot price at harvesting time, which is often
lower with the company compared with independent traders. For example, in 2009 SCG
determined on a price of 900 Baht/per ton, while the general market value was 1000 Baht/per ton.
From this point of view, farmers under contract farming lost 100 Baht/per ton in selling at
harvest time. Also, the provision of people to assist in maintaining and harvesting timber
(Eucalyptus) in rural areas since the beginning of the 2000s has been difficult, because they prefer
to work in the big cities such as Bangkok, Chiang Mae and Khon Kaen, where the salaries
provided are greater than in rural areas (interview with Bualai, July 7, 2009).
There are many local farmers actively engaged in plantation forestry, irrespective of
whether they are individual contract farmers, independent farmers or members of village
cooperatives. As a member of a cooperative, they receive access to credit from agricultural banks
and free seedlings from the local government. Below is a picture of an individual contract farmer
called Bualai Yenchai. Bualai is 59 years old and has three children, while her 63 year old
husband is called Thon Puan.
7
Bualai owns a gasoline station and shop for daily necessities such
as rice, cakes and drinking water for local people. She owns about 110 rai of land, some inherited
from her parents and most bought from other local farmers. The remaining 10 rai is reserved for
paddy fields.
Bualai initially knew about SCG Company from company staff who visited her home
explaining about Eucalyptus as an alternative commodity tree. She became an individual contract
farmer in 2004. Previously she planted cassava and sugar cane, but these crops did not attain
much profit and required a great deal of effort and time to maintain. She explains that it is
currently difficult to find labor in rural areas, because most people go to the cities for greater
amounts of money, such as Bangkok, Chiang Mae and Khon-Kaen. Therefore, she chose
Eucalyptus trees to plant for the following benefits: (1) the Eucalyptus is fast growing and
produces greater profit; 2) not much time is required to manage the crop; 3) no extra labor is
required for maintenance and harvest; 4) an ensured price at harvest time; 5) free fertilizer from
company in 2004-2005 as a promotion; 6) cheaper prices for seedlings and fertilizer and 7) a
guaranteed market at harvest time.

6
Actually some shares of Phoenix Pulp and Paper had been made an acquisition by SCG Company in 2001.
Then a part of management is controlled by SCG Company.

7
The interview with Ms. Bualai Yenchai was carried out on July 9, 2009 in Manca Khiri district, about 50
Km from Khon-Kaen city
- 34 -

Bualai informed us that 3,200 Baht
8
per rai is needed for clearing land, weeding,
planting, maintaining to harvesting the plantation. She planted eucalyptus trees in 2004 and will
harvest them in 2010. Bualai owns 100 rai, therefore needing to invest 320,000 Baht. As an
individual contract farmer and member of the cooperative, she borrowed 300,000 Baht from local
agricultural bank, using her land as collateral. She must repay about 30,000 Baht annually over
the next 10 years and is so far able to make repayments each month. The estimated harvest of one
rai should produce 10 tons, and at a price of 1,000 Baht (estimated price in 2010), total profit
should be 1,000 tons x 1,000 Baht/per ton= 1,000,000 Baht, or 1,000,000 - 320,000 Baht =
680,000 Baht (after six years). The profit in each year should be about 680,000 Baht: 600 (100 rai
x 6) = 1,133 Baht/per rai. She would like to use this profit to expand her shop, buy more land and
pay education fees for her children and possible large medical expenses.

THE CRITIQUES OF ACADEMICS AND NGOS
In this section I highlight what some academics and NGO feel towards changes in the
political ecology in the region. I would like focusing in what extend academics and NGOs
criticize the ecological damage impact throughout environmental issues.

Environmental impact
Actually there are some activist NGOs such as Kuaycharoen, Khemchalerm and
scientists Ubukata, Colchester, Sawaeng, and Lohman who actively launched critiques on
ecological damage impact that affect by Eucalyptus plantation.
Kuaycharoen is a famous and advocator of NGO reported that local people had to bear
the brunt of the social and environmental costs when their cultivation land and community way of
life were damaged by the large stands of monoculture tree plantations and the operations of pulp
and paper industry. For instance, communities living around the Phoenix Pulp and Paper mill
located near the Phong River in Khon Kaen province suffered the impacts of the toxic pollution of
the river and farmlands while farmers lost large areas of farmlands and village commons to the
Suan Kitti plantation company as it aggressively expanded its eucalyptus plantations in the
eastern region (Kuaycharoen 2004: 13).
Besides, huge protests occurred in 1995 and village networks in the Northern Province
attempted to eliminate eucalyptus from the areas altogether, forcing the RFD to suspend its
eucalyptus operations over a wide area. Responsibility for existing plantations, meanwhile, was
passed to other authorities, whom villagers pressured to cut the eucalyptus and distribute the
profits locally. Throughout their intensive campaigns, northeastern villagers and their NGO allies
researched and publicized multi-purpose native alternatives to eucalyptus which are responsive to
the diversity of food, construction, medicinal and ecological needs of different localities;
launched supplementary plantings of native trees on degraded sites and posted new areas as
community forests (Carrere& Lohmann 1996:238).
Wiboon Khemchalerm, a former senator, NGOs activist and well-known organic farmer
from Chachoengsao Province, explained that after the existence of eucalyptus plantations in
nearby areas, underground water has dried up. Small-scale farmers could not survive by planting
eucalyptus. Obviously there was no guarantee that those who had left the land would not
encroach on other forests and cause further problems. In addition, there was no guarantee that a
monoculture tree plantation covering a huge area would not inflict unexpected impacts on the
environment in the long run (Kuaycharoen 2004:17).
In line with Wibons statement that Eucalyptus trees absorb much water and negatively
affect surrounding cash crops, such as cassava (with the distance 3-10 meters), causing dry and
infertile land, is in accordance with my field observations with Dr. Sawaeng Ruaysoongnern,

8
The breakdown cost per rai composes many activities such as buying seedling, fertilizer, paying workers
for clearing land and planting seedling and distribute fertilizer, and for cutting trees at harvesting time.
- 35 -

lecturer from Faculty Agriculture, Khon Kaen University, Thailand in Samchan village, about 10
Km from Khon Kaen. Sawaeng proposed that local farmers should try other options by carrying
out planting of local tree species (shift from monoculture to multicultural trees) in their forest
commons and farmland. The aim of planting local tree species is to ensure conservation, to
prevent soil erosion and recovery of soil fertility in the near future (an interview, on July 8, 2009).
Ubukata has said that the negative aspects of eucalyptus production to ordinary
villagers may be exacerbated by their persisting perceptions of agro-ecological impacts. In fact,
planting eucalyptus did not mean that the villagers came to hold positive perceptions on these
aspects. As mentioned in the section of anti-movements, many villagers felt that eucalyptus
damages water and nutrients in the soil, despite the states continuous efforts to emphasize its
harmless nature (Ubukata 2009:23).
Colchester and Lohmann criticized that eucalyptus plantations alone threaten to dispose
millions of peasants, as the RFD, the military and other bureaucratic and business interests have
promoted plans to lease as much as 40,000 square kilometers of so-called degraded forest
(consisting mainly of farmland, pasture and community woodlands) to commercial planters to
feed foreign and domestic wood-chip and paper-pulp demand while supposedly reforesting the
country. Even so, eucalyptus operations have received loans from the Asian Development Bank
(ADB), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the Japanese, Australian, Canadian
and Finnish aid agencies, Britains Commonwealth Development Corporation as well the army-
initiated Green North-East Programme (Colchester&Lohmann 1995: 210-211).

CONCLUDING REMARKS
Plantation forestry in Thailand is positive impact in terms of providing cash flow of
money, raw material for pulp and paper industry and strengthening the socio-economic capacity
of farmers in rural areas. The rationale for this success is explained as follows:
The Thai government adopted and legitimized policies on plantation forestry of
commercial trees, highlighting economic benefits rather than the environmental impact of
plantation forestry. The economic facilities provided by the government include easy accessibility
to timber concession areas, credit, tax breaks on import of machineries and other goods for pulp
and paper factories.
The policies adopted by the government subsequently lead to a wide expansion of
plantation estates by private companies, FIO (Forestry Industry Organization) and farmers in
provinces and districts and a significant growth of plantation forestry of Eucalyptus
camaldulensis as a raw material for pulp and paper industries. The response from private
companies, such as SCG (Siam Cement Group) and Advance Agro were positive and they
conducted a joint venture with FIO in 2003 by planting about 12,000 rai of Eucalyptus trees in
Khon Kaen area. The company provided the capital, seedlings, fertilizer and maintenance cost of
plants until harvesting. Meanwhile, the FIO provided land, counseling, guidance and conducting
inspections of plants. SCG also made an agreement to expand plantation forestry from about
22,000 ha in 2010 in Laos with OJI Paper from Japan. The Laos government agreed to provide
state forest land for a three parties joint venture. In order to ensure the provision of raw material
for the future, the private companies such as SCG Company and Advance Agro carried out
contract farming with local farmers. The companies have obligations to provide seedlings,
fertilizer and to guarantee a market at the time of harvest. In line with contract farming scheme,
farmers can easily access credit from the local agricultural bank and guarantee their products in
the market. This type of agreement between companies and farmers is called a strategic
partnership of the spirit, providing win-win results and eventually leading to job creation and
economic and social growth in rural areas. As a result, the stakeholders actively participated in
plantation forestry (including Eucalyptus camaldulensis) and it was subsequently expanded in
Thailand from 284,000 ha in 1996 to 4.8 million ha in 2000, consisting of about 2 million ha of
- 36 -

rubber trees, 836,000 ha of teak trees and the remainder a mix of several types of tree species,
such as Eucalyptus spp, Acacia mangium, Pinus mercussi and Conifers.
On the other hand, academics and NGOs criticized the ecological damage caused by
monoculture plantations of Eucalyptus camaldulensis, which absorbs more water than native trees,
affecting cash crops surrounding the plantations. From this perspective, academics and NGOs
made recommendations to reduce the monoculture setup of plantations and adopt mixed
plantations with local tree species in order to improve conservation and soil fertility recovery. In
this case local farmers who own common forest land and farmland should plant local tree species.
The villagers get more economic benefit from mixed plantations in the longer term as they will
still attain the economic benefits of their plantations, but also reduce the strain on their land,
allowing for continuous use of their land for a longer time.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to express deep gratitude to Prof. KONO Yasuyuki for his critical
comments and shaping my thinking on specific parts of this chapter. I am also grateful to several
informants who largely contribute information on data gathering of pulp and paper industries and
plantation forestry (Eucalyptus trees) such as Kasetsart University lecturers, Royal Forest
Department (RFD) officer, Khon Kaen University lecturers, NGOs officer, and local farmers in
Khon Kaen province and Mancha Khiri sub-districts. Special thanks are also given to very
kindness of JSPS Post-Doctoral Fellowship which fully supported for carrying out field survey in
Thailand in July 2009. And also I am grateful to Ms. Jordan Hoffmann from Canberra for English
editing as well.

References

[1] Achieving the ITTO Objective 2000 and Sustainable Forest Management in
Thailand.2006.Report Submitted to ITT Council by Diagnostic Mission.
[2] Akira, Suehiro. 1989. Capital Accumulation in Thailand 1855-1985. Tokyo: The Centre
for East Asian Cultural Studies.
[3] Blaikie, P. and Brookfield,H.C.(ed). 1987. Land Degradation and Society. London:
Methuen Press.
[4] Bryant, R. 1992. Political ecology: an emerging research agenda in Third-World
Studies,. Political Geography 11: 1, 12-36.
[5] Carrere, Ricardo & Lohmann, Larry. 1996. Pulping the South: Industrial Tree Plantations
and the World paper Economy. London: Zed Books Ltd.
[6] Charit, Tingsabadh.1989. Employment Effects of Reforestation Programs. Bangkok:
TDRI.
[7] Chuntanaparb, L and H.I. Wood. 1986. Management of Degraded Forest Land in
Thailand. Bangkok: Northeast Thailand Upland Social Forestry Project. Kasetsart
University. Colchester, Marcus & Lohmann, Larry (ed.).1995. The Struggle for Land and
the Fate of the Forests. London: World Rainforest Movement, Penang, Malaysia
(branch) Press.
[8] Evans, Julian & Turnsbull, John. 2004. Plantation Forestry in the Tropics. London:
Oxford University Press.
[9] FAO (2001a). Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000. Main report. FAO Forestry
Paper 140.
[10] FAO (1999a).State of the Worlds Forests 1999. Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations, Rome.
[11] Forestry Statistics of Thailand (2550) or 2007.
[12] Forsyth, Tim.2003. Critical Political Ecology: the Politics of Environmental
Science.London: Routledge Press.
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[13] Greenberg, J. and Park, T. 1994. Political ecology, Journal of Political Ecology 1:1-12.
[14] Guizoi,P.H and Aruan, A.L.P, Impact of Incentives on the Development of Forest
Plantation Resources in Indonesia with emphasis on Industrial Timber Plantations in the
Outer Islands, (http://www.fao.org).
[15] JIANG, Zehui and Zhang, S.Y (2003) Chinas Plantation Forests for Sustainable Wood
Supply and Development, (http://www.fao.org).
[16] Kuaycharoen, Pornpana. Commercial Tree Plantations in Thailand: Flawed Science,
Dubious Politics and Vested Interests, in Watershed, Vol. 9, No. 3, March-June 2004.
[17] Laemsak, Nikhom (2008). The Wood-Based Industries in Thailand, in Journal of
Forest Management, Faculty of Forestry. Kasetsart University. January-June. Vol. 2, No.
3.
[18] Oliver, Pye. 2005. Khor Jor Kor: Forest Politics in Thailand. Bangkok: White Lotus Co
Press.
[19] Thiep, Tran Xuan (2005) Eucalyptus Plantation in Vietnam: their History and
Development Process, Forest Inventory and Planning Institute, Ministry of Forestry
(http://www.fao.org/docrep).
[20] Thaiutsa, Bunvong et al., (2003). Complete Report of Site Potentials for Growing
Eucalyptus (Executive Summary). Forest Research Center, Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart
University.
[21] Ubukata, Fumikazu. 2009. Getting Villagers Involved in the System: the Politics,
Economics and Ecology of Production Relations in the Thai Pulp Industry. (Monograph
Paper). Kyoto Working Papers on Area Studies No. 40 (G-COE Series 38).
[22] Journal of Forest Management. 2008. Vol. 2, No.3, January-June, Faculty of Forestry,
Kasetsart University. Bangkok.
[23] Watershed. 2004. Permpongsacharoen (editor). Vol.9, No.3, March-June. Peoples Forum
on Ecology. Published by TERRA (Toward Ecological Recovery and Regional Alliance.
Bangkok. Thai Journal of Forestry. 2003. Vol. 22 (29-35).

- 28 -

DETERMINATION ON CFD MODELING FOR BUBBLE COLUMN
REACTOR TO IMPROVE BIODIESEL FUEL PRODUCTION

Dyah Wulandani
1, 2 *
, Tomoki Miura
3
, Armansyah H. Tambunan
1
,
Hiroshi Nabetani
2,3
and Shoji Hagiwara
2
1
Agricultural Engineering Department, Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia
2
Food Engineering Division, National Food Research Institute, NARO, Japan
3
Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Science, The University of Tokyo, Japan

*
Corresponding author: dwulandani@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
Superheated methanol vapor bubble method has been developed to produce biodiesel fuel
(fatty acids methyl esters; FAME) without using any catalysts at atmospheric pressure. This non-
catalytic trans-esterification has an advantage over other trans-esterification methods at cost for
production of biodiesel fuel. However, reaction rate is still lower than that of conventional alkaline
catalytic method. Contact surface between the methanol bubble and the oil acts as the limiting factor
for enhancing the reaction rate. Therefore, this study will be devoted to the analysis of the bubble size
distribution during the process in the reactor using the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) method.
The aim of this report was to obtain optimum modeling of CFD to describe the bubble
distribution in superheated methanol vapor bubble column reactor. Two dimensional (2D) and three
dimensional (3D) models were used in this CFD simulation. Two types of wall function model were
also accounted to characterize the high velocity and coalescence or breakup of bubble in the liquid.
The relationship of intake gas velocity/coalescence and gas holdup/contact surface area was studied
not only by computationally, but also by experimentally.
As the results, the gas holdup and contact surface area in bubble column reactor became
larger significantly when intake gas velocity was increased. 3D-turbulent and non-equilibrium wall
function model showed best results in CFD simulation. This CFD modeling will be useful to improve
the design the bubble column reactor.

Keywords: biodiesel fuel, bubble column reactor, computational fluid dynamics (CFD), modeling.

INTRODUCTION
Biodiesel fuel is a biodegradable of diesel oil that is produced through trans-esterification
processing from vegetable oil, such as soybean oil, rape-seed oil, palm oil, sunflower seed oil, palm oil,
jatropha oil, etc. Trans-esterification is the reaction between oil and methanol to obtain biodiesel
(Fatty acid methyl ester (FAME)) and glycerol. Glycerol is the by-product of biodiesel fuel
production which has several benefits to be applied in chemical and cosmetic industries.
The biodiesel fuel is usually produced using alkaline catalytic trans-esterification method.
Vegetable oil (triglyceride) and methanol react to producing FAME at low temperature (60-70 C)
under atmosphere pressure in this alkaline catalyst method. However production of biodiesel fuel
(fatty acid methyl ester; FAME) by use of conventional alkaline catalyst method requires
deacidification process prior to the reaction and refining process to remove the catalyst after the
reaction. These processes increase total cost required for production of biodiesel fuel.
In order to solve the problem, we had developed one of non-catalytic biodiesel fuel
processing technology which is called superheated methanol vapor bubble column method (Figure 1).
In a process with this method, superheated methanol vapor is continuously bubbled into the oil in the
reactor vessel and reacted with triglycerides to form FAME and glycerol. The FAME and glycerol
formed flows out of the reactor together with un-reacted methanol vapor and is collected using a
condenser. Reaction using this method can be conducted at atmospheric pressure. This method does
not require deacidification process prior to the reaction because not only triglyceride but also free fatty
acid can be converted into FAME. And this method does not require refining process after the
reaction because no catalyst is used. Therefore, both initial and running costs are thought to be
- 29 -

Vegetable
Oil
Methanol dehydration
Column
Reactor
(250 350
0
C)
Condenser
Gas Phase
Sample
Liquid Phase
Sample
Pump
Pump
Heater
reduced by applying the method. However, the reaction rate of biodiesel production still lower than
that of catalyst method.
The previous studies [1] declared that bubble size distribution of superheated methanol vapor
was very importance parameter to enlarge the surface contact area between methanol and oil,
hereinafter to enhance the reaction rate of biodiesel production. Bubble size distribution was a
hydrodynamics phenomenon, where two phases of gas and liquid were being in the bubble column
reactor. The use of CFD method should be able to explain the bubble behavior, by providing a
complete description of the local hydrodynamics if an adequate model is used [2]. Determination of
model in the CFD is important to obtain the best result as well as the method of CFD verification.
Producing of biodiesel by using superheated methanol vapor in the bubble column reactor take place
under atmosphere pressure and need high temperature (250350C), hence reactor was made of
stainless-steel and covered by insulation. In deal with verification of CFD modeling, it was not able to
show the bubble distribution. Therefore the transparent bubble column reactor was used to display the
bubble size distribution by utilizing of nitrogen gas and water as simplification.
The objectives of the research are to verify the CFD modeling and to determine the CFD
modeling appropriately for describing the bubble distribution behavior in the bubble column reactor by
implementing the comparison between the CFD modeling and result experiment.

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of superheated methanol vapor bubble column method.

CFD MODELING (ASSUMPTION AND BOUNDARY CONDITION)
The model of bubble column reactor was implemented into CFD code ANSYS FLUENT
(version 6.3.26 and version 12.1.21) and the geometry or mesh of reactor modeling was constructed
using GAMBIT 2.4.6. The multi-phases model (two phases) was used in the bubble column CFD
modeling. 2D and 3D simulations have been carried out for the bubble column configuration. Volume
of Fluid (VOF) model was used to represent the interaction of two phases (gas and liquid). No mass
and no heat transfer are considered. Both of laminar and turbulent models (standard k- approach)
were used in the simulations. Due to the narrow reactor where gas flows close to the wall of reactor,
two models of wall function were used in the CFD modeling; standard wall function and non-
equilibrium wall function. In all simulations, unsteady numerical solution was obtained. Thermal
properties of nitrogen and water at ambient temperature and the variation of gas superficial velocities
used in the CFD modeling and are given in the Table 1 and Table 2, respectively.

- 30 -

Table 1. The thermal properties of material used in the CFD modeling.
No. Material Density (kg/m
3
) Viscosity (Pa.s) Surface tension (N/m)
1 Nitrogen (at 25 C)* 1.1749 1.7610
-05

2 Water (at 25 C)* 996.3 8.910
-04
7.210
-02

*Holman [3]

Table 2. The geometrical configuration used in the CFD modeling for nitrogen and water system.
No. Type of CFD modeling Diameter of holes
(mm) and number
of holes
Inlet velocity of
nitrogen gas (m/s)
Temperature
(C)
1 2 D 4.8 mm; 1 0.276 (laminar)

25
2 2D 4.8 mm; 1 0.921 (turbulent) 25
3 2D 4.8 mm; 1 1.842 (turbulent) 25
4 3D-Turbulent-linier wall function 4.8 mm; 1 0.276 (laminar) 25
5 3D- Turbulent-linier wall function 4.8 mm; 1 0.921 (turbulent) 25
9 3 D-Turbulent-Non-equilibrium
wall function
4.8 mm; 1 2.763 (turbulent) 25
10 3 D-Turbulent-Non-equilibrium
wall function
4.8 mm; 1 5.32 (turbulent) 25

The boundary condition included inlet and outlet applied the inlet velocity and pressure
velocity, respectively. Due to the open system simulation, the initial pressure in the gas space above
the liquid column was equal to the atmospheric pressure (101.325 kPa). The continuum boundary
condition consists of liquid at height of 124.3 mm (from the bottom of reactor) and vapor (at the upper
part of reactor). The value of backflow of liquid volume fraction was one which indicated that gas
phase only could pass through the outlet. The value of liquid volume fraction at the inlet boundary
condition was zero which indicated that gas phase only could entrance through the inlet. The
simulations were verified by real experiment by using the transparent model of the bench scale super
heated methanol bubble reactor.

EXPERIMENTAL SET UP
The transparent bubble column reactor model was made at same scale with bench scale super
heated methanol bubble reactor by acrylic. The diameter of reactor vessel was 55 mm and 220 mm
height with a gas inlet at the bottom. The reactor was filled with distilled water (H =124.3 mm, at 25
C). Nitrogen gas was flowed from central nozzle (diameter of 4.8 mm) at the bottom of reactor vessel.
The inlet velocity (flow rate) of nitrogen gas varies at 0.276 m/s (0.3 L/min), 0.921 m/s (1 L/min),
1.842 m/s (2 L/min), 2.763 m/s (3 L/min) and 5.32 m/s (5.770 L/min) allowing the laminar and
turbulent regimes to be investigated. The bubble size distributions were obtained using digital camera.

- 31 -

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CFD Verification
Two dimensional (2D) simulations had been conducted to elaborate the significance of 3D work. The
gas bubble behavior in the reactor vessel was obtained by digital camera with high-speed Sutter
(Figure 2, 3).
Figure 2 shows the laminar 2D and 3D CFD modeling compare by experiment results at gas
inlet velocity of 0.276 m/s. The 2D computation gave the quite different of bubble distribution in
comparison with 3D computation and result experiment. Moreover, 2D computational could not to
carry out at velocity more than 1.842 m/s, due to the liquid spill from the reactor for superficial gas
velocity over than 1.842 m/s. This phenomenon indicated that no reasonable to used 2D computation
for the model of bubble column reactor.

2D-simulation 3D-simulation Experiment

Figure 2. The simulation modeling of bubble distribution in comparison with the experiment (gas inlet
velocity of 0.276 m/s)

3D CFD modeling gave the same trends of bubble distribution as the experiment result
especially for low intake gas flow. For high intake gas flow, the simulation was the same as the
experiment result for bubble size and the pattern of bubble distribution, but not for shape of bubble.
The simulation revealed the oval bubble shape, whereas the experiment generated the round bubble
shape.
The difference was expected due to the influence of turbulence model still not enough to
revealed the real condition. Because of the high Reynolds number for the airflow gas(> 1.842 m/s),
where the big bubble rise and gave a tendency to collision to result coalescence or break-up, it will be
better to use non-equilibrium function model which strong recommended to the impingement where
the mean flow and turbulence are subjected to severe pressure gradients and change rapidly. Using the
non-equilibrium wall function3D model to account the collision to result coalescence or break up for
high Reynolds number in the simulation gave better results than standard wall function model, that
expressed by the shape of round bubble obtained in Figure 3(b).

- 32 -

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3. Simulation result of bubble distribution of 3D-turbulent standard wall function model (a)
and 3D-turbulent non equilibrium wall function model (b) in comparison with the
experiment (c) for gas inlet velocity of 5.32 m/s.

The effect of gas velocity inlet to gas holdup and surface contact area
Gas holdup is the basic parameter indicating the hydro-dynamical characteristics of bubble
columns. It affects directly the geometric sizes of bubble columns, and the gas-liquid interfacial area
thus affects the mass-transfer rates of bubble columns. So it is one of the necessary and important
parameters for the design of bubble columns [4].
As shown in Figure 4 and 5, both of contact surface area and gas holdup increase with increasing
gas velocity. This result matches with that of the other researchers [5], [6], [7], [8]. This increase of
gas velocity leads to big bubbles formation as well as a number of little bubbles due to breakup of
bubbles in the middle and upper of column, and subsequently the surface contact area increases
(Figure 2 and 3).

Figure 4. Contact surface area between gas and liquid at several gas inlet velocities for CFD modeling
chosen.
- 33 -

Figure 5. Gas holdup at several gas inlet velocities for CFD modeling chosen.

The average values of contact surface area and gas holdup were represented in Table 3. That
average values were obtained after the first bubble reach the liquid surface and have coalescence and
break up. This phenomenon can be seen in the Figure 4 and 5, that surface contact area and gas holdup
gave constant values at the lowering of curve. The local gas hold-up was defined by measure the
height of liquid before and after the gas was injected into the reactor at the certain time [5]. The height
of liquid rising was used to compare the gas holdup between computation and experiment that was
shown in Figure 2 and 3 by lines. Approximately, CFD simulations liquid rising is the same height as
that of experimental result.
No significant differences of contact surface area and gas holdup between model B and model C
(Table 3) for gas inlet velocity of 2.763 m/s. However that difference became greater for gas inlet
velocity of 5.32 m/s. For high gas inlet velocity, it is suggested to use turbulent non equilibrium wall
function.

Table 3. Average values of contact surface area and gas holdup at several gas inlet velocities (3D CFD
result)
No Model of CFD

Gas inlet velocity (m/s) Contact surface area (m
2
) Gas holdup (%)
1 A 0.276 0.0006 0.008
2 B 0.921 0.0024 0.018
3 B 1.842 0.0028 0.021
4 B 2.763 0.0042 0.029
5 C 2.763 0.0037 0.028
6 B 5.32 0.0057 0.045
7 C 5.32 0.0071 0.048
Note: A = Laminar
B = Turbulent standard wall function
C = Turbulent non equilibrium wall function
Blue color indicated the chosen CFD modeling

- 34 -

CONCLUSIONS
Determination of the best CFD modeling to describe the bubble distribution in the reactor was
investigated. Nitrogen gas and water system were used in the transparent bubble column reactor
model at several inlet gas velocities. Based on the verification of CFD modeling which was carried
out by comparing this model and experimental result using digital camera, no reasonable to use 2D
computation to represent the real condition. 3D CFD modeling, turbulent flow and non-equilibrium
wall function showed the best similarity with experimental result. The effects of inlet gas velocities to
the gas holdup and contact surface area are accounted. The increasing of inlet gas velocities caused
increasing of the gas holdup and contact surface area significantly.
The best CFD modeling determined in present work will be used to simulate the reactor using
methanol vapor and triglyceride as liquid to obtain the best design of reactor vessel for producing the
highest reaction rate of biodiesel production.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We would like to thank UNU-Kirin Fellowship (2010-11) program for a grant that made it possible to
complete this study.

References
[1] Olmos, E., C. Gentric, Ch. Vial, G. Wild, and N. Midoux, 2001, Numerical simulation of
multiphase flow in bubble column reactors. Influence of bubble coalescence and break-up,
Chemical Engineering Science, (56) 63596365.
[2] Joelianingsih, Maeda H., Hagiwara S., Nabetani H., Sagara Y., Doerawidjaya T. H., Tambunan, K.
Abdullah A. H., 2008, Biodiesel fuels from palm oil via the non-catalytic transesterification in a
bubble column reactor at atmospheric pressure: A kinetic study, Renewable Energy, (33) 1629-
1636.
[3] Holman, J.P. 1997. Perpindahan panas (Heat transfer). Alih bahasa: E. Jasjfi. Penerbit Erlangga.
Jakarta.
[4] Renjun Z., J. Xinzhen, L. Baozhang, Z. Yong, Z. Laiqi. 1988. Studies on Gas Holdup in a Bubble
Column Operated at Elevated Temperatures. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. (27) 1910-1916
[5] Wang, S., Y. Arimatsu, K. Koumatsu, K. Furumoto, M. Yoshimoto, K. Fukunaga, and K. Nakao.
2003. Gas holdup, liquid circulating velocity and mass transfer properties in a mini-scale external
loop airlift bubble column. Chemical Engineering Science (58) 3353 3360.
[6] Behkish, A., Z. Mena, J. R. Inga, B. I. Morsi. 2002. Mass transfer characteristics in a large-scale
slurry bubble column reactor with organic liquid mixtures. Chemical Engineering Science (57)
33073324
[7] Koide, K., A. Takazawa, M. Komura and H. Matsunaga. 1984. Gas holdup and volumetric
liquid-phase mass transfer coefficient in solid-suspended bubble columns. Journal of Chemical
Engineering of Japan 17 (5) 459-465.
[8] Mouza, A.A., G.K. Dalakoglou, S.V. Paras . 2005. Effect of liquid properties on the erformance
of bubble column reactors with fine pore spargers. Chemical Engineering Science (60) 1465
1475

- 35 -

POTENTIAL OF GREEN LEAVES CINCAU (Premna oblongifolia, Merr)
FROM INDONESIA AS ANTI CANCER

Emma Rochima
1*
, Fransiska R. Zakaria
2
, Maggy T. Suhartono
2
, Nurjati C.Siregar
3

1
Graduate School of Food Science, Bogor Agricultural University
2
Department of Food Science and Technology, Bogor Agricultural University
3
Faculty of Medicine, Indonesia University
*Corresponding author: Emma.Rochima@Gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The aim of the review were to introduce the Green Leaves Cincau Premna oblongifolia Merr
from Indonesia which potential as anti cancer. The content of green leaves cincau fiber of 29.37%,
the alkaloids of 0.98% and 2.12% total phenols. This compound is thought to provide a
pharmacological effect. The alkaloids in the root bisbenzylisoquinoline have cytotoxic activity,
chemoprotective potential and act as an antioxidant because it can inhibit lipid peroxides in
nonenzimatik. The leaves extract of green jelly is as immunostimulant at low concentration stimulate
cell proliferation of lymphocytes in vitro. Also reported that leaves extracts of green jelly has a
cytotoxic effect on K-562 cancer cells and hela cervix cancer cell in vitro, and can inhibit proliferation
of K-562 cancer cells between 61-95% and hela cervix cancer in 31%.
Keywords: green, gel, leaves, Premna oblongifolia , functional, food
INTRODUCTION
Cancer is a disease cause of death in the United States. In 2001 the number of cancer death
of about 553,768 or 22.9% deaths caused by breast cancer for women in 2001 by 272,810 or by 15%
(USA Cancer Statistics, 2004). In Indonesia, there is a tendency increasing number of cancer patients
from year to year. In 1999 cancer 7,731 men (35,32%), while the women for 14,116 people, (64,49%)
[1].
Breast cancer ranked second only to cervical cancer. Most cancer patients in Indonesia have
gone to the doctor when the illness was in advanced stages. Difficult to handle, and require complex
actions, time-consuming and expensive, while the results are disappointing the treating physicians,
patients, and families. In fact, cancer is not a disease that can not be cured. Most cancers can be
overcome if the steps appropriate treatment and performed at an early stage [2]
Results for last 20 years concluded that 60-90% of cancers are related to the environment, so
in theory this disease can be prevented [3]. Environment here means, that all people who interact with
the food consumed, drinking, smoking and sipping, radiation, drugs and other aspects of sexual
behavior. Epidemiological and laboratory studies found that dietary fat and less fiber in the diet has a
role to 35-50% incidence of digestive tract cancers, breast, endometrial and ovarian. Materials drunk,
inhaled (e.g. alcohol, tobacco, asbestos dust) to contribute to 22-30% for the incidence of cancer in the
lung, and esophagus orofaring. Besides cancer is also caused by genetic factors, and psychogenic [4].
Many attempts were made to prevent and treat cancer. Treatments such as chemotherapy,
surgery and radiation is not the preferred choice of patients for expensive cost and side effects lower
body immunity, hair loss, skin and teeth become damaged [5] [6]. As an alternative for the prevention
and treatment of cancer is eating healthy food from natural resources. Many researchers who have
successfully revealed the efficacy of the bioactive components of plants such as green tea, fruit
mengkudu, turmeric, ginger, leaves, leaf parasites.
For example, carotenoids are antioxidants that anticarsinogenik [7] [8] while the compounds
genistein contained in soybean are cytotoxic, because it can inhibit breast cancer cell proliferation in
vitro [9]. Alkaloids, polyphenols, curcumin, chlorophyll, warfarin, flavon and act as an polyphenols
antioxidants and may reduce the incidence of cancer [10]; [11]; but the number and variety is still
limited. One study that was developed at the Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Bogor
- 36 -

Agricultural University was the use of green leaves cincau Cyclea barbata L. Miers and Premna
oblongifolia Merr. The present review details the recent evidence supporting green leaves cincau
Premna oblingifolia Merr in cancer. Furthermore, future research directions are discussed that may
enhance our understanding of the role and regulation of this plant, which could ultimately lead to the
innovative design and development of new anticancer functional food.

Green Leaves Cincau (Premna oblongifolia, Merr)
Cincau means of agar gel obtained from soaking the leaves of certain plants in water. Gels
formed by the leaves of plants contain carbohydrates that can bind water molecules. The word 'grass
jelly' comes from the Hokkien dialect sienchau commonly pronounced among Chinese in Southeast
Asia [12]. Cincau own native language is actually the name of the plant (Messona spp.) are the subject
of making this gel.
Plants cincau has divided into two types, namely green leaves cincau and black leaves cincau.
They are differentiated by color, flavor, appearance, materials and making process. Two types of green
leaves cincau comes from Cyclea barbata L. Miers and Premna oblongifolia Merr. [12]. Green leaves
cincau made without the heating process. Green leaves cincau Cyclea barbata L. Miers. has easily
forming gel, which is just crushed with cold water. Meanwhile, green leaves cincau Premna
oblongifolia Merr. which requires minerals for making gel. Black cincau is made from M. palustris
leaves with the heating process and adding other ingredients. Both is delicious, chewy and almost like
jelly.

Figure 1 Green leaves cincau Premna oblongifolia Merr. (personal collection)
Compotition of green leaves cincau is carbohydrates, polyphenols, saponins, flavonoids, fat,
and contains elements of calcium, phosphorus, vitamin B [13] and vitamin A. It contain chlorophyll
and also alkaloids. Alkaloids are compounds that are used as medicinal ingredients and anticancer [14],
[15]. Composition of green leaves cincau are presented in Table 1.

Tabel 1 Nutrition Value of Green Leaves Cincau Premna oblongifolia Merr.
Component
Concentration (% b/b)
a b c
Protein 2,39 5,46 3,81
Hydrolised Total Carbohydrate 8,41-8,93 11,94 10,48
Water 66,33-74,54 81,00 82,62
Crude Fiber 6,23-6,70 4,33 4,96
Fat 0,45-0,51 0,94 1,11
Source:
a
Sunanto (1995),
b
Untoro (1985),
c
Minawati (1985) in [14]

Cincau leaves also contain high food fiber. Fiber is a component of plants, especially in the
cell wall, which can not be digested by human digestive enzymes The presence of dietary fiber
important for the health of our bodies, although the fiber is not including essential nutrients. Fiber
- 37 -

foods include starches, polysaccharides, oligosaccharides and lignin. Dietary fiber consists of plant
cell walls are mainly contains three kinds of polysaccharides are cellulose, pectin and hemicellulose.
Fiber also contains substances that are not carbohydrates, namely. Lack of fiber in the daily menu are
positively correlated with incidence of diseases such as obesity (obesity), constipation, atherosclerosis
(hardening of the fat accumulation and blood vessels), coronary heart disease, diabetes mellitus,
gallstones, hypertension (high blood pressure), hemorrhoid, hernia, appendix and colon cancer [16].

Anticancer from Natural Plant
Various are known anticancer compounds derived from plants now. From Catharanthus
roseus, was isolated two indole alkaloid vinblastine and vincristine that are used to treat a variety of
lymphoma, leukemia, and various cancer such as cell lung cancer, cervical cancer, and breast cancer.
Although both compounds were similar molecular structure but have different toxic properties [17].
Several other anticancer compounds derived from plants is elliptisin and 9-methoxy elliptisin
of intercalation Ochrosia elliptica between DNA base pairs. Alkaloids from the Chinese plant,
Camptotheca acuminata is kamptotesin and its derivatives have a broad-spectrum activity. From
Cephalotaxus harringtonia, obtained two compounds, namely harringtonin and homoharringtonin that
can treat leukemia and solid tumors [18].
Bark of Taxus brevifolia was obtained diterpen Taxol (paclitaxel) compounds, which has
20 carbon tri or tetracyclic toxic [19]. Taxol has a mechanism of increased mitotic index in P 388
and inhibits cell growth of HeLa cells and mouse fibroblast cells in G2 and M phases of the cell cycle.
These compounds can cause depolymerization of microtubules skeleton solid tumors ovarian and
breast cancer [20]
Daunomycin (daunorubicin) was isolated from Streptomyces peucetius in 1962 by Aurelio
On Marco. Atrasiklin and adriamycin is a prototype family of antitumor antibiotics. Therefore
cardiotoxic effects and other side effects, this drug is used is limited to treating solid cancer and
leukemia. Antineoplastic activity of these drugs occurs due to a strong bond with the target cell's DNA.
Doxorubicin and antrasiklin epirubisin are examples used to treat breast cancer and is commonly used
in combination with other chemotherapy to reduce the risk of side effects [21].
Some natural anticancer compounds currently used as an effective anticancer include
vinblastine, vincristine, etoposida, teniposida and paclitaxel. (Table 2).

Mechanisms of cancer
The formation of cancer cells through three stages: initiation, promotion, and progression, as
shown in Figure 2 below. In the initiation phase, cells experiencing continuous stimulation or exposed
to an initiator material. Initiation stage is a rapid process, and still reversible. Cells exposed to
carcinogenic substances (initiators) to the initiated cells. These cells have mutations, resulting in
changes in the DNA nucleotide sequence of the proto-onkogene so that there are changes in gene
expression / abnormal proteins, although the network still look normal with a population of euploid
cells [22]. If the basic error of the formation of genes / DNA occurs in a strain, then the system of
DNA repair can still take place by way of reading, cut, remove, and replace with new. But if the DNA
repair system is not running there will be a mutation of DNA in daughter cells that persist, and if
continued and uncontrolled will cause neoplasms.

- 38 -

Table 2. Natural Anticancer Compound From Plant
Source: [23]

The next stage is the stage of promotion. At this stage the same exposure to carcinogens or
other substances cause changes in cell chromosomes and the DNA was initiated, resulting in changes
in protein expression due to DNA sequence changes in cells undergoing transformation. The end result
is exposure of the proto-oncogene promoter into an oncogene. Causing oncogene oncoprotein
expression. Oncoprotein triggers cell growth becomes abnormal, do not follow the rules of normal
growth, divide and grow in autonomy, uncoordinated and uncontrolled.

No. Sources Bioactive compound
and chemical structure
Mechanism of action
1. Catharanthus roseus Vincristine and vinblastine (alkaloids)
N
N
OH
OOOH
3
C
OH
3
C
N
N
CHO
HO CH
3
OOO
CH
3
OOO
H

N
N
OH
OOOH
3
C
OH
3
C
N
N
CHO
HO CH
3
OOO
CH
3
OOO
H

Antimitosis,microtubule
inhibition

2. Morinda citrifolia Damnakantal (antrakuinon)
OH
H
O O O
O

Inhibitor tirosin kinase

3. Leucaena sp. Mimosin (amino acid non protein)

N
O
H
CH
2
H
C H
3
N COO
-

Antimitosis, inhibition of
cycle cell at G1 phase

4. Taxus brevifolia Taksol (diterpenoid)
NH O
O
OH
O
O
O
O
OH
O
OH
O
H
O
O
O

Prevention of
depolymerization of
microtubule skeleton

- 39 -

Figure 2. The process of transforming normal cells into cancer cells [24]

Stage of promotion is a process that lasts a long time, is irreversible due to exposure to the
promoter material is continuously or repeatedly. Purchaser is the trigger changes in expression of
genetic information. This change is characterized by increased DNA synthesis and replication. Cells
that initiated or transformed cells into cells of carcinoma in situ. At this stage of progression of the
cancer cell phenotype changes and the clinical examination of the tumor mass was palpable in the
form of a lump. At this stage, malignant neoplasm cell able to conduct infiltration, spread evenly
among the cells surrounding tissues and can spread throughout the body (metastasis). Stages of
progression may be a change of form of benign tumor (benign) to malignant tumors (malignant)
followed by rapid cell growth that can kill the host, invasive, penetrate healthy tissues (metastasis) and
increase genetic instability.

Green Leaves Cincau (Premna oblongifolia, Merr) as Functional Food
Functional food is a term for food that can prevent and treat disease. In addition to the natural
nutritional value, functional foods also contain the proper balance of composition that can help us in
improving the function and effectiveness of various aspects of our lives including our direct help
prevent and cure diseases. [25]
Cincau was usually used as medicine by Indonesia people for a lowering heat loss, fever,
abdominal pain (stomach nausea), diarrhea, mouth sores, dysentery, cough, digestive disorders and the
prevention of high blood pressure. Substances called alkaloids bisbenzilisoquinoline and S, S-tetandrin
contained in the leaves of cincau was a bioactive compounds in preventing and treating heart blood
vessel disease (cardiovascular), high blood pressure, and gastric diseases. Consumption of cincau jelly
for patients with heart disease are highly recommended. Green leaves cincau Premna oblongifolia
Merr. can be used to treat various diseases, ie: gastric inflammation and high blood pressure. Efficacy
of green leaves cincau Premna oblongifolia Merr. which have been studied include allergy in mice,
anticancer, increasing the number of lymphocytes (reducing the number of free radicals,increase the
antioxidant capacity of lymphocytes and is not toxic to the body [16].
Cincau contains alkaloids bisbenzilisoquinoline and S, S-tetandrin. The alkaloid is a natural
product derived plants that have anticancer or antitumor properties. Alkaloids are widespread in plants.
Alkaloids are a large group of plant secondary metabolites composed of various types of different
chemical compounds with its diversivicity as a drug. In principle, the alkaloid has a ring structure with
nitrogen-containing substance. Many alkaloids which have psychotropic properties, which are
soothing and potential as a narcotic. Several other alkaloids are also very toxic. Most of the alkaloids
are cytotoxic in inhibiting the growth of several types of cancer and leukemia. Alkaloids can also be
antiviral, but alkaloid is more rarely behave as immunomodulatory [14].
Several studies in vitro on the green leaves cincau in Indonesia have been conducted since
2000 by researchers from Bogor Agricultural University. Effect of green leaves cincau on the
production of free radicals of mice peritoneal macrophages [26], whereas the effect on cancer cell
- 40 -

proliferation and cell flow of blood lymphocytes edge of humans have been studied respectively [27]
by Ananta E. et al, 2000 and [28]U.S. Pandoyo., et al, 2000.
In 2003 research of green cincau invivo to C3H mice to investigate antioxidant capacity of
lymphocytes [29 and antioxidant enzyme activity and tumor growth [30and [31]. In addition, the study
bioavailibilitas leaf green grass jelly on rat liver and plasma studied [32]. Effect on cytochrome P-420
content and activity in rat liver GSPx has investigated [33] too and its influence on levels of B-
carotene in rat liver investigated by [34].
Research on the anticancer activity of green leaves cincau Premna oblongifolia Merr. have
been carried out on C3H mice. Research carried out by feeding mice with a liquid extract of green
grass jelly Premna oblongifolia Merr. dose of 7.25 g / l and 5.3 g / l per day for four weeks.
Furthermore, cancer cells were injected. Observations were carried out by 57 weeks. The results
showed that tumor cells which die in C3H mice as much as 37.86%. The extract of green leaves cincau
in mice, shown to kill tumor cells very well. Potential green grass jelly was tested in a way described
in the four types of cancer cells, the cells of blood cancer (leukemia), cervical cancer, lung cancer and
breast cancer. Leaf extract of green grass jelly can kill blood cancer cells with both around 55-90%,
whereas other cancer cells around 60%. This shows that green grass jelly containing bioactive
components of cancer cell killer. Green grass jelly is also capable of removing harmful substances
trigger cancer [35].

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors thank Prof. Dr. Fransiska R. Zakaria for supervising and Competitive Grant of Directorate
General Higher Education Ministry Education Indonesia for funding.

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- 43 -

DRUG THERAPY FOR LEPROSY DISEASE THROUGH IMPROVED
ANTIOXIDANT RICH LOCAL FOOD CONSUMPTION FROM THE
FERMENTATION PROCESS SKIPJACK SMOKE TRADITIONAL TYPICAL
NORTH SULAWESI
Aldian Farabi
1*
, Pratiwi Eka Puspita
1
, and Riska Ayu Purnamasari
2

1
Undergraduate School of Agroindustrial Technology, Bogor Agricultural University
2
Undergraduate School of Biochemistry, Bogor Agricultural University
*Corresponding author: al_farabi23@ymail.com
ABSTRACT
Indonesia ranks third in the world leprosy patients with the highest number of distribution
contained in Manado, North Sulawesi. Today, the treatment of leprosy in Indonesia that has been
done is adjusted with the WHO recommendation (1995). One of them, through Multy Drug Therapy
(MDT). However, prevention is done is the most effective. Prevention can be done through the
optimization of smoked tuna products as potential food traditional to provide a new alternative in
reducing the potential spread of leprosy through early prevention.
Keyword: leprosy, North Sulawesi, prevention, smoked tuna, and traditional food.
INTODUCTION
Indonesia ranks third in the world leprosy patients with a total 17,723 cases in 2007, after
India (137,685 cases) and Brazil (39,125 cases). Meanwhile, the highest number of distribution
contained in Manado, North Sulawesi. Based on the data held Manado Health Department (2010),
found at least 93 cases of leprosy disease to spread in nine districts. Leprosy is types of chronic
infectious diseases caused by Mycobacterium leprae. In early infection, the bacteria attacks the
peripheral nerves, and then attack the skin, oral mucosa, upper respiratory tract, reticuloendothelial
system, eyes, muscles, bones and testes, except the central nervous system. Therefore, if not handled
then leprosy risk of causing damage to the skin, nerves, limbs, and eyes.
Until now, has made efforts to tackle leprosy. Its main purpose is to break the transmission
chain to reduce the incidence of disease, treat, and cure people, and prevent disability. Among them is
the eradication and treatment methods, rehabilitation methods of medical rehabilitation, social
rehabilitation, rehabilitation works and correctional methods, which is the ultimate goal of
rehabilitation. One of them, through the Multi Drug Therapy (MDT) which recommended by WHO to
involving major medical drug combination consisting of rifampicin, clofazimine (Lamprene) and
DDS (Dapsone / 4.4-diamino-diphenyl-sulfone), which has been implemented since 1981.How is
expected to overcome the increasing resistance Dapsone, reducing patient noncompliance, reduce
dropout rates of drugs, streamline the time of treatment and persistence of germs of leprosy
elimination in the network.
The most effective way in reducing the incidence of leprosy transmission in the community.
Prevention can be done by increasing the body's immune defense, so there are now infected by the
bacterium leprae Mocrobakterillm. In the case of leprosy, the immune system of patients weakened by
the process of cell phagocytosis by granulocytes. Thus, the increase of free radicals in the body of the
patient who is known as Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS). The number of excess ROS in the body
causing an antioxidant that is available is not able to neutralize the body so that it can lead to damage
body tissue. Therefore, prevention of leprosy can be done by granting the intake of antioxidants for
the community to sustain the body's immune system.
Smoked tuna that is typical of North Sulawesi is one of the local food that can be used as an
alternative source of antioxidants. Society of North Sulawesi generally utilize processing technology
with fumigation for preserving tuna. The fish hung on the kitchen ceiling, so that the furnace smoke
exposure. As a result, the protein contained in the tuna to warm and form a hard structure, thus known
as the wooden fish. The surface of the wooden fish when stored for a long time will be overgrown by
- 44 -

fungi that function describes a compound protein hydrolysates. Yamada et al. said that the phenol
which is the protein hydrolysates produced by mold fermentation in smoked fish processing have a
high antioxidant activity.
Wooden fish known as skipjack (Katsuwonus Pelamis) in North Sulawesi is one of the natural
resource potential of fisheries in Indonesia. Data in Department of Marine and Fisheries of North
Sulawesi (2007) revealed that the potential of economically important fish resources, such as tuna,
skipjack and tuna in the waters around North Sulawesi each year to reach 459,800 tonnes with capture
fisheries are about 1.8 million tons. Geographical conditions North of Sulawesi, located in the eastern
Indonesian region considered to be very strategic because it deals directly with the western Pacific
Ocean and Philippine waters. Characteristics of fast-moving tuna fish and migrate far led to the
possibility of spreading mostly found in the waters of eastern Indonesia, western Pacific Ocean, and
waters of the Philippines. Therefore, necessary to optimize the smoked tuna products as food
traditional typical potential to provide a new alternative in reducing the potential spread of leprosy
through early prefentive. Thus, the role of local potential contained in the area of North Sulawesi can
help overcome the problems of leprosy which still represents the highest amount of spread in
Indonesia.

METHODOLOGY
Smoked
Smoking of fish is the processing or preserving fish by using the combined treatment of
drying and the addition of a natural chemical compounds from incomplete combustion. Smoke from
burning is attached to the fish and dissolved in the water layer contained in the fish body surface, thus
forming a distinctive aroma and flavor with a brownish red color
[1]
. The processing of smoked fish
can be seen in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Flow chart of processing of smoked fish.

Fish that are found in the form of tuna / skipjack fufu weeded and cleaned. This is meant to
remove dirt unwanted early during the process of making smoked fish. Fish that have been cleaned
and then soaked in salt iter reconstituted with water for 15-20 minutes. The treatment is intended to
preserve fish. Fish are then leaked annoys well-aerated for 15 minutes until surface is dry. Laying fish
by hanging in one bond of each fish and prepared in fumigation cup board. Fumigation can be done at
temperatures 70-80
o
C for 2-3 hours or at 20-30
o
C temperature for 4 hours. Fish that have been
smoked and then can be removed from the cabinet so that known as smoked fish.
Closed from cabinets
fumigation
Smoked Fish
Smoked with heat 70-
80
o
C (2-3 hours)
Smoked with heat 20-
30
o
C (4 hours)
Soaked (15-20 minutes)
Salt + liter of waters
Drained and aerated (+ 15 minutes)
until the surface is dry
Tie one by one
Hung and arranged in
cabinets fumigation

Fish
Weeded
Washing
- 45 -

Mushrooming Process
Mushrooming process of smoke in tuna involving species of Aspergillus fungi that function
describes the content of protein in fish wood into short-chain compounds. Aspergillus is a protease
enzyme-producing microbes that assist the hydrolysis of proteins enzymatically on the wooden fish
[2]
.
Some of the fungi Aspergillus have different abilities to hydrolyze proteins smoked tuna. In Figure 2
demonstrated that A. ruber best in antioxidant compounds than A. repens.
Mushrooming process aims to describe the protein in the wooden fish is very well done on the
processing of smoked products, particularly for raw materials fufu skipjack (Katsuwonus palemis).
During the curing process of an increase in protein content than fresh fish or fish processing
pemindangan, salting, and drying
[3]
. Increase in value of protein content is very well utilized in the
process of hydrolysis of proteins to produce antioxidant compounds.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Leprosy (leprosy), including the type of chronic infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium
leprae. In early infection, the bacteria attacks the peripheral nerves, and can then attack the skin, oral
mucosa, upper respiratory tract, reticuloendothelial system, eyes, muscles, bones and testes, except
the central nervous system. Therefore, if not handled then leprosy risk of causing damage to the skin,
nerves, limbs, and eyes.
Leprosy can be classified into two, namely pausibasilar leprosy (PB) or dry leprosy and
leprosy multibasilar (MB) or wet leprosy. In pausibasilar leprosy (PB), the signs include white spots
like the numb skin fungus, dry patches of surface, rough, and not sweating, sera boundary (edge)
patches clearly visible and there is often little rash. Leprosy dry type is not / was not contagious, but if
not treated immediately will cause defects. Meanwhile, multibasilar leprosy (MB) can be known with
some signs are white patches scattered reddish one on one or evenly throughout the body skin,
thickening and swelling occur in patches, on the surface of the spots often have a sense when touched
with cotton, at the beginning signs of wet leprosy type often found on the ear lobe and face. Leprosy
wet type can be transmitted through direct contact and long.
Leprosy is not immediately addressed can lead to physical disability. Type of disability in
leprosy can be classified into primary and secondary disabilities. Group on the primary defect is a
defect group directly caused by disease activity, especially damage caused by tissue response against
leprosy germs. While the group of secondary defects caused by primary defects, mainly caused by
nerve damage (sensory, motor, autonomic). Motor paralysis caused contractures that can cause
interference mengenggam or walking, also facilitate the occurrence of injuries. Autonomic nerve
paralysis causes dry skin and reduced elasticity. As a result the skin easily cracked and can occur
secondary infection.
According to Zulkifli (2003), Transmission of leprosy today is made possible through contact
with nasal mucous membrane or skin of the patient. However, there are only a few cases of people
who contracted leprosy in the skin contacts. Transmission of leprosy mainly influenced by the amount
or malignancy Microbakterium leprae and patient endurance. In addition, other factors that play a role
in transmission include age, gender, race, environmental, and social consciousness.
The spread of leprosy tend to be dominated areas of Eastern Indonesia is far from the reach
and densely populated areas. A total of 14 provinces in Indonesia are prone diseases include leprosy,
West Papua, Papua, Central Java, East Java, West Java, Southeast Sulawesi, West Sulawesi, North
Sulawesi, Maluku, North Maluku, East Nusa Tenggara (NTT), Nusa Tenggara Barat ( NTB), Aceh
and Jakarta (Maga 2009). Rusmini in Maga (2009) mentions that the number of leprosy patients in
these areas reach at least 10,000 people.
The impact caused by the presence of leprosy not only in terms of medical, but also include
social aspects. In general, leprosy patients feel inferior, feel press inward, fearful of the disease and
the occurrence of disability, fear of family and community because of the attitude of acceptance of
those who are less fair. In the family and society, not infrequently with lepers ostracized.
All this has made efforts to tackle leprosy. Its main purpose is to break the transmission chain to
reduce the incidence of disease, treat, and cure people, and prevent disability. Among the eradication
and treatment methods, rehabilitation methods of medical rehabilitation, social rehabilitation,
rehabilitation works and correctional methods, which is the ultimate goal of rehabilitation.
- 46 -

Leprosy Prevention programs are also conducted melelui Multi Drug Therapy (MDT). MDT
Program was started in 1981, when WHO Chemotherapy Study Group officially issued
recommendations Leprosy treatment with combination regimens, hereinafter known as the WHO-
MDT regimen. It consists of a combination regimen of drugs dapsone, rifampicin, and clofazimine. In
addition to overcoming the increasing resistance to dapsone, the use of MDT was also intended to
reduce patient noncompliance and reduce dropout rates, drug (drop-out rate) is quite high at the time
of dapsone monotherapy. In addition, MDT is also expected to eliminate the persistence of germs
Leprosy in the network. But in the implementation of MDT-WHO program there are some problems
that arise, namely the existence of persistent, rifampin resistance and duration of treatment mainly for
leprosy MB (Sofianty 2009).
Siregar (2005) tells the dosage of medication for patients with PB leprosy and MB differ.
Treatment of MDT for PB leprosy conducted in 6 doses at least completed in 6-9 months. After that,
then the patient stated RFT (Released from Treatment) which means that does not need medication
anymore although clinically the lesions are still active. Meanwhile, the MDT treatment for MB
leprosy conducted in 24 doses, which were completed within a maximum period of 36 months. After
that, the patient stated RFT although clinically active lesions and examination of sputum smear-
positive bacteria.

Leprosy Prevention Disease Transmission through the Consumption of Typical Traditional
Skipjack Smoke as a Source of Antioxidants
Up to now still not known exactly how transmission of leprosy germs. Leprosy is classified as
a slow chronic disease transmission. Based on research results known to have 95% of humans have
immunity (resistance) against leprosy. Even so, theoretically known that a person infected with
leprosy germs because of ever making direct contact in the very long term with leprosy patients
through the upper respiratory tract. Medical research on transmission of leprosy can be caused by the
condition of a person's body. Individuals who have a level of immunity (immunity) high against
leprosy germs are likely resistant to leprosy germs. Individuals who have low immunity against
bacteria is likely to become infected leprosy leprosy germs but will heal by itself. Meanwhile,
individuals who do not have immunity against leprosy leprosy germs at risk when making direct
contacts with leprosy patients in the long term (Jewel 2009).
Immune defense system can respond to the formation of free radicals that are used to kill
potential compounds that cause infections. In the case of leprosy, an infection of M. leprae is inhibited
by specific white blood cells use free radicals derived from oxygen. The activity is the process of
phagocytosis by granulocytes cells in leprosy patients leading to increased free radicals, particularly
radical superoksid. However, the more free radicals formed would lose body condition due to lower
antioxidant status. Handling of leprosy is delayed causing the number of reactive oxygen species
(ROS) are produced in excess by patients with leprosy. Thus, the ability of antioxidants to neutralize
insufficient resulting in oxidative stress that can damage body tissues (Agustin et al. Years).
Prevention of transmission of leprosy can be done by the addition of antioxidant supplements
that can help boost immunity for infections resistant to M. leprae. Antioxidants have the ability to
provide electrons, binding and terminate free radical chain reaction that shut down (Rohdiana years).
Sources of antioxidants can be obtained through consumption of tuna or smoked fish, known as fufu
typical North Sulawesi (Prommool et al. 2008; Je et al. 2009). Smoked tuna typical North Sulawesi is
a local food that is processed further in a way pengapangan. Fermentation of proteins in smoked tuna
by mold that will produce antioxidant compounds. In Figure 1 shown that the antioxidant compounds
in smoked tuna pengapangan more positively correlated with length of fermentation as measured
using the POV (peroxide value) and TBARS (tribarbituric acid reactive substances).

- 47 -

Figure 2 Activity of antioxidants on the production of smoked tuna pengapangan
(Kaminishi et al. 1999)

The emergence of molds on smoked tuna product is a fermentation process that helps
the formation of protein hydrolysates. Fish protein hydrolysates are produced from the
dissociation products of fish proteins into short-chain compounds due to the hydrolysis
process by both enzymes, acids and alkalis. The perfect hydrolyzate will produce 18-20
different amino acids. The process of making fish protein hydrolysates in the most efficient
because the enzyme is enzymatically produced peptide high and less complex and easily
broken down (Je et al. 2009; Kaminishi et al. 1999). In addition, hydrolysis using enzymes to
produce hydrolysates which spared from change and the destruction of the hydrolytic
products due to the process with acid or alkaline hydrolysis can destroy some amino acids
and also generate toxic compounds such as lysino-alanine (Lahl and Braun 1994).
The process of protein hydrolysates on pengapangan process will produce phenolic
compounds, known as a source of antioxidants (Yamada et al. Years). Table 1 shows the
amount of phenol produced from the process pengapangan smoked fish (Karebushi) higher
than the smoked fish without pengapangan (Arabushi).

Table 1 Comparison of Content of Phenol on Skipjack Pengapangan Smoke
(Karebushi) and Skipjack Smoke Without Pengapangan (Arebushi)

Chromatography Gases Area Activity
RAS
Arabushi-
dashi
Karebushi
-dashi
Arabushi-
dashi
Karebushi
-dashi
Fenol, 2-metoksi 85.7% 3526657 - 3022345 0
Fenol, 2-metoksi-4-metil 85.50% 1972338 1578555 1686349 1349663
Fenol, 2-metoksi 18.7% 2250234 1233339 420793.8 2306344
Fenol, 4-etil-2-metoksi 83.40% 10223450 377827 8526375 315107.7
Fenol, 4-metil 15.3% 4865844 1452018 744474.1 222158.8
Fenol, 2,6-dimetoksi 78.3% 31917967 8685197 24991768 6800509
Aktivitas Rata-rata 39392087 8918075
Rasio Relatif 4.4 1

Smoked tuna Pengapangan involving Aspergillus species of fungi that function
describes the content of protein in fish wood into short-chain compounds. Aspergillus is a
protease enzyme-producing microbes that assist the hydrolysis of proteins enzymatically on
the wooden fish (Mizuno 2004). Some of the fungi Aspergillus have different abilities to
menghidrolisat tuna protein spaces. In Figure 2 demonstrated that A. ruber best in antioxidant
compounds than A. repens. Meanwhile, the optimum process conditions by Aspergillus
pengapangan on smoke tuna are shown in Table 2.

- 48 -

Figure 2 Comparison of the antioxidant activity of A. repens and A. ruber (Kaminishi et al. 1999).

Table 2 Comparison of Protease Enzyme Activity In Skipjack Species

Tuna Species
Opti
mum
pH
Protease Lipase
Activity
(Unit ml
-1
)
Spesific
Activity
(Unit mg
-1
)

Activity (Unit
ml
-1
)
Spesific
Activity (Unit
ml
-1
)
Yellowfin (Thunnus
albecares)
10 72.170.0
5
3.0890.03 1.2580.011 0.05380.0007
Skipjak (Katsuwonus pelamis) 9 48.530.0
8
2.3040.05 0.5270.008 0.02210.0004
Tonggol (Thunnus tonggol) 10 60.350.0
6
2.3990.02 0.8550.008 0.07380.0003

Exploring New Innovation and Value Added Skipjack Typical Traditional Smoke For
Functional Food and Drug Community
Tuna (Katsuwonus palemis) are the leading commodities of North Sulawesi (DKP 2008). The
protein content varies according to time of arrest (Table 3) and the type of meat (Table 4). This is in
accordance with the statement Bykov (1986) that the chemical composition of fish is influenced by
age, sex, season, and place of arrest, type of meat, and fish body parts.
Curing tuna is one of the fish processing techniques of the overall total of 49.9% utilization
of traditional fish (DKP 2008) that preserved a culture area in North Sulawesi. Fufu tuna product that
has been smoked over wood with fish known as a tough meat structure. Therefore, the wooden fish
meat should be shredded before it is used as food. The presence of hardening wooden fish meat is due
to the denaturation of proteins (Motohiro 1989).
Generally, the people of North Sulawesi raw tuna hang want preserved in the ceiling above
the kitchen. Just below the hook the fish, there is a stove to cook so that the smoke generated from
these activities serve to mengasapkan tuna. Continuous fumigation caused the fish to be hard due to
the structure of protein denaturation (Adawwyah 2007) and humid, so overgrown with fungi. Fish
curing process will produce flavorful product that is affected by volatile compounds (Varlet et al.
2007) as shown in Table 6. Meanwhile, the combination of curing technology and pengapangan on
penawetan tuna in North Sumatra to produce products that taste better (Giyatmi et al. 2000). In Figure
3, 4, and 5 are shown in the graph increase revenue aspects of sensory panellists on visual appearance,
aroma, and glutamic acid content of wooden fish.

Table 3 The chemical composition of tuna based on the place and time of arrest
Fishing Compotition
Place Month Water Protein Fat Ash
Hindias Samudra January 71.1 25.9 0.6 1.4
South Atlantic November 71.8 26.0 1.0 1.2
Middle Atlantik November 71.7 26.8 0.01 1.4
Pacific February, April, Juni 71.4 25.7 1.5 1.4
August, September, December 68.2 22.8 7.7 1.3
Resource: Bykov (1986)
- 49 -

Table 4 Nutrient composition based on the type of meat tuna
Types of
meat
Compotition(%)
Water Protein Fat Ash
White Daging 68.7 23.2 6.4 1.3
Red Daging 68.3 22.9 7.0 1.5
Resource: Bykov (1986)
Table 5 names of aldehydes Volatile Components In Smoke Fish
Aldehida
Smoke Fish
Trout Bream
Salm
on
Cod
Swordfish
Etanol X
(6)

Butanal X
(5)

3-Metilbutanal X
(2)

2-Metilbutanal X
(4)

2-Butenal X
(2)

2-Metil-2-butenal X
(5)

Pentanal X
(2,3,5)

2-Pentanal X
(5,7)

Furfural X
(2)
X
(1)

Benzaldehid X
(6)
X
(6)
X
(7)
X
(1)
X
(1)

4-Metilbenzaldehid X
(6)
X
(6)
X
(2,3,4)
X
(1)
X
(1)

Heksanal X
(6)
X
(6)
X
(5)

4-Hidroksi-2-
heksanal
X
(2,7)

2-Heptanal X
(6)
X
(6)

Oktanal X
(2)

Nonanal X
(6)
X
(6)
X
(2,7)

Dekanal X
(6)
X
(6)
X
(2,4)

2,4-Heksadienal X
(7)
X
(1)
X
(1)

2,4-Heptadienal X
(7)

2,4-Heksadienal X
(6)

2-Dekanal X
(6)
X
(2,4,7)
X
(1)
X
(1)

Resource: Varlet et al. (2007)

Figure 3 Increased acceptance of panelists to the visual appearance of the wood from the fermented
fish (Giyatmi et al. 2000)
- 50 -

Figure 4 Increasing acceptance of panelists against timber of fermented fish aroma (Giyatmi
et al. 2000)

Figure 5 Increased levels of glutamate acid in the fermented fish timber (Giyatmi et al. 2000)
Optimization of fish processing technology that involves a combination of wood and
pengapangan fumigation treatment is expected to be a value added product. Moreover, the wooden
fish consumed regularly classified as safe because no potential to cause cancer (Varlet et al. 2007) as
it is feared all along. Aldehyde compounds which are found as ingredients in smoked fish suspected to
cause cancer. Compounds were classified as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). For example,
4-Hydroxy-2-(E)-hexenal found in smoked salmon (Munasinghe et al. 2003). Component is a lipid
peroxide of acidic compounds of n-3 polyunsaturated fat (-unsaturated aldehyde) and can trigger
carcinogen (Chung et al. 1986; Witz, 1989). Aldehyde content of which is a carcinogen can be
minimized through modern curing technology. This was done by controlling the combustion
temperature, degree of curing, and smoke generators (Moret et al. 1997). Thus, it can minimize the
formation of PAH contamination. Table 7 shows the content of PAH contained in various products
smoke.

- 51 -

Table 6 Content of PAH (mg / kg) in various types of smoked products
Product
Amount
of
sample
Consentration of PAH (n=3)
Mean of
PAH B(a)P B(a)A B(a)P B(k)F I(cd)P
Fresh fish
Herring 8 n.d.
a
n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
Silver
Hake
3 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.

Cold-
Smoke
fish

Mackarel 6 n.d n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
Salmon 3 0.40 0.94 n.d. n.d. n.d. 1.34
Herring 4 n.d n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.

Hot-
smoked

Mackarel 10 0.70 2.64 0.60 0.40 0.30 4.64
Herring 4 0.72 3.41 0.63 0.40 0.30 5.48
Source: Yurchenko dan Molder (2005)
Based on the description above, it is clear that smoked tuna feasible to be developed into a
local tradition that has health benefits. One of them is a provider of antioxidants which are mainly
used for prevention of transmission of leprosy is also widely found in North Sumatra. Thus, it is
expected to achieve the empowerment of natural wealth, such as local cuisine, which has a high added
value.
Indonesia is a country with endemic leprosy third highest in the world with distribution
centers located in North Sulawesi. Leprosy prevention efforts can be done by increasing local food
consumption typical of the area that is smoked tuna that contain antioxidant compounds. Antioxidants
are obtained through fermentation by Aspergillus smoked tuna that produces short-chain protein
hydrolysates compounds of phenol components. It is expected that the local potential smoked tuna
that is a cultural heritage of North Sulawesi can simultaneously play a role in decreasing the number
of leprosy patients.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
A big thanks to God because He given the ease of completing the writing of this papers Next, we also
say thanks to the lecturers who have provided guidance during the writing. Similarly, thanks to my
friends and those who have been so helpful.

References
[1]. Nakashimada Y. 2004. High Rate Production of Hydrogen from Various Substrat and Wastes.
Adv Biochem. Engin. Biotechnol 90:63-67.
[2]. Nath K dan Das D. 2004. Improvement of Fermentative Hydrogen Production: Various
Approuch. Appl Microbiol Biotechnool 65:520-529.
[3]. Elam,C.C,GregoirePedro, .E,Sandrock G,Luzzi A,Linblad P,Hagen,E-F. 2003. Realizing the H2
future:the International Energy Agencysefforts to advance H2 energy technologies.Int J
Hydrogen Energy 28 : 601 607
[4]. Koesnandar dan Mahyudin AR. 2006. Biohydrogen Production: Prospect and Limitations to
Practical Application
[5]. Winter, C.J.: Into The Hydrogen Energy EconomyMilestones. International Journal of
Hydrogen Energy, 30, (2005), 681-685.
[6]. Sambrook, J., E.F. Fristsch, & T. Maniatis.(1989). Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual.
New York, Cold Spring Harbour Laboratory Press.

- 52 -

POTENTIAL LIQUID WASTE OF TERASI AS PRODUCER BIOLISTRIC
Osy Yostia Utami
1*
and Riana Ekawati
2

1
Biochemistry, Bogor Agricultural University
2
Resources and Environmental Economics, Bogor Agricultural University
*Corresponding author: osy_san@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
Sources of electrical energy crisis currently trigger the application of alternative energy in
the form of renewable energy sources. Microbial fuel cell (MFC) is developing fuel cells usually use
pure hydrogen fuel further developed into a microbial fuel. In this study, will see the potential for
microbial consortium in industrial liquid waste of terasi to generate electric potential difference in
the MFC system. Microbes that are dominant in the liquid waste is B.subtilis. Measurement of
electrical potential difference MFC system performed with series and parallel system of vessels.
Measurement of electric potential difference with MFC system at 200 mL vessel liquid waste of
terasi with serial generate electric potential difference of 2000 mV, while the vessel parallel systems
generate electric potential difference of 891 mV. This shows that the system using the vessel MFC
series produces a higher potential difference then with the vessel parallel.

Keywords: microbial fuel cell, electrical energy, electrical potential, liquid waste, organic materials

INTRODUCTION
World energy crisis that occurred recently sparked many renewable alternative energy source
development. Growing energy crisis along with the increasing demand of electrical energy. Meeting
the energy needs will not be enough if only based on oil reserves are increasingly scarce. Among the
wide selection of electric energy producers, fuel cells are one example of alternative energy
technologies that have prospects for development. Energy fuel cell can be derived from hydrogen-
containing materials or that produce electrons. Electrons can be generated as a result of microbial
oxidation of organic material. Microbial fuel cell that utilizes called microbial fuel cell (MFC). [1]
MFC is a fuel cell that uses organic materials, such as organic wastes by microbial which is
used as a source of energy in metabolic activity. Previous research has shown that use MFC system at
250 mL from liquid waste of tofu, palm oil, and the rumen as a component of the anode with a pair of
vessel systems can produce electrical voltage of 313 mV, 575 mV and 810 mV. Based on the results,
the research to investigate the potential of organic liquid waste from theterasi industry. Utilization of
this waste is expected to reduce operating costs fuel cells become cheaper. In addition, the application
of this technology can also be an alternative solution for waste reduction which is generally negative
impact to the environment. However, the assessment is still needed regarding the utilization of other
organic liquid wastes that have the potential to produce electrical potential difference with MFC
system. [2]
Microbes are found naturally in liquid waste of terasi will be utilized to produce electrical
energy through a reaction that allows the transport of electrons from the cell surface to the anode in
the system MFC (microbial fuel cells). Electrical energy produced by microbial consortium in liquid
waste samples without special treatment may not be large enough to be used. Therefore, to increase
the electrical energy will be measured with vessel series and parallel systems. This effort is expected
to reduce levels of pollutants in liquid waste samples as indicated by elevated levels of dissolved
oxygen (Dissolved oxygen). [3]
The purpose of this study is to optimize the potential of liquid waste of terasi. In addition,
utilizing microbial consortium in the content of organic material such as an electrical energy source
alternative to the microbial fuel cell technology (MFC). MFC can be a solution to handle liquid waste
of terasi industry to the environment and MFC technology development, particularly in developing
bioelectric.
- 53 -

PRINCIPLE OF BASIC RESEARCH
Liquid Waste
Liquid waste is waste that has been the result of a process is not used again, either in the form
of industrial waste, household, livestock, agriculture, etc. The main component of liquid waste is
water (99%) while other components are solid materials that depend on the origin of these emissions.
[4]

Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC)
The principle of microbial fuel cell (MFC) is utilizing a microbial metabolism to the medium
at the anode to catalyze the conversion of organic material into electrical energy enzymatically.
Metabolic activity involves the transfer of electrons from the anode through a wire which flows into
the cathode (Figure 1). Transfer of electrons from the anode is received by the complex ion in the
cathode that has free electrons. This method is easier than processing a compound containing
hydrogen into pure hydrogen is used [1].

Figure 1. Working Principle of Microbial Fuel Cell

The reactions that occur in the MFC system is the reduction and oxidation. The reaction on its
own metabolism is oxidation, by oxidizing the organic matter that produces the electrons. Fe
3 +
on
graphite (anode) is an oxidant or an oxidator which will accept electrons and is reduced. Other
substances is generally a result of microbial metabolism of compounds containing hydrogen, such as
ethanol, methanol, or methane gas. These compounds can be used as a source of hydrogen through a
series of processes in the reformer to produce electrons and generate an electric current. [2]
According to the researchers, there are some characteristics that are used in a microbial fuel cell (fuel
cell). Characteristics include microbial capable of working at high temperatures, the organism that is
capable of using light to produce energy, microbial consortium in liquid wastes, and microbial that is
capable of transferring electrons directly to electrodes. Previous studies showed that the bacteria
Shewanella putrefaciens, Geobacter sulfurreducens, Geobacter metallireducens, and Rhodoferax
ferrireducens capable of producing electricity with a mediator in the form of MFC system.
Conversion of organic matter in liquid waste of terasi into biofuel would be more efficient
when used in MFC systems. MFC is one of the converter system become bioproduc organic biomass
and biofuels besides bioethanol, biogas, and hydrogen gas. Rabaey et al. (2004) mentions that the
MFC has a value close to 100% conversion efficiency. Conversion efficiency of the system amounted
to 10-25% bioethanol, biogas system is than 80%, and the system of hydrogen gas is 90%. Therefore,
the use of MFC is considered advantageous compared to other biomass converter system.

Reaction Bioenergy
Reaction of bioenergy can be divided into three types: fermentation, aerobic respiration, and
anaerobic respiration. The division is based on differences in electron acceptor. In fermentation, there
is no acceptor of a role outside the system so that the organic compound serves as electron donor as
well as an electron acceptor. In aerobic respiration, oxygen-free is the only electron acceptor and
carbon dioxide is the end result of oxidation. Anaerobic respiration using anorganic compounds as
- 54 -

electron acceptors, eg nitrate, sulfate, or carbonate. On this basis, microbial can be classified into
aerobic microbial (obligate and facultative), microaerophilic, and anaerobic (obligate and facultative).
[3]
Enzyme oksireduktase catalyze hydrogen release or addition of oxygen from the substrate.
Enzyme that plays an important role in bioenergy process consists of dehydrogenase and oxidase
enzymes. Dehydrogenase catalyzes the oxidation of a substrate molecule by reduction of hydrogen
(dehydrogenation), for example oxidation of organic substrates alcohol into acetaldehyde. Oxidase
catalyzes the transfer of hydrogen directly to oxygen or oxygen incorporation in the substrate directly.

ACHIEVEMENTS RESEARCH AND TESTING OF ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL
Microbes Identified
Microbes that were isolated from samples liquid waste of terasi is Gram-positive bacteria
Bacillus subtilis. These bacteria use a substrate to oxidize the liquid waste entering the bacterial cell
body or the cytosol and subsequently there will be three stages of cellular respiration. The first phase,
the molecules of organic fuels, such as glucose, fatty acids, and some amino acids will be oxidized to
produce 2-carbon fragments, which is an acetyl group from acetyl-CoA. The second phase, in aerobic
conditions acetyl-CoA entering the citric acid cycle which will describe these molecules
enzymatically generate high-energy hydrogen atoms and release CO
2
. The third phase, respiration
occurs in bacterial cell membrane. Hydrogen atoms are separated by an electron carrier molecules, its
respiration chain to molecular oxygen and reduced to H
2
O.
In the waste liquid of terasi' can be found various microbial species, but not all microbial can
be grown in bacterial growth media in the laboratory. Observation of morphology isolates was
performed with a light microscope with a magnification of 100x10. Any preparations were observed
shed a drop of immersion oil, for shape and color of the bacteria was observed more clearly visible.
Based on the results of identification by biologists in this research, only B. subtilis which dominate
growth in nutrient jelly medium (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Bacillus subtilis identification results biologist

In the MFC system, microbial naturally found in liquid waste of terasi is used for producing
electrical energy through a reaction that allows the transport of protons from the process of cellular
respiration from the cell surface to the anode. For comparison purposes liquid culture of Bacillus
subtilis. Based on the results of measurements, indicate that the potential from waste of terasi in
generating electrical voltage is greater than the liquid culture of B.subtilis (Figure 3)
- 55 -

Figure 3. Comparison of electric potential difference on liquid water of terasi
B.subtilis and liquid culture.

The test results show the electrical energy which is detected in wastewater samples condiment
of 2000 mV, while in pure liquid culture of B. subtilis and the blank of distilled water in succession
are 83 mV and 124 V. The amount of voltage measured in the culture of B. subtilis value continues to
decline. This is due to a single culture at one time experienced a growth phase until stationary phase
as a result of death no longer produced protons out of cells due to cellular respiration. Therefore, in
the form of a consortium of microbial cultures as found in liquid waste of terasi produces a
measurable voltage longer.
Tests on the characteristics of the MFC system shows that the system could generate a
potential difference is higher when given an additional potential difference (in particular t), compared
to natural conditions (without additions). Additional potential difference may be analogous to the
environmental stress on microbial. Stress is triggered microbial for metabolized more enterprising
than usual. Thus the free electrons generated is also more.
Results Measurement of Potential Difference Series MFC, Vessel
Electric potential is measured by microbial fuel cell system (MFC) series. Industrial wastewater
condiment used as anolyte and a solution of potassium phosphate buffer ferisianida in as catholyte.
MFC working principle similar to the working principles of the battery, which is based on the
principle of electrochemical process occurs at the anode where oxidation and reduction process occurs
at the cathode. Liquid waste at the anode occurs by microbial metabolic processes that produce H
+

ions (protons) and electrons. Ferisianida potassium solution (K
3
[Fe (CN)
6
]) which becomes the
cathode components are chemical compounds that are toxic and can function as an oxidizing agent.
This compound is soluble in water and capable of providing color greenish yellow fluorescence. Fe
3 +
(III) contained in it will be reduced to Fe
2 +
(II) by electrons that are drawn from the anode as a result
of metabolism. In addition, ion exchange membranes are also used (Nafion 117) as a barrier between
the anolyte and catholyte functioning H
+
ions flow from the anode to the cathode. This membrane is a
polymer perflorosulfonat acid. When interacting with water molecules, perflorosulfonat acid will
release the ions (H
+
) and there was a jump from one molecule of sulfonate (SO3-) to other molecules
such as electrolytes in water [2].
MFC system with a vessel of the series is also able to function similar to mass storage
(capacitor). The load is given when the addition of the above potential difference recorded by the
system. This is indicated by the value measured by a multimeter after additional potential difference is
removed. Use of electric energy generated by the system makes the resulting potential difference
decreased. However, at some point the potential difference increased again. This increase indicates
that the system is able to restore its own electrical charge. In ordinary capacitor, electric charges
remain at a certain value after use. MFC system with the ability to recharge the vessel series electrical
loads without treatment from the outside is a potential that can be developed. Measurement of
electrical potential difference MFC system with vessel series showed that 200 mL from the liquid
waste of terasi has the potential to produce electrical potential difference of 2000 mV.
Results Measurement of Potential Difference MFC Parallel Vessel
Vessel system parallel to the MFC can reduce stress. Potential difference measured is less than the
vessel series, that is equal to 891 mV. Potential difference generated by a microbial consortium during
the measurement on the MFC system either series or parallel with the vessel unstable. Its value
- 56 -

fluctuates at each observation time. This corresponds well with the microbial metabolic activity
contained in the wastewater. In catabolism activity, an amount of energy produced when the complex
compound is broken down into simpler compounds. Conversely, a number of energy used when the
simple compounds are synthesized into complex compounds. Both these types of metabolism occur
simultaneously. At certain times in general (scale microbial consortium) the difference of the total
energy produced and used to increase or decrease, depending on the reaction is in progress.
In addition to its metabolic activity, the potential difference fluctuations in part caused by the
interaction between the constituent microbial consortium. Fermentation products (such as lactate,
succinate, format, etc.) from one type of bacteria can be a substrate for other bacterial species. This
causes the fermentation product can not be oxidized to then generate free electrons and ions H
+
. The
electrons flow from the anode to the cathode is reduced so that the measured potential difference is
reduced.
Increase or decrease in electrical potential difference correlated with the number of free electrons
generated by a microbial consortium. Increasing the potential difference measured by the multimeter
when the possibility of microbial perform simple substrate solution contained in the medium. The
decline, in addition to anabolisme activity, the possibility may also occur due to microbial substrate
being adapted to break down more complex becomes simple. The increase and decrease in electrical
potential difference in the MFC system describes the system dynamics because it is driven by living
things.

Figure 4. Measurement of potential difference using MFC

To know the physical and chemical changes that occur during the measurement of electrical
potential difference MFC system, pH value and DO (Dissolved Oxygen) effluent was measured
before and after. The increase in pH value occurs in the range: 0.8 while the increase in the DO occur
in the range of 0.2 mg / L. Increasing the acidity of the waste associated with H
+
ions flow from the
anode to the cathode which would reduce the amount of H
+
ions in the anode. Therefore, the pH
increased at the end of the measurement of waste although not significant (Table 1).

Table 1. Characteristics of liquid water of terasi were analyzed with MFC system
MFC system
DO initial
(mg/L)
DO final
(mg/L)
pH initial pH final V maks (mV)
Series 2.6 2.8 6.2 7 2000
parallel 2.6 2.8 6.2 7 891

According to Government Regulation No.20 of 1990 on Environmental Quality Standards,
Standards, criteria for liquid waste be disposed of into the environment which should have dissolved
oxygen (DO) minimum of 3 mg / L. If the DO in the effluent remained below the minimum threshold,
the waste must be processed first to meet the minimum DO 3 mg / L. Initial DO measurement of
wastewater samples showed DO condiment that observed below the minimum threshold, which
means the waste is not feasible directly discharged into the environment. After experiencing the
treatment of waste as anolyte in the MFC system for 3 to 7 days, an increase in DO in the effluent,
although not yet meet the standards of environmental quality standards. Increasing DO indicate
microbial activity in wastewater. Longer treatment is likely to increase the DO measured to exceed the
minimum threshold.

- 57 -

References

[1] Madigan, Thomas D., Michael T. Madigan, John M. Martinko and Jack Parker. 1997.
Biology of Microorganisms, 8th Edition. Prentice Hall International Inc, New Jersey.
[2] Wagner, Holly. 2005. It's Electricity: Cows Show Promise as powerplants. Columbus: Ohio State
University
[3] Lehninger AL.1982. Biochemistry. Thenawidjaya. London: Erland.
[4] Sidhartha ML, Jamilah, Karamita D, Brianno W, Hamid A. 2007. Utilization of waste water as a
source of electrical energy to the microbial fuel cell. Bandung: Bandung Institute of Technology.
- 1 -

ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN ASEAN THROUGH DSM; CASE STUDY OF
INDONESIA, THAILAND, MALAYSIA, PHILIPPINES AND CAMBODIA
N. Agya Utama
1

1
Graduate School of Energy Science, Kyoto University
*Corresponding author: agyautama@energy.kyoto-u.ac.jp
ABSTRACT
Buildings contributes 40 % of the total world energy consumption and utilizing more than
30 % of the raw material resources worldwide, it is reported that buildings responsible for the 40 % of
the worldwide CO2 emission. Based on the AR4 (Forth Assessment Report) by IPCC
(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the room for energy efficiency is immense. The advance
building codes in developed countries (such as Japan) proves the final energy consumption per GDP
(Gross Domestic Product) shows in energy efficiency index improves 37 %. The vast growing
developing world worsens the world energy security in the next 50 years, not considering yet the
increases of the Green House Gasses (GHG). This paper will show the result on the adjustment of the
selection of correct material for building faade as well as analysis of the indoor materials in the
conditioned rooms (reduction in approximate 30 % of the electricity consumption). The paper also
discusses the economical impact of changes of building materials towards future energy demand
scenario in Indonesia. The future electricity demand prediction should also be assessed in order to
securing country energy security, therefore the Long-range Energy Alternatives Planning is used to
predicts the future electricity demand and the scenario based on the potential reduction by means of
the implementation of passive cooling system.
Keywords: building materials, energy efficiency, demand side management, electricity scenarios,
ASEAN
INTRODUCTION
It has been reported by the Nobel Peace Prize-winning IPCC through AR4 that human
activities, mainly since the industrial era, increases the carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration and
therefore leads to increase of temperature (Figure 1) and creating climate change. In order to reduce
the potential damage of climate change, global CO2 will need to be reduced by 50-85 % of year 2000
levels by 2050[1]. Energy is responsible as the main GHG emission released to the air. AR4
demonstrated that improving energy efficiency would play a key role in the mitigation of GHG
emission. Building has the highest potential of energy consumption reduction with low cost.
The share of Electricity consumption share in most of the tropical countries is in cooling
[2][3], in which the cooling load share comprise of load from external heat and internal heat. The share
is various, the category can be summarized between skin dominated building where most of the load
came from external and internal dominated load, in case of high-rise buildings most of the load from
internal load. Many study have been done considering the external dominated load, which considering
optimization building envelopes, one of the oldest building codes used in most of the countries in
South East Asia developed based on ASHRAE 1980.
External load are responsible for 70-80 % in some of landed houses and 30 % in some of the
high-rise residential buildings. Improving the mechanical system in the air conditioning (AC) to bear
the hot and humid climate proves to have more energy and more expensive [4].
The future electricity demand prediction should also be assessed in order to securing country
energy security, the optimization of buildings materials will also increases the potential of reducing the
electricity demand in the future.

- 59 -

Figure 1 increasing of worldwide temperature due to the increases of CO
2
concentration in the
atmosphere

Some researcher has done an analysis through statistic on the relationship between the
electricity consumption with the climate [5][6][7]. Demand patterns with summer peaks are found in
the southern hemisphere for instance Bangkok [6] and Hong Kong [5]. While some of the countries in
the northern hemisphere has higher peak during winter and some single peak during summer in
country close to the equator (Spain, Portugal, Greece and Italy) [7]. Moreover the economical
influence in the developing countries also shows a significant influence in the increase of electricity,
Singapore [8], Thailand [6] [9].
Time series analysis of daily electricity demand data reviles a U shape relation between
outdoor temperature and electricity demand. This non-linearity refers to the fact that both increases
and decreases of temperature, linked to exceeding certain threshold temperatures, increase the
demand for electricity. When the differential between outdoor and indoor temperatures increases, the
starting-up of the corresponding heating or cooling equipment immediately raises the demand for
electricity. Naturally, the curve of the response of demand to temperatures depends especially on the
climate characteristics of the geographical area [7]

ELECTRICITY CONSUMPTION IN BULDINGS
Energy consumption in the building for some countries in South East Asia, accounted of
more than 50 % of the overall country primary energy consumption. The energy consumption in the
buildings strongly related with the technical aspects such as building design (including materials) and
construction and non-technical aspects such as users behaviors, life style and income.
Located in hot and humid areas countries in South East Asia to bear the occupants thermal comfort, of
which causing the use of mechanical-electrical driven air conditioner. The condition leads to the high
electricity consumption for cooling which is accounted around 50-70 % [3].
Among the problems that are encountered in the study of household electricity demand a
major one is the high degree of correlation between several explanatory variables in the demand
equation with important implications for its econometric estimation [8].
The relation between electricity consumption, per capita income and the increase of the
temperature is assessed. These approaches however required an extensive data on household electricity
consumption. Realizing the data limitation some researcher introduced to use of partial adjustment
model to implicitly capture the capital stock adjustment [5] or formulates capturing the dynamics of
the demand stickiness imposed by the capital-intensive nature of electricity consumption [6].
From the point of view on assuming the relationship between electricity, economic and micro
climate in ASEAN countries, the model in equation 1 is proposed.

EL = (GDP, Tavg, HMDavg, EL-1) (1)

- 60 -

EL =
0
+
1
.GDP +
2
.Tavg +
3
.HMDavg +
4
.EL-1
Where, EL means the electricity consumption in buildings (ktoe), the EL-1 represent lagged of EL
(ktoe), the Tavg represent the Thailand temperature average in a year (C), HMDavg means humidity
in average in a year (%) and the GDP represent the gross domestic products (PPP) per capita
(US$/cap).
For case study yearly data for Thailand on GDP, temperature, humidity and residential
electricity consumption (2005-2009) had been obtained. The figure 2 shows an average of the
Thailand temperature and humidity in each year. The detail information for temperature and humidity
is not available, therefore the average yearly is used.

From equation 1 we can measure the relationship between electricity and the function of
GDP, Temperature and Humidity. Figure 3 shows the increase of 0.1 percent of GDP will lead to the
increase of 67.9 ktoe of electricity in residential sector, and the increase of 1 degree Celsius leads to
increase of 63.84 ktoe of electricity consumption. The low impact from temperature towards the
increase of electricity in Thailand due to the use of cooling appliances (Air Conditioning) per
household are relatively low, less than 20 percent household in Thailand are using Air Conditioning
[6]. Moreover the increase of the humidity in the country also shows low impact on the increase of
electricity consumption, the increase of 1 percent humidity in average leads to the increase of 17 ktoe
of electricity in residential sector. The low influences of humidity on the electricity consumption due
to the less impact of ambient humidity on the cooling appliances in order to meet human comfort.
Most of the humidity influencing the cooling load is the indoor humidity type (cooking, human
activities etc) which leads to the sensible heat inside the room, these case can be seen in the research
done in Indonesia, which indoor humidity mainly influencing cooling load in high-rise type of
building [3].

Figure 2 Thailand yearly data from 1996-2007 on GDP per capita, humidity,
temperature and electricity consumption in residential sector
- 61 -

Figure 3 the correlation between electricity, GDP, humidity and Temperature in Thailand

DEMAND SIDE MANAGEMENT THROUGH PASSIVE COOLING

The psychrometric chart on Figure 4 shows the conventional air conditioning system as well
as combined system by using passive desiccant and alternative materials.

1
2
3
4
5
100% 80% 60% 40% 10% 20%
5%
c
o
i l
1 2 3 AA
SA
6
CC HE
Typical Air Conditioning with Heater
RA : Return Air
CC : Cooling Coil
HE : Heat Exchanger
SA : Supply Air

Proposed indoor passive desiccant
PD: Passive desiccant
PE : Passive enclosure
c
o
i l
SA
4 5 6
PD
AC System boundary
CC HE
Room temperature
AA
AA
PE
RA
RA

Figure 4 Psychrometric chart showing the influenced of the passive system in the conditioned room

The function of PE is reducing the external heat by means of sensible heat, therefore the AA
(ambient air) can be reduce up to 5 degrees, the RH (relative humidity) in the room more or less the
same with ambient RH in most cases is even higher (due to additional vapor from human activities).
The replacement of indoor material for more desiccant material passively will reduce the RH level up
to 15 %. Therefore the work for conventional air conditioning system will be less and indoor supply
air will have lower RH as well as temperature.
In principle, the proposed system will strive to enhance the system boundaries to the indoor
room, as most of the research done in the air conditioning system only on the air conditioning system
itself. Moreover, in order to increase efficiency the additional desiccant can be added in the air
conditioning system (can be placed after the cooling coil) either by organic (activated carbon, coconuts
coir etc) or chemical (silica gel, molecular sieves etc). The problem on the chemical desiccant is the
increases of temperature (as seen from point 2 to 3 or point 5 to 6 in the figure above. Therefore the
- 62 -

use of organic desiccant is appealing and less energy consumption.
RESULT AND SUMMARY
Philippines. Urban Highrise: Activity Level (% Share)
Scenario: Coconut Coir
Years
2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 2070 2080 2090 2100
C
u
m
u
l a
t i v
e
M
i l l i o
n
G
i g
a
j o
u
l e
s
8,500
8,000
7,500
7,000
6,500
6,000
5,500
5,000
4,500
4,000
3,500
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
Malaysia. Demand: Activity Level (% Share)
Scenario: Coconut Coir
Years
2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 2070 2080 2090 2100
C
u
m
u
l a
t i v
e
M
i l l i o
n
G
i g
a
j o
u
l e
s
5,500
5,000
4,500
4,000
3,500
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500

Figure 5 Result on the introduction DSM in Indonesia (1), Philippines (2), Malaysia (3) and Cambodia
(4) and the location of the case study (namely; Jakarta, Manila, Kuala Lumpur and PhomPhen)

Figure 5 shows the effects on the future electricity consumption of the introduction on DSM
by passive cooling in the selected countries in ASEAN. These countries could save the electricity
consumption between 35 to 55% in the year 2050. Therefore it is important to develop policy through
buildings code which aims not only the element of the physical properties of the buildings material
and thermal properties, as well as it is not enough to develop home appliances labeling in order to
reduce buildings energy consumption. More to the introduction of the alternatives (based on local
material) materials which have less impact on the indoor thermal and humidity during its utilization.
The study shows that coconut coir proves to reduce the indoor humidity as well as reducing heat
transferred from ambient in significant number, the introduction of bamboo properties in faade also
help to reduce the sensible heat transferred from ambient in the buildings.

References

[1] D.U. Vorsatz, B. Metz, Energy efficiency: How far does it get us in controlling climate change?,
Energy Efficiency, 2009, (2), pp 87-94
[2] J. Khedari, R.Rawangkul, W.Chimchavee, J.Hirunlabh, A.Watanasungsuit, Feasibility study of
using agriculture waste as desiccant for air conditioning system, Renewable Energy (2003) 28,
p.1617-1628
[3] A.Utama, S.H.Gheewala, Indonesian residential high rise buildings: A life cycle energy
assessment, Energy and Buildings, (2009) 41, p.1263-1268
[4] J.B.H. Listyono, ASEAN energy efficiency and conservation best practice awards, ASEAN
energy award, 2004.
1
2
3 4
- 63 -

[5] Al-Zayer, AA Al-Ibrahim Modelling the impact of temperature on electricity consumption in the
Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia - Journal of Forecasting, 1996
[6] Wangpattarapong K, Maneewan S, Ketjoy N, Rakwichian W. The impacts of climatic and
economic factors on residential electricity consumption of Bangkok Metropolis. Energy Build
2008;40:141925
[7] B.E. Psiloglou a,*, C. Giannakopoulos a, S. Majithia b, M. Petrakis a Factors affecting electricity
demand in Athens, Greece and London, UK: A comparative assessment, Energy 34 (2009)
18551863
[8] BW Ang, TN Goh, XQ Liu, Residential electricity demand Singapore, Energy, 1992, Vol 17, no 1,
37-46
[9] A Pongsapich, W. Wongsekiarttirat, Urban household energy consumption in Thailand, Energy,
1992, Vol 19, no 5, 509-516
[10] H.S. Houthakker, Residential Electricity Revisited, The Energy Journal 1 (Jan. 1980), 29-41
[11] P. Anthony, E. Myers, K. Palmer, A partial adjustment model of US electricity demand by region,
season and sector, discussion paper, Resources for the future, April 2009
[12] G. S. Donatos, G. J. Mergos, Residential demand for electricity: the case of Greece, Energy
Economics, 1991
[13] R. Barnes, R. Gillingham, R. Hagemann, The short run residential demand for electricity, The
Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 63, No. 4 (Nov., 1981), pp. 541-552
- 64 -

ORGANOCHLORINE PESTICIDES (OCPS) RESIDUE IN POTATO AND CARROTS
FROM CONVENTIONAL AND ORGANIC FARM AT IN BANDUNG REGENCY,
WEST JAVA PROVINCE INDONESIA

Suphia Rahmawati
1*
, Minoru Yoneda
2
, Listya C.A Kusuma
3
, Katharina Oginawati
4
,

1,2
Department of Urban and Environmental Engineering, Kyoto University, Japan

3,4
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Environment, Bandung Institute of Technology, Indonesia

*Corresponding author: pipie2010@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Residue of Organochlorine pesticides in soils from organic and conventional farm and their
uptake by potato and carrots from Bandung district, West Java, Indonesia were investigated. Samples
of carrotss and potatoes were homogenizer while soil samples were shake using acetone, extract with
n-hexane, clean up with florisil and finally analyze using gas chromatography with ECD detector.
Concentration in soil, carrots and potatoes were vary, concentration from conventional farm tend
higher than concentration from organic farm both in vegetables and soil samples. Lindane was
dominated in vegetables (1.5-19.8 ppb) while heptachlor dominated in soil samples (0.7-3ppb).
Organic farm have more variety of organochlorine pesticide compare with conventional farm
including DDT and endosulfan which were already banned for agricultural purposes. It might be
happen from past application of agrochemicals or atmospheric deposition of volatile.
Keywords: organochlorine, pesticides, organic, potato, carrots
INTRODUCTION
As one of tropical countries, Indonesia depends on agricultural activities. Pesticides still used
to enhance agricultural products. Some of the pesticides are organochlorine pesticides. DDT and OCs
were introduced by government in early 1950s then follow by organophosphates and carbamates in
1960s. The use of toxic chemicals such as pesticides was regulated under The Government Regulation
No.07 of 1973 for the control, distribution, storage, and the use of pesticides which must be registered
at Ministry of Agriculture through The National Pesticide Committee.
Organochlorine pesticides have characteristics such as highly persistent, having long half-life
in the environment and biota. Some of them may have a half-life of years or decades in soils and
sediments and several days in atmosphere, typically hydrophobic or lipophilic. Because of their
characteristics and their effects to environment and human health, these chemicals then categorize as
persistent organic pollutants. In 2009, Government under Government Regulation No. 19 of 2009
adopted Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants which banned pesticides such as
aldrin, chlordane, dieldrin, endrin and heptachlor. In past few years, studies on OCPs in various
environment phase increase in Indonesia (Oginawati, 2009). Information on the status of
contamination in foodstuffs such as meat, vegetables, fish others food products still rare because of the
infrequent monitoring.
Nowadays, food quality and safety become important issue, consumers become more
concern that their food should be containing high nutritional and free from chemical residues. This
resulted in increasing demand for the organic product. Organic farming avoid the used of synthetic
fertilizer and pesticides. However organics crops are grown in soil that might be contaminated with
persistent organic chemical at low concentration from past application. This study was aim to
monitoring organochlorine pesticide residue in vegetables which is grew under the soil from
conventional agricultural area and comparing with organic farming which is located in Bandung
Regency, West Java Province, Indonesia.

SAMPLING LOCATIONS
Samples were collected directly from the farmer from six sampling points during harvesting
time on March 2010. Sampling location of conventional agricultural was located in Kertasari and
Pacet subdistricts at the upper area of Citarum watershed (Fig.1). These area is an extended
- 65 -

agricultural area with thousands of hectares. Kertasari subdistricts are dominated with vegetables
commodities such as cabbage, carrots, onion, potato. While Pacet subdistrict which is located in lower
area is dominated by paddy field. Thus, the use of pesticides to control plant pest is indispensible.
Organic carrotss and potatoes were collected from organic farming of Gambung Village,
Pasir Jambu sub district, Bandung district (Fig.1). This location was listed in Organic commodity
directory by Ministry of Agriculture. This location also produces vegetables such as carrots, potatoes,
and cabbage. The studies only focusing on carrots and potatoes commodity which are grow under the
soil.

Figure 1. Sampling Location

MATERIAL AND METHODS
One kilogram of carrots and potatoes from each sampling points were collected, and put into
clean polyethylene bag, frozen prior to analysis. Soil samples were collected from different part of
sampling area, dried and filtered. All the samples were analyzed in laboratory of pesticide residue in
Bogor city.
All chemicals used were analytical grade. Analysis was adopted from the The National
Pesticide Committee base on liquid-liquid extraction methods.
In the laboratory carrot and potatoes samples were skinned, cut into small pieces, 25 gr of
sample was homogenized with 100 ml acetone. In other hand 25gr of dried and filtered soil samples
and 100 ml acetone were shaking twice using shaker, speed 80rpm for 20 minutes. Both of samples
were filtered, added by 50 ml of n-hexane to the flask shaken twice until the layers were allowed to
separate. The upper hexane layer was concentrated to a small volume 10 ml. The clean up was carried
out by florisil and natriun sulfate anhydrate. The filtrate were evaporate until 1 ml volume, elute with
acetone until final volume 10 ml. Varian 450 Gas Chromatograph fitted with ECD, TCD, and FPD
detector with coulomb VF 1701 (30m x 0.25 mm x 0.25 m) and VF-5 (30m x 0.25 mm x 0.25 m)
were used to analyze all the samples.
The organochlorine pesticides were quantified by comparing their peak areas with the
standard pesticides analyzed under similar condition. Recoveries obtain from known quantities of
standard pesticide showed that 90-92% of all organochlorine pesticides could be recovered.

Figure 2 and 3 show that organochlorine residue in potatoes and carrotss samples of
conventional and organic farm. Lindane was dominated in potatoes and carrots samples from both
conventional farm and organic farm with concentration range: potatoes (1.5-19.8 ppb) and carrots
Organic Farming
Conventional Farming
- 66 -

(0.6-3.5 ppb) from conventional farm while from organic farm, potatoes (1.3-3.3 ppb) and carrots
(0.5-1.5 ppb). Heptachlor was secondly dominated in potatoes and carrots samples except for carrots
organic which was found only in one sampling point. Heptachlor concentration range (Figure 2 and 3)
was below lindane concentration range; potatoes (0.5-1.2 ppb) and carrots (1.4-2.4 ppb) from
conventional farm, potatoes (0.6-2.1 ppb) and carrots (0.5 ppb) from organic farm.

Figure 2. OCP residue in Potatos and Carrots from conventional farm

Figure 3. OCP residue in Potatos and Carrots from organic farm
Aldrin, DDT, endrin, and endosulfan were not detected in potato samples from conventional farm, in
contrary, endrin and endosulfan were detected in potato samples from organic samples. Variety of
organochlorine pesticide were found in carrots samples from conventional farm such as endrin, aldrin
and dieldrin. Surprisingly, DDT was detected in one sample of carrots. DDT and endosulfan were
already banned for agricultural purposes especially for conventional farm. OCP residue in potatoes
from conventional farm much higher than potatoes samples from organic farm due to spray of
pesticide in conventional farm. In other hand, this tendency was not showed in carrots samples.

OCP residue in potatoes and carrots samples were still below the Maximum Residue Limit
according to Indonesia Health and Agricultural Ministry decree No.881/1996 which can be shown in
Table 1.

- 67 -

Table 1. Comparison OCP Residue with MRLs
OC
Max. OCP Residue in Potatoes (ppb) Max. OCP Residue in Carrots (ppb)
Organic Conventional MRL Organic Conventional MRL
Lindan 3.3 19.8 50 1.5 3.5 200
Aldrin 4.8 1.2 100 - 2.3 100
Heptachlor 2.1 - 50* 0.5 2.4 200
Dieldrin - - 100 4.1 2.5 500
DDT - - 1000* 0.5 - 1000*
Endrin 0.7 - - 0.9 1.2 -
Endosulfan 0.7 - 200 - - 200
* No specific standard only in vegetables
MRL = Maximum Residue Limit

Figure 4 and 5 show OCP residue in soil samples. Heptachlor was dominated in soil
samples both from organic and conventional farm with concentration range: 0.7-2.1 ppb, 1-3 ppb,
0.5-1.1 ppb, for potatoes and carrots organic, potatoes from conventional farm respectively.

Figure 4. OCP residue in soil samples of potato and carrots from conventional farm

Figure 5. OCP residue in soil samples of potato and carrots from organic farm
Lindane was found in several soil samples of carrots organic, potatoes organic and
conventional, but not detected in soil samples of carrots from conventional farm. Aldrin, endrin, and
- 68 -

endosulfan were not detected in soil samples of carrots from both organic and conventional farm. In
addition, DDT was detected in soil sample of carrots organic. OCP residue in soil has significantly
different tendency with OCP residue in carrots and potatoes. Soil from conventional farm of carrots
only detected heptachlor. More over the OCP residue was significantly lower compare to potatoes area.
This was probably because most of carrots farm are located in sloping land area while potatoes mostly
planted in flat area. Thus the residue would wash away by rain. These phenomena also showed from
previous study which compare OCP residue in soil samples between sloping areas and flat area in
Kertasari subdistrict (Yunike, 2009). In the other hand, organic farm area is relatively flat and
sampling points were located not too far.
Organic farm approaches avoid the use of synthetic fertilizer and pesticides to reduce the
potential for contamination of food with chemical residues. Nevertheless, the residue from previous
farming may remain or as results of atmospheric from surrounding farming area. DDT, heptachlor,
lindane, aldrin were detected in soil samples. Therefore, these OCP residues may transfer to carrots
and potatoes. However, OCP residues were relatively low compare to Maximum Residue Limit
according to Indonesia Health and Agricultural ministry decree No.881/1996.
The varieties of OCP residue of soil samples in this study were different compare with
previous study. Lindane and heptachlor were dominated in this study while dieldrin, heptachlor and
endosulfan were dominated in agricultural area for vegetables and paddy field at Kertasari subdistrict
(Yunike, 2009 and Deviyani 2010). Endosulfan was still used according to questionnaires which were
collected from the farmer from Kartasari subdistrict in 2009. Furthermore, DDT, dieldrin, heptachlor,
aldrin, and BHC were detected from pesticide solution which was used to spray carrots (Rochmanti,
2009). Endosulfan was started to banned and not used at the end of 2009. However, according to
investigation from several pesticide shops, they still have the stock of endosulfan and sell it to the
farmer.
Variety and residue of OCP in potatoes and carrots were different. These suggest the
differences of chemical used, characteristics and crop species were most important in determining
uptake. Plant lipid plays the major factor causing observed differences in plant uptake of lipophilic
contaminant such as aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor and heptachlor epoxide (Chiou et al, 2001). In
addition, the soil-plant transfer of persistent organic chemical residues will depend on the physical and
chemical characteristics of the soils where they are grown. Beck et al. (1996) reported that organic
matter content and moisture content of the soil are the factors which most frequently reported to exert
the greatest impact on availability of soil-sorbed nonionic organic chemical residues to uptake by
crops. Generally, uptake by crop would be favored under moist conditions with low organic matter
content in soils. In dry soils with high organics matters, the chemical residues will be strongly bound
by the soil rather than uptake by plant. In this study, soil organic matter was not investigated. Soil pH
ranged from 6.8-7 which was not considered as influenced the OCP residue. All of factors which might
be influenced will combine in complex ways to control the uptake of chemicals from the soil in to the
carrotss and potatoes. It cannot explain more detail due to limited number of samples. Further studies
should be conducted to ascertain the main factors which influenced OCP uptake by the different kind
of crops and the risks from OCP contamination in foodstuffs.

CONCLUSION
Our study was show that OCP residues were detected in carrots and potatoes from organic
farming. OCP residue in potatoes from conventional farm was significantly different compare with
organic farm. On the other hand, OCP concentration in carrots from conventional farm almost similar
with carrots from organic farm. DDT was detected in soil and crops from organic farm, this probably
from pre-organic farming or surrounding area. OCP uptake depended on crop varieties but further
research is needed to observe whether it is related with the characteristic of crops or as a reflection of
the variability of OCP residue in the soils which the different crops are grown. OCP residue in carrots
and potatoes both from conventional and organic farm were below the Maximum Residue Limit
according to Indonesia Health and Agricultural ministry decree No.881/1996. Monitoring on OCP
Residue in crops especially vegetables from conventional and organic farming should be more
effective and collaboration between government, pesticide industries and other stakeholder.

- 69 -

Reference
[1] Deviyani (2009) Organochlorine Insecticide Residue in The Upper Citarum Watershed and Its
effect on Earthworm as an Impact of The Used of Persistent Organic Pollutant in The
Environment. Master Thesis. Bandung : Institut Teknologi Bandung
[2] Health and Agricultural ministry decree No.881/1996 Maximum Residue Limit of Pesticides in
Crop
[3] Oginawati, K., M.A. Pratama, M.Irsyad, Poerbandono, A.Nugraha (2009).Organochlorine
Insecticides Pollution and Distribution in The Surface Water, Sediment, and Ground Water in
Upper Citarum Watershed. Proceeding. International Conference on Sustainable Development for
Water and Waste Water Treatment. Yogyakarta. Indonesia
[4] Rochmanti, MD, 2009, Pesticides Usage Identification at Paddy and Vegetables Fields.Case
Study : Kertasari Subdistrict Bandung Region. Final Project. Bandung : Institut Teknologi
Bandung.
[5] Yunike, Vina. 2009. Insecticides Organochlorine Residue Analysis in Vegetables Farming Soil in
Kertasari Sub District Bandung Regency West Java Province. Final Project. Bandung : Institut
Teknologi Bandung.
[6] Chiou, C.T., Sheng, G.Y., Manes, M. (2001). A partition-limited model for the plant upatake of
organic contaminants from soil and water. Environ. Sci. Total Environ. 185, 125-149.
[7] Beck, A.J., Johnston, D.L., Jones, K.C., (1996). The form and bioavailability of non-ionic organic
chemicals in sewage sludge amended soils. Sci. Total Environ. 185, 125-149
- 70 -

PULP PROPERTIES OF BRANCH OF Acacia mangium Willd
Ridwan Yahya
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Bengkulu
Corresponding author: ridwanyahya@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Branches of Acacia mangium with diameter less than 8 cm are usually left on the ground as
logging wastes in a plantation. Considering higher weight percentage of bark in those branches,
smaller percentage of bark from those branches to total wood (2%) and debarking of small diameter
branches may require some improvement of debarking system, we carried out a systematic
fundamental study to examine the feasibility of branch with bark as a raw material for pulp production.
Pulp yield, kappa number and viscosity data indicated those branches with bark become a potential
wood sources for adding raw material for pulp production. Recommended active alkali charge for kraft
cooking of those trunk and branches with bark were 15% and 16%.

Keywords: Acacia mangium, branch, bark, pulp characteristics
INTRODUCTION
Raw materials for pulp and paper manufacture in Indonesia is limited [1]. Indonesian
government has made a decision to plant more species of trees through a program called Industrial
Timber Estate Development (HTI) in order to deal with the wood supply problem. The major planted
species is fast-growing Acacia mangium Willd. The total area of A. mangium plantations is now
approaching 1.2 million ha [2].
PT. Musi Hutan Persada (MHP) plantation is one of the biggest plantations in Indonesia.
Total biomass of 9 10 years old A. mangium at the plantations was 211.60 ton per hectare. Among
them, trunks with a diameter bigger than 8 cm accounted for 65.32%, while the branches with a
diameter smaller than 8 cm accounted for as much as 14.85% [3]. These smaller parts are left on the
ground as logging wastes. PT. MHP plantation supplies all the woods to a pulp company, PT. Tanjung
Enim Lestari (TEL). The production target of A.mangium delivered to PT TEL by PT. MHP is
2,400,000 m
3
per year [4]. This means that total volume of branches with a diameter smaller than 8 cm
left on the ground as logging wastes at MHP plantations was 356,400 m
3
per year [5].
In a more recent study by Supriadi on potency of branches at MHP plantations with diameter
ranging from 4 to 8 cm as logging wastes, he found out that total volume of the forty trunk (with bark)
of A. mangium was 186,87 m
3
. While the volume of the branches (with bark) was 19.49 m
3
or 10.43%
[6]. On the other hand Fengel and Wegener mention that bark is the second most important tissue of a
tree trunk. It amount to about 10 20% of trunk depending on the species and growing conditions [7].
Yahya et al. found that weight percentage of bark from branch with diameter 2,5 4 cm and 6 8
cm were 17,04% and 12.50%, respectively. Furthermore they mentioned that, if these branches with
bark are used for the manufacture of pulp, about 13 % of gain in raw materials will be achieved [5].
Based on their -cellulose, holocellulose, lignin, extractives contents, fiber dimensions and
their derived values, branch without bark of A. mangium was found to be suitable as raw materials for
pulp and paper production[5]. They also mention that although chemical analysis of bark of
A.mangium indicated that bark is not as good as other part of the wood as a raw material of pulp
production, fibers of bark posses morphologically suitable characteristics for paper making [5].
Considering higher weight percentage of bark in branches, smaller percentage of bark from
those branches to total wood (2%) and debarking of small diameter branches may require some
improvement of debarking system, pulping of branches without the removal of bark become
interested.

- 71 -

EXPERIMENTAL
Wood samples
A. mangium of 6 years old was selected from a plantation in Indonesia. From A. mangium
tree, (1) trunk without bark, and (2) branch of big (6 8 cm) and small (2.5 - 4 cm) diameter with bark
were collected.

Cooking
Wood chips from the trunk, branches with bark of big and small diameter were cooked by
kraft process. Air dry chips were charged into a digester with the required amount of cooking liquor at
ratio of wood to liquor 1 : 4. The temperature was raised from room temperature to 170
o
C for 75 min
and kept at this temperature for 50 min. Active alkali charge was 14%,15% and 16% (as Na
2
O vs o.d.
chips) for trunk and 15%,16% and 17% for branches with bark, while sulfidity was 25% for all
samples. Pulp was washed, total yield and kappa number of pulp was determined. (TAPPI Test
Methods T 236).

Viscosity measurement
The viscosity was measured according to the TAPPI Test Methods T 230 using
cupriethylenediamine (CED) as a solvent and a capillary viscometer. The viscosity was calculated as:

V = Ctd (1)

Where: V = Viscosity of cupriethylenediamine solution at 25.0
o
C, mPa.s
C = Viscometer constant found by calibration
t = average efflux time, s
d = density of the pulp solution, g/cm
3
(=1.052)

Pulp yield
Table 1 shows pulp yield of trunk was higher compare branches with bark. It could be
explained by previous research that holocellulose content from trunk was higher than that from bark
[5]. Mabilangan and Estudillo stated that holocellulose represents the total content of carbohydrate
materials. A high holocellulose content is, therefore, desirable for pulp and paper industry because it is
correlated to the higher pulp yield [8]. Based on all pulp yield data (Table 1), we expected that branches
with bark of A.mangium become a potential wood sources for adding raw material for pulp production.

Kappa number
Kappa number is a measure of residual lignin of pulp. The measurement of lignin in
chemical pulps is a vital tool to monitor the degree of cook or residual lignin before bleaching [9].
Higher kappa number indicates higher residual lignin content. Kappa number of conventional pulp
sulfate based on Indonesian Standard Industries is 27.00 [10]. All pulp of materials relatively low
lignin. The low kappa number of pulp indicates this (Table 1).

Pulp viscosity
Viscosity of pulp provide an indication of pulp strength, in which the higher the viscosity, the
higher the strength properties [9]. Present investigations showed that by including bark, viscosity
values of small branch were increasing (Table 1). It could be explained by previous research that
Flexibility coefficient of the small and big diameter bark showed greater than that trunk. In contrast in
muhhsteph ratio was reversed, values of A. mangium small and big diameter bark lower than those
trunk [5]. Aday et al. stated that a flexibility coefficient equal to or greater than 0.5 and muhlsteph
ratio of 80% or less indicate that the material is suitable for pulp and papermaking [11]. Yahya et al.
also found that the small and big diameter bark and branches of A. Mangium had lower coefficient of
rigidity and runkel ratio than those of the trunk [5]. Tamolang and Wangaard mention that the lower
- 72 -

Fig.1 Active alkali vs pulpyield
30
35
40
45
50
14 15 16 17
Active Alkali (%)
P
u
l
p
y
i
e
l
d

(
%
)
Trunk
Big branch with
bark
Small branch with
bark
the coefficient of rigidity the greater is the resistance to tear [12].On the other hand Mabilangan and
Estudillo emphasis that value of a runkel ratio equal to or less than 1.25 is indicate good for pulp and
papermaking [8].
Target viscosity for market pulp is higher than 9.5 mPa.s [13]. It is expected that the pulp of
branches will result in a good pulp strength.

Table 1. Pulp yield, kappa number and viscosity of part of A.mangium
Part of tree Pulp yield (%) Kappa number Viscosity (mPa.s)
Trunk
a)
44.3 19.0 13.9
Big branch with bark
b)
40.8 19.5 17.5
Small branch with bark
b)
38.7 17.2 16.2
a)
Active alkali 16%
b)
Active alkali 15%

Based on the pulp yield, kappa number and viscosity data indicated that branches of A.
mangium become a potential wood sources for adding raw material for pulp production.

Determination active alkali for mix-cooking trunk and branch with bark
It general, it is believed that the higher the active alkali, the lower the pulp yield and kappa
number it is roughly true as visualized in Fig. 1 and 2.

- 73 -

Fig.2 Active alkali vs kappa number
0
10
20
30
40
14 15 16 17
Act ive Alkali (%)
K
a
p
p
a

N
u
m
b
e
r
Trunk
Big branch wit h
bark
Small branch wit h
bark

Pulp and paper industries needed high pulp yield with low kappa number. In order to utilize
branches with bark of A.mangium we needed decide active alkali estimation to produce pulp from
those trunk and branches with bark of A.mangium. Fig. 3 shows that recommended active alkali
charge for kraft cooking of those trunk and branches with bark were 15% and 16%. On these values
we predicted that those materials could be produce pulp the best values for pulp yield and kappa
number.

Fig.3 Pulp yield and kappa number of different active alkali
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
14 15 16 17
Active Alkali (%)
K
a
p
p
a

N
u
m
b
e
r

P
u
l
p

y
i
e
l
d
Trunk
Big branch with bark
Small branch with bark

- 74 -

CONCLUSIONS
Pulp yield, kappa number and viscosity data indicated that branches of A.mangium become a
potential wood sources for adding raw material for pulp production. Recommended active alkali
charge for kraft cooking of those trunk and branches were 15% and 16%. In order to utilize branches,
qualities kraft pulp with Active alkali 15% and 16% and paper sheet strength properties of
mix-cooking between branches with bark and trunk must be examined.

REFERENCES

[1] N.J. Wistara, 2003, Fractionation and Mild Bleaching of Pulp from Old Corrugated Container.
Journal of Forest Product Technology (16) 53-62 (In Indonesian).
[2] N. Yamashita, S. Ohta, A. Hardjono. 2008. Soil changes induced by Acacia mangium plantation
establishment: Comparison with secondary forest and Imperata cylindrical grassland soils in
South Sumatra, Indonesia. Forest Ecology and Management (254) 362-370.
[3] B. Supriadi, R. Wahyono, 2001, Potency and Utilization of Acacia mangium. Proceeding 5th
Indonesian Wood Research Society Seminar, Bogor, Indonesia, p 618 - 622 (In Indonesian).
[4] B. Ryan, 2000, Tanjung Enim Lestari Pulp and Paper, Musi: A Bright Future for Pulp. Mill Report,
Papermaker, 26 -36.
[5] R. Yahya, Y. Matsumoto, T. Akiyama, G. Meshitsuka., 2005. Feasibility of Branch of Young
Acacia mangium Willd as Raw Material for pulp and paper manufacture. Proceedings of The 50th
Lignin Symposium Nagoya, Japan. October 19 and 20, 2005.
[6] B. Supriadi, 2002, Potency of Branchwood of Acacia mangium Willd Plantations with a
Diameter Ranging from 4 to 8 cm as Logging Wastes at PT. Musi Hutan Persada. Research and
Development PT. Musi Hutan Persada Plantation, Indonesia (in Indonesian), Technical Notes (12)
1-3.
[7) D. Fengel, G. Wegener, 1989, : Wood: Chemistry, Ultrastructure, Reactions. Second Edition.
Walter de Gruyter and Co, Berlin. 1-729.
[8) L.C. Mabilangan, C.P Estudillo, 1996, Philippines Woods Suitable for Kraft Pulping Process.
Philippines Forest Products Research Development Institute, Trade Bulletin Series (5) 1-9.
[9] C.J. Biermann, 1993, Essentials of Pulping and Papermaking. Academic Press, Inc California, p
72-124.
[10] K. Sofyan, 1997, Producing Low Kappa Number Pulp by Oxygen Delignification. Journal of
Forest Product Technology (10) 34-37 (In Indonesian Language).
[11] J.U. Aday, J.G. Palisoc, Y.L. Tavita, L.V. Villavelez. 1980. Some Philippines Hardwood Species
with Morphological Characteristic Suitable for Pulp and Papermaking. Philippine Forest Products
Research Development Institute, FORPRIDECOM Technical Publication, 1-23.
[12] F.N. Tamolang, F.F. Wangaard. 1961. Relationship between Hardwood Fiber Characteristics
and Pulp Sheet Properties. Tappi J. (44) 200 216.
[13] K. Watanabe, T. Miyanishi, 2004, Kraft Pulping Characteristics of Plantation-grown Acacia
Mangium. Japan Tappi J. 58 (8) 87-93.

- 75 -

Tropical Materials Ability for Immobilising Strontium Waste
Susetyo Hario Putero
1*
, Kusnanto
1
and Widya Rosita
1

1
Department of Engineering Physics, Gadjah Mada University

*Corresponding author: susetyo@ugm.ac.id
ABSTRACT
The radioactive waste has to be immobilized prior to store in a storage place. Cementation is
one of several methods to immobilize radioactive waste. Cementation technique has to have proper
compressive strength and leaching rate for assuring environmental safety. Indonesia has a plenty of
natural resources, so the ability of its materials for immobilizing strontium waste have been studied in
Nuclear Engineering Study Program of Gadjah Mada University. The ability of zeolite as a strontium
adsorber on cement mortar had been studied. For increasing its compressive strength, coconut (Cocos
nucifera) fiber and bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris) fiber had been compared. The rice husk ash was also
used as pozzolanic materials for increasing mortars strength and durability. The mortars were tested to
determine their compressive strength by Universal Wood Testing after cured for 28 days. Strontium
leaching rate encapsulated on the blocks was analyzed by Hitachi Zeeman 8000 Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometer for 21 days. This research showed several materials that could be found out in
Indonesia, such as zeolite, natural fibers and rice husk, are be able to use for immobilizing strontium
waste. Cement mortars containing these materials could fulfill IAEA standards for compressive
strength and leaching rate of cementation.
Keywords: Indonesias materials, radioactive waste, immobilization.
INTRODUCTION
Nuclear technology has been studied in Indonesia since 1954 when a national committee
studied fallout produced by several nuclear weapon test in Pacific Ocean. Since 1965, Indonesia had
operated a research nuclear reactor in Bandung. For improving the utilization of nuclear technology,
Indonesia had established a Commission for Nuclear Power Plant Establishment Preparation in 1972.
Recently, Indonesia was intensively studying all aspect including radioactive waste management for
establishing first nuclear power reactor due to the global energy crisis.
Strontium is a long lived fission product (28 years) that is contained in radioactive waste. A
nuclear spent fuel contains 2 mol%
90
Sr/kg fuels [1]. The radioactive waste has to immobilize prior to
store in a storage place for minimizing radionuclide release into environment. Cementation is one of
several methods to immobilize radioactive waste. Cementation technique has to have proper
compressive strength and leaching rate for assuring environmental safety. This paper would like to
describe the researches on tropical materials, especially zeolite, coconut (Cocos nucifera) fiber,
bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris) fiber and rice husk ash (RHA), for immobilizing strontium waste that had
been done in Nuclear Engineering Study Program of Gadjah Mada University.
THEORY
Cementation is a solidification process of radioactive waste using cement matrix.
Cementation is usually used for solidifying low and medium level liquid radioactive waste that does
not contain actinides or long half-lived radionuclides. In general, cement is cheap, simple, strong
mechanical properties and strong binding strength with radionuclide.
There are several types of cement, such as Portland cement, white cement and pozzolanic
cement. Pozzolanic cement could reduce the setting time and increase sulfate resistance. Pozzolanic
material is composed of 45%-72% SiO
2
, 10%-18% Al
2
O
3
, 1%-6% Fe
2
O
3
, 0.5%-3% MgO and
0.3%-1.6% SO
3
. To form pozzolanic cement, 15%-40% of pozzolanic materials are added into a
Portland cement.
- 76 -

One of the natural pozzolanic materials is RHA obtained by burning the rice husk. RHA
could be classified as one of materials having good pozzolanic properties due to its high content of
silica (85~90%). The moisture content in rice husk is relatively small because the husk is a residual of
dry milling process. Commonly, RHA is only used as a primary or additional fuel in the bricks industry,
decorating materials, or even discarded in animal cages
The objective of radioactive waste cementation is to immobilize waste and to retain it on a
concrete, so there is no radiation risk to humans and the environment. Based on the objective, the
cementation must meet the IAEA standards, such as [2]:
Density: 1.70~2.50 gr.cm
-3
.
Compressive strength: 20~50 N.mm
-2
.
Compressive strength after waste loading: 2.5 N/mm
2
.
Leaching rate (Rn): 1.70 x 10
-1
~2.50 x 10
-4
gr.cm
-2
.days
-1
.
Dose rate in contact surface: 200 mrem.hours
-1
.
Dose rate in 1 m from contact surface < 10 mrem. hours
-1
.
Dose rate outside of interim storage 0,50 mrem.hours
-1
.
To meet the requirement, phycical properties of cement could be improved by inserting fiber
into it. Fiber could be classified as metalic fiber, polimeric fiber, mineral fiber and natural fiber [3].
Natural fiber, such as coconut (Cocos nucifera) and bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris), is easier to find out
and cheaper due to its abundancy in tropical area, especially in Indonesia as shown in Table 1 below
[4].
Table 1. Coconut plantation in Indonesia

A large number of zeolite in Indonesia was found in 1985 by BATAN and spread in Sumatra
and Java Island as shown in Figure 1. There are 46 locations of zeolite field, but only in a few
locations, intensive mining is carried out, such as in Bayah, Banten, Cikalong, Tasikmalaya, Cikembar,
- 77 -

Sukabumi, Nanggung, Bogor and Lampung [5]. Zeolite could be used as an ion exchanger and
adsorber, because it has an active side that could bind elements on a solution. Zeolite is also composed
by silicate and alumina that will react with Ca(OH)
2
to form calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) named
tobermorite. It improves cements microstructure, hardening and impermeability. Major components of
zeolite in Indonesia are klinoptilolite and mordenite.

Figure 1. Zeolite resources in Indonesia [6]
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Zeolite and Natural Fiber Effect
Activated natural zeolite was used to adsorbed Sr
2+
on 200 ppm Sr(NO
3
)
2
liquid. Zeolite
adsorbing Sr ion (13%) was mixed with 3% water, type I Portland cement (SNI 15-2049-2004) and
0.50
v
/
o
natural fiber (coconut or bamboo). Cement used in this research contained SiO
2
(20.8%), Al
2
O
3

(6.9%), Fe
2
O
3
(3.0%), CaO (63.7%), MgO (2.0%), SO
3
(1.6%), loss on ignition (1.5%) and insoluble
residue (0.5%). The mixture was cast into a cylinder having 2.2 cm diameter and 4.4 cm high. The
cement reinforced mortars were heated at room temperature, 50
0
, 100
0
, 150
0
, 200
0
and 250
0
C.
RHA Effect
The mineral composition of RHA used in this research is shown in Table 2. Various volume
of -40 mesh RHA (10
v
/
o
, 25
v
/
o
and 40
v
/
o
) was mixed with type I Portland cement and -40 mesh sand.
The mixture of various pozzolanic cement and 65 ppm Sr(NO
3
)
2
in a glass beaker was stirred with a
spatula, meanwhile various volume of water (0,2
v
/
o
, 0,3
v
/
o
and 0,4
v
/
o
) was poured into the glass. The
mixture was cast as described before.
Table 2. Composition of RHA.
Mineral
Compound
CaO SiO
2
Fe
2
O
3
MgO K
2
O Na
2
O
Composition (%) 0.28 85.94 0.26 0.61 1.36 0.33

Test
The cement mortars were tested to determine their compressive strength by Universal Wood
Testing after cured for 28 days. The compressive strength,
t
(N.mm
-2
) was calculated by dividing
force, F (N) by surface area of cement mortar that force applied, A (mm
2
) (Eq. 1).
( ) 1
A
F
t
= o

The strontium leaching rate, R (gr.cm
-2
.days
-1
) encapsulated on the block was tested during 2,
- 78 -

4, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21 days and analyzed using a Hitachi Zeeman AAS type 8000. Data were calculated
using equation 2 described below.
( ) 2
0
0
Sxt
W
x
A
A
R
t
=

( ) ( ) 3
2
5 . 0 Dh D S t t + |
.
|
\
|
=

where,
A
t
= Activity of strontium at time t (Ci)
A
0
= Initial activity of strontium at time 0 (Ci)
W
0
= Cement mortar weight (gr)
S = Surface area of cement mortar (cm
2
)
t = Leaching time (days)
D = Cement mortar diameter (cm)
h = Cement mortar height (cm)
RESEARCH RESULTS
The results are described below.
Table 3. Compressive strength of cement mortar reinforced by coconut fiber and bamboo fiber.
Temperature (
0
C) 27 50 100 150 200 250
Compressive
strength (N/mm
2
)
Coconut 27.62 45.57 17.91 14.4 12.8 10.31
Bamboo 25.65 14.56 30.87 35.34 36.89 13.33

Table 3 shows that the bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris) fiber is more feasible than coconut
(Cocos nucifera) fiber for reinforcing cement mortar. Because, modulus of elasticity of bamboo fiber
(33~40 GPa) is greater than coconut fiber one (19~26 Gpa) [3]. As consequently, bamboo fiber is
better than coconut fiber in resisting force. Coconut fiber also absorbs more water than the bamboo
due to its hygroscopic properties.
When cement mortar is heated, the water remain on mortar will evaporate. Then,
water-cement ratio (w/c) becomes precisely 25%. The over heating will burn the fiber on mortar and
enlarge the cavity in between cement matrix and fiber [7]. The strain of natural fiber also decreases
along with temperature change. The decreasing in fibers elasticity reduces the ability of fiber in
transferring the load on the matrix to the fibers [8]. At high temperatures, water on the fiber-matrix
cavity will be evaporated led to the emergence of the air cavity. All causes described above result in
changing on mortars compressive strength.
As an inorganic material, bamboo and coconut fiber are not durable enough under alkali
condition in long time period. In this research, alkali condition occurs due to the presence of Ca(OH)
2

as product of hydration reaction. This condition is reduced by reaction between zeolite and Ca(OH)
2

forming CSH or tobermorite as described above. Unfortunately, this research has not analyzed
durability limit of coconut or bamboo fiber on cement mortar yet.
According to Figure 3 below, the RHA addition will decrease mortars compressive strength.
But, if it is compared to compressive strength of mortar without the addition of RHA (16.645 4.241
N/mm
2
), the addition of RHA up to 10
v
/
o
could improve the compressive strength. Pozzolanic
materials react slowly with water and Ca(OH)
2
released on hydration reaction to form CSH that
function in cement hardening. This reaction affects on ultimate strength of mortar. In the other hand,
the hygroscopic properties of RHA results in particle swelling. So, the amount of water does not meet
- 79 -

the requirement for hydration reaction and then causes difficulty to form cement paste. It is the reason
why the addition of RHA above 10
v
/
o
causes in decreasing of mortars compressive strength. The
effect of hygroscopic properties of RHA also causes that variations of w/c in this study are too little for
making significant effect into the compressive strength.
The compressive strength values shown in Table 3and Figure 2 below are over 2,5 N/mm
2

that is minimum compressive strength for cementation [2]. These values also fulfill Russian
Federation standard (5 N/mm
2
) [1].
Figure 2. Effect of the addition RHA on compressive strength at various % of w/c
21 18 15 12 9 6 4 2
4
3
2
1
0
Days
S
r

L
e
a
c
h
i
n
g

r
a
t
e

(
1
0
^
-
3

g
r
/
c
m
^
2
.
d
a
y
s
)
Bamboo
Coconut
Variable
Line Plot of Bamboo; Coconut

(a)
21 18 15 12 10 8 6 4 2
0,08
0,07
0,06
0,05
0,04
0,03
0,02
0,01
0,00
Days
S
r

l
e
a
c
h
i
n
g

r
a
t
e

(
g
r
/
c
m
^
2
.
d
a
y
s
)
Line Plot of Sr leaching rate (gr/cm^2.days)

(b)
Figure 3. Leaching rate of strontium on (a) cement mortars reinforced by coconut fiber and bamboo
fiber, (b) RHA-cement mortar
Figure 3(a) shows that the leaching rate of strontium on mortar reinforced by bamboo fiber is
lower than coconuts one. Natural fiber fills the cavities in the mortar, so that the pores in the cement
become smaller. It results in stronger containment of elements on cement mortar. It is also the result of
zeolite presence on mortar.
Strontium ion adsorbed on zeolit replaces M
x/n
(exchangeble cation) of zeolite structure or
trapped on cavities. Strontium also has the isomorf replacement property with Ca and hence they could
replace each others. Strontium will replace calcium on cement, and as consequently, strontium will be
stronger contained on mortar. In this case, effect of zeolite is stronger than the effect of pore
decreasing. Therefore, the differences between bamboo and coconut fibers could be negligible.
40 25 10
30
25
20
15
10
RHA (v/0)
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

o
f

C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

(
N
/
m
m
^
2
)
0,2
0,3
0,4
(v/0)
w/c
Interaction Plot for Kuat Tekan (N/mm^2)
Data Means
- 80 -

The leaching rate of strontium on mortar reinforced by natural fiber is lower than
RHA-cement one that shown in Fig. 3(b). In Fig. 3(b), sand was used as filler material, but in Figure
3(a) zeolite was used to replace sand. As described before, zeolite has ability to adsorb and to
exchange ion, so strontium ion will be bind stronger on the mortar. Even though, the 91
st
leaching rates
shown in Fig. 3 are still under maximum IAEA standard (10
-2
gr/cm
2
.days). So, these cement mortars
enriched by tropical materials are be able to immobilize strontium waste.
CONCLUSIONS
This research shows several tropical materials that could be found out in tropical area,
especially Indonesia, such as zeolite, natural fibers and rice husk, are be able to use for immobilizing
strontium waste. Cement mortars containing these materials could fulfill IAEA standards for
compressive strength and strontium leaching rate of cementation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The supporting of the Department of Engineering Physics, Gadjah Mada University for our
research is acknowledged. We also thank to Gadjah Mada University, especially Faculty of
Engineering for permitting this publication. We also grateful to Dr. Yudi Utomo Imardjoko for his
valuable advice.

References
[1] Ojovan, M. I. and Lee, W. E. 2005, An Introduction to Nuclear Waste Immobilisation, Elsevier
Inc., Oxford.
[2] Herry Poernomo, Raharjo and Supardi, 1995, Effect of Sodium Silicate on Cementation of
Uranium Waste Containing Ammonium Fluoride, Proceeding Scientific Meeting and
Presentation of Nuclear Basic Research, Science and Technology, National Board of Nuclear
Power, Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
[3] Balaguru, P.N., and Shah, S.P., 1992, Fiber Reinforced Cement Composites, McGraw-Hill, Inc.,
Singapura.
[4] Republic of Indonesia Ministry of Agriculture, 2010
[5] Las, Thamzil, 2009, Potency of Zeolite for Treating Industrial and Radioactive Waste, Available
online: http://www.batan.go.id/ (accessed on 21st October 2010)
[6] Potency of Zeolite, Available online:http://www.tekmira.esdm.go.id/data/Zeolit/Potensi.asp
(accessed on 24th October 2010)
[7] Susetyo Hario Putero, Nunung Prabaningrum and Widya Rosita, 2007, The Immobilization Of
Chromium And Strontium Waste Using Natural Fiber Reinforced Cement, Proceeding of 5
th

National Seminar on Waste Management Technology, Centre for Radioactive Waste Technology,
Serpong, Indonesia, p. 179.
[8] Susetyo Hario Putero, Nunung Prabaningrum and Noviasari, 2009, The Temperature Of
Evaporator Concentrate Effect On Waste Cementation Reinforced By Bamboo Fiber, Proceeding
of National Seminar Applied Science for Technology Innovation 2009, Section V, Department of
Engineering Physics Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia, p. V-54.
- 81 -

STUDY OF SMALL SCALE GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT IN MOUNT
TANGKUBAN PERAHU FOR COMMUNITY ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Andi Hendra Paluseri
1*
, Novi Arianto
2
, Rizal Adam Zulkarnaen
3
and Yoga Sandi Perdana
4

1234
Electrical Power Engineering, Bandung Institute of Technology
*Corresponding author: and_on3classix@yahoo.co.id
ABSTRACT
As country which located in Ring of Fire, Indonesia has many opportunities especially in
Geothermal Energy.Because of Few pollutant and renewable energy, make this energy is expected by
Indonesia government as future energy. Mount Tangkuban Perahu as one of many mount in Indonesia
especially in Bandung, should can be geothermal potency which can used for resident around that
Mount at least. In this paper, we try to study small scale Geothermal Power Plant to improve
community economy around that mount. So that, economy activities especially in farming house can
be enhanced by this local Power Plant

Keywords: Mount Tangkuban Perahu, Community Economy, Small Scale Geothermal Power Plant,
Farming House
INTRODUCTION
Indonesia is a country with the greatest geothermal potential that is 40% of the world's
geothermal potential
[1]
. This potential is mainly used for electricity generation. As country which
located in Ring of Fire, Indonesia has many chances and risks. Here, Chances mean opportunities,
especially in Geothermal Energy. Energy in Indonesia mostly come from fuel energy. Whereas, fuel
energy like coal is the three largest contributor of CO
2
to the greenhouse effect and price of fuel
energy has increased each year so that the subsidy burden will increase each year. Moreover, they are
unrenewable energy. For future, Indonesia government focus on renewable energy.
Mount Tangkuban Perahu is one of many location which has geothermal potency. Residents
in this place still have problem with electricity supply. Because there are only few electrical
installations reach this place.In this paper, we try to make a study small scale Geothermal Power Plant
for improving growth of this area, especially economic growth.
Most of geothermal utilization is used for Geothermal Power Plant (GPP), which is managed
by the geothermal company. However, this utilization is not balanced with the welfare of community
around that in fact many geothermal resources are located in remote areas. The utilization is
considered less than optimal and having role for surrounding community. To solve this problem, one
of the effective solutions is utilization of geothermal steam for farming house.
We study geothermal using for supplying power to farming houses in Cikole Village which
inhabited by 12.000 people
[11]
and That Village has 300 farm houses. With Estimation, one farm home
need 10 KW energy.

BASIC THEORY OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
The word of geothermal comes from the Greek that geo = earth, thermal = heat ; utilizing
heat from several sources, namely hot water or steam reservoirs located deep in the bowels of the earth
and accessible with drilling.
Geothermal direct use systems use a fairly simple and established technology that generally
involves three basic elements: (1) a production system that brings water up through a well to the surface;
(2) a delivery system that distributes hot water through pipes; and (3) a disposal system where the cooled
water is injected back into the reservoir.
[2]
.
Geothermal energy comes from magma in the bowels of the earth. As the figure 1, Magma
flows the steam with a very high temperature and pressure. Magma is located inside the mantle layer
heats a layer of solid rock. Above the solid rock lies a layer of porous stone that has many small holes.
When the porous layer is filled with water, which comes from ground water or rain water infiltration, or
- 82 -

recharge the water of the lake water, the water is also heated by layers of solid rock. When the heat is
very high, it will form the hot water and hot steam. Steam will be trying to get out of the rock solid
because it has a high steam pressure. In other words, the steam will emerge or arise towards the earth's
surface
[9]
.

Figure 1 : steam flow from magma to permeable rock [8]

Potency of geothermal Indonesia is the largest. its because Indonesia is located on the ring of
fire, the earths cracks (faults) zone. As shown in figure 2, the earths cracks region has a large steam
pressure so it has the potential to build geothermal power plants.

Figure 2 : Cross- Section Schematic of geopressured reservoir [8]

EXISTING CONDITION OF MOUNT TANGKUBAN PERAHU AREA
a. DATA OF GEOTHERMAL POTENCY
Geothermal potency in West java is 5626 MW and Mount Tangkuban Perahu has potency
approximately 100 MW
[10]
. Here, we try to establish 5MW Geothermal Power Plant for Cikole Vilage.
So that, 300 Farm Houses in Cikole Village can be supplied by this Power Plant. With Estimation, one
farm home need 10000 watt.

- 83 -

Table 1. Indonesia Geothermal Potency

b. GEOGRAPHY CONDITION
Tangkuban Perahu, or Tangkuban Parahu in local Sundanese dialect, is an active volcano
30 km north of the city of Bandung, the provincial capital of West Java, Indonesia. It is a popular tourist
attraction where tourists can hike or ride to the edge of the crater to view the hot water springs upclose,
and buy eggs cooked on its hot surface. This stratovolcano is on the island of Java and last erupted in
1983. Together with Mount Burangrang and Bukit Tunggul, those are remnants of the ancient Mount
Sunda after the plinian eruption caused the Caldera to collapse
[3]
.
Mount Tangkuban Perahu located on Jawa Barat Province included two different regency
(area headed by Bupati) Bandung regency and Subang regency. Cikole Village, one of Village in
Mount Tangkuban Perahu has population approximately 12,000 people.

Figure 4. Mount Tangkuban Perahu[6]

- 84 -

STRATEGIES OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT IMPLEMENTATION
Farm products processing industry in Tangkuban Perahu is less developed to maximum
capabilities to become a larger and economically independent industry. Strategies must be
implemented gradually, realistic and understandable by the whole community.

a. Public Participation
Farm management existing in Tangkuban Perahu is a strong fundamental thats very
important to supports the implementation of community development. However, this does not as
simply as continue an existing one, but need to make changes and improvements to its management
structure.
Nowadays Tangkuban Perahu only have an organizational structure that is still spontaneous
depend on necessities, uncertain and only rely just on a few people that are concerned with related
cooperatives. So the communities do not get the effect of farm products processing.
The communities that are involved need to have a program to embrace other communities to
participate and become a part of the farm products processing industry management and development
in Tangkuban Perahu. All related communities need to increase their awareness and commitment to
realizing independent farm industralization. The industries should receive full assistance and support
from government and relevant companies.

b. Industrial Development
Innovation in development phases can be obtained with making study visits to other farm
products processing companies that already developed by directly involving Tangkuban Perahu
communities. These innovations will cause another improvements such as the production efficiency,
production time effectiveness, technologies used, etc. The farm products industrialization is take a
certain form after make well decided plans.

c. Development Supporting Infrastructures
Next development phase requires infrastructure to support distribution and marketing
activities of the processed farm products, its important to have quickly access roads and electricity.
Therefore goverment or communities need to make non perforated, durable and safe access roads to
run business activities.
In addition, to support business marketing, its necessary to build retail stores and
agricultural park that shows off how farm industrialization develops in Tangkuban Perahu. Hence
peoples will be attracted to comeback and participate in the development of Tangkuban Perahu.

d. Industrial Management Training to Local Communities
Farm processing industrial management training always be held continuously to improve the
knowledge about how to make sustainable farming process management. Training must cover up all
areas related to farming industrial development such as farm treatment, rapid mass production
technology, products marketing, products packaging, financial management (cash flow management),
industrial expansion, investation risk analysis, etc.

e. Industrial Expansion
This expansion phase is just an impact if the previous development phases have already done
properly. Industrial expansion is excalation of production capacity and its market shares. Other
examination on using potential of residual geothermal steam that suitable for greenhouse vegetables
and fruits cultivation is also a kind of expansion. The expansion can also be done with building more
retail farm products market outside Tangkuban Perahu.

f. Supervision and Evaluation
f. 1 Supervision
- 85 -

During this plan executions, any occurrence of development should always be monitored and
recorded so it will be controllable. It is best if we can analyse and decide next development plan from
datas such as tables, charts or a track record of the industry.
Monitoring is not only on the production line but also includes every aspects of the farm
industry related such as checking road conditions, vehicle transportation, updating financial
informations, etc.

f. 2 Evaluation
After doing monitoring and recording, critical evaluations are held periodically. Evaluation
report on the track record is important for industrialization to continuously improved.
Providing rewards to one of the workers who have high levels of productivity in its work so
it rise sense of encouragement to the community to always work with pleasure, sincerity, and care is
one way to appreciating someones contributions toward community developments.
When this evaluation giving a satisfactory result or in line with expected output and original
plan, then this program can be said successful.

CONCLUSION
In this study, we have suggested some ideas about geothermal utilization intended to develop
farm processing industry that has not been maximized in remote area.
The solution is improving and developing farm product processing to be a sustainable and
economically independent industry.
This solution is not perfect yet and still needs more studies. It can be obtained step by step
realizing that the first possible implementation prototype is in Tangkuban Perahu.

References
[1] Darma, S., Sugiharto, H.,Bambang, S., Hadyanto, R. S., Anton W. S., Novi, G. And Jim, S. 2010.
Geothermal Energy Update : Geothermal Energy Development and Utilization in Indonesia. In
Proceedings of World Geothermal Congress 2010 in Bali, Indonesia, 25-29 April 2010.
[2] Maimunah Ismail. (1999). Extension: Implications on Community Development. (2
nd
Ed.) Kuala
Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
[3] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Tangkuban_Perahu
[4] Thomas Ac kermann and Goran Andersson and Lennart Soder, Distributed Generation: a
definition, ELSEVIER Electrical Power Sistem Research 57 (2001) 195-204, December 2000
[5] Suyanto, Taufan S, Lina A, and Andri S, 2010. Development of Direct Use Application by BPPT.
In Proceedings of World Geothermal Congress 2010 in Bali, Indonesia, 25-29 April 2010
[6] http://andihendra.wordpress.com/2010/11/17/gunung-tangkuban-perahu/
[7] Anonim, 2006. Pengembangan Panas Bumi di Jawa Barat : Kontribusi dan Harapan Daerah. In
Seminar Nasional Panas Bumi : Panas Bumi sebagai Energi Andalan Masa Kini dan
Mendatang in Bali, Indonesia, 3 April 2006
[8] DiPippo, Ronald, 2007. Geothermal Power Plant : Principles, Applications, Case Studies and
Environmental Impact. Massachusetts: BH.
[9] Bab 7 Energi Panas Bumi.
http://elearning.gunadarma.ac.id/docmodul/dasar_fisika_energi/bab7_energi_panas_bumi.pdf
[10] http://www.energiterbarukan.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=264&Itemid=8
1
[11] http://bataviase.co.id/detailberita-10479214.html

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