Changes in Governmental Restrictions

over the use of Internet

in Syria, Egypt, Saudi Arabia and
the United Arab Emirates between the
Years 2002 – 2005

Tal Pavel
Department of Middle Eastern History

Ph.D. Thesis

Submitted to Senate of

Bar-Ilan University

Ramat-Gan, Israel July 2007

 This work was carried out under the
supervision of
Prof. Eliezer Tauber
(Department of Middle Eastern History)
and Dr. Mordechai Kedar
(Department of Arabic),
Bar-Ilan University
 Table of Contents
Introduction..........................................................................................................................1
Research Objective.......................................................................................................1
Methodological Background..........................................................................................1
Postulations...................................................................................................................4
Chapter A – The Internet – Filtering Methods and Circumvention in Internet Filtering.......7
Internet Filtering.............................................................................................................7
The Internet and its Role in Totalitarian Regimes.....................................................9
Totalitarian Regimes Control of the Internet.......................................................11
Internet Filtering - How Does it Really Works ?......................................................13
Access Blockage.................................................................................................13
Inclusion Filtering............................................................................................13
Exclusion Filtering ..........................................................................................13
Blocking Method.................................................................................................15
Blocking Place...................................................................................................17
Local..............................................................................................................17
Organizational................................................................................................17
National..........................................................................................................18
Content Filtering ................................................................................................18
Regulatory Blocking...........................................................................................20
Monitoring..........................................................................................................20
Circumvention.............................................................................................................20
Circumvention Websites ..................................................................................21
Circumvention Programs .................................................................................22
Tutorials..............................................................................................................24
Linkage...............................................................................................................25
Personal Knowledge ........................................................................................25
Chapter B – Internet Usage Restriction: The State of the Research ...............................27
Experiments.................................................................................................................27
Internet Filtering ....................................................................................................27
Jonathan Zittrain & Benjamin Edelman..............................................................27
OpenNet Initiative...............................................................................................28
Models and Indexes ..................................................................................................30
Authority Characteristic ..........................................................................................30
Level of Democracy/Autocracy - Polity IV Project..............................................30
Worldwide Governance Indicators......................................................................31
Levels of Restrictions .............................................................................................32
Alexander Gruhler...............................................................................................32
Reporters Without Borders.................................................................................32
Information Technology and Communication Accessibility ....................................33
Digital Access Index (DAI)..................................................................................33
Total Country Connectivity Measure (TCCM).....................................................34
Internet Diffusion.....................................................................................................35
Richard Beilock, Daniela V. Dimitrova................................................................35
Global Diffusion of the Internet Project (GDI).....................................................36
 Nikhilesh Dholakia, Ruby Roy Dholakia, Nir Kshetri..........................................37
B. Bazar & G. Boalch..........................................................................................38
Sean McLaughlin................................................................................................43
Researches.................................................................................................................46
Mauro F. Guillen &Sandra L. Suarez.................................................................46
Michel Elie...........................................................................................................47
Eszter Hargittai...................................................................................................49
Eric Arnum & Sergio Conti..................................................................................51
Social Factors Influence over Internet Diffusion ...................................................53
Demography........................................................................................................53
Leo W. Jeffres.....................................................................................................53
Gender................................................................................................................54
Nikhilesh Dholakia, Ruby Roy Dholakia, Nir Kshetri..........................................54
Age......................................................................................................................55
Regime Policy, Monopoly and Political Freedom Influence over Internet Diffusion55
Government Policy..............................................................................................55
Political Freedom Vs. Economical Freedom .....................................................56
Katsuyoshi Okui..................................................................................................56
Human Capital Influence Over Internet Diffusion .................................................57
Education............................................................................................................57
English Language ..............................................................................................58
Internet Influence over Society .............................................................................58
Paul DiMaggio, Eszter Hargittai , W. Russell Neuman, and John P. Robinson..58
Internet and Arab Society...................................................................................61
Chapter C – The Restrictions of Internet Use in Iran and the Arab World – in Principle and
in Practice..........................................................................................................................64
Communication and Internet in Iran and the Arab World...........................................64
Supervision of the Internet in Iran and the Arab World..............................................72
Supervision of the Internet in Iran and the Arab World - in Principle......................73
Fear of Internet Expansion.................................................................................73
Oppositional Activity.......................................................................................73
Defending Tradition and Cultural Identity.......................................................73
Preserving Tradition and Religious Values ...................................................74
Preserving Control over the Communication ................................................74
Intellectuals as Western Culture Agents.........................................................75
Metods of Supervision........................................................................................75
Access Prevention..............................................................................................76
Regulatory.....................................................................................................76
Technological.................................................................................................76
Economical....................................................................................................76
Access Blocking and Filtering ...........................................................................77
Online Activity Monitoring .................................................................................78
Circumvention.....................................................................................................78
Public Discourse ................................................................................................79
Supervision of the Internet in Iran and the Arab World - de Facto .........................79
Iran......................................................................................................................80
Internet Usage...............................................................................................80
Activity of the Establishment ........................................................................82
Legislation......................................................................................................84
Supervision....................................................................................................85
 ISPs............................................................................................................86
Users..........................................................................................................87
Websites.....................................................................................................87
Internet Cafes ...........................................................................................87
Internet Filtering and Blocking of Websites....................................................88
Websites....................................................................................................88
Weblogs.....................................................................................................91
Arrests.............................................................................................................92
Circumvention.................................................................................................99
Tunisia.................................................................................................................99
Legislation.....................................................................................................100
ISP............................................................................................................101
Internet Cafes ..........................................................................................102
Supervision...................................................................................................103
Users........................................................................................................103
ISPs..........................................................................................................104
Internet Cafes ..........................................................................................104
Internet Filtering and Blocking of Websites .................................................105
Arrests..........................................................................................................107
Libya..................................................................................................................108
Internet Usage..............................................................................................110
Arrests...........................................................................................................110
Bahrain..............................................................................................................111
Internet Usage..............................................................................................112
Cost...............................................................................................................113
Legislation.....................................................................................................113
Supervision...................................................................................................115
Websites...................................................................................................115
Internet Filtering and Blocking of Websites .................................................116
Arrests...........................................................................................................119
Jordan...............................................................................................................120
Internet Usage..............................................................................................121
Legislation.....................................................................................................121
Supervision...................................................................................................122
Internet Filtering and Blocking of Websites ................................................122
Arrests..........................................................................................................123
Qatar.................................................................................................................123
Chapter D – Internet Freedom Index ..............................................................................126
1. Basic Assumptions...........................................................................................128
2. Model Sources.................................................................................................129
3. Database Preparation for Statistical Processing, Index Scoring Computation130
Phase A – Data Aggregation...........................................................................131
Phase B – Raw Value Formula Computing....................................................132
Phase C – Parameters Standartization..........................................................133
Phase D – Indices, Formula Parameters and Formula Computation.............134
4. The Research in Context of the Model............................................................136
5. Internet Freedom Index – Parameters, Weights, Scores and Legend 137

6. Models Main Findings.........................................................................150

Chapter E – Internet in Syria..........................................................................................151
 History..........................................................................................................151
Pilot Project.......................................................................................................152
Project Planning............................................................................................153
Project Goals................................................................................................153
Implementation.............................................................................................153
Subscribers – Target Audience.....................................................................153
Cost...............................................................................................................154
Public Access Project........................................................................................154
Implementation.............................................................................................154
Subscribers – Target Audience ....................................................................154
Communication Speed.................................................................................155
Future Internet Project......................................................................................155
Internet in Syria Today......................................................................................157
Internet Usage..............................................................................................157
Cost...............................................................................................................160
Legislation.....................................................................................................162
Supervision...................................................................................................163
Internet Filtering and Blocking of Websites..................................................166
Public Discourse...........................................................................................168
Arrests and Harassments of Internet Users and Journalists........................168
Journalists' Arrests...................................................................................169
Journalists' Harassments ........................................................................170
Internet Users Arrests ..............................................................................170
Circumvention...............................................................................................173
Disscusion and Conclusions – Characteristics of Blocked Websites...........174
Chapter F – Internet in Egypt ..........................................................................................178
History...........................................................................................................178
Internet Usage..............................................................................................185
Legislation.....................................................................................................188
Supervision...................................................................................................188
Internet Filtering and Blocking of Websites..................................................191
Public Discourse .........................................................................................191
Arrests..........................................................................................................191
Disscusion and Conclusions – Characteristics of Blocked Websites...........193
Chapter G – Internet in Saudi Arabia...............................................................................196
History...........................................................................................................196
Cost...............................................................................................................200
Legislation.....................................................................................................201
Internet.....................................................................................................201
Internet Cafes...........................................................................................204
Supervision...................................................................................................205
Internet.....................................................................................................206
Cellular Phones........................................................................................208
Internet Filtering and Blocking of Websites .................................................209
The Method..............................................................................................209
The Contents............................................................................................211
Public Discourse .........................................................................................216
Arrests 217

Circumvention...............................................................................................217
 Disscusion and Conclusions – Characteristics of Blocked Websites ..........219
Chapter H – Internet in U.A.E..........................................................................................223
History...........................................................................................................223
Internet Usage..............................................................................................227
Cost...............................................................................................................229
Legislation.....................................................................................................230
Supervision...................................................................................................231
Internet Filtering and Blocking of Websites..................................................234
Public Discourse...........................................................................................236
Arrests..........................................................................................................237
Circumvention...............................................................................................238
Disscusion and Conclusions – Characteristics of Blocked Websites...........239
Chapter I – Summary and Conclusions...........................................................................241
Appendices......................................................................................................................254
A – Glossary..............................................................................................................254
B – Tools for Internet Content Filtering......................................................................260
C – Internet Penetration Rate and Usage Growth in Middle East and North Africa. 261
D – Annual Worldwide Press Freedom Index – Reporters Without Borders ........262
E – Freedom House – Press Freedom Rankings....................................................263
F – World Public Sector Report 2003: e-Government at the Crossroads................264
References.......................................................................................................................265
English...................................................................................................................265
Arabic....................................................................................................................298
French...................................................................................................................301
Abstract..................................................................................................................................
 Abstract
This dissertation studies the status of the Internet while examining the change in

restrictions controlling it in four Middle Eastern states: Syria, Egypt, Saudi

Arabia and U.A.E, between the years 2002-2005.

First we examine the issue of Internet filtering including the motives, the means

and the methods used in order to limit the free access to the Internet in these

states.

Then we examine issues concerning the use of the Internet in the Arab world,

while focusing on the limitations of use rising from problems of illiteracy in

English and Arabic, poor technology and communication infrastructure,

alongside limited readiness on the part of the governments to accept free use of

the Internet.

These problems were and still are the main obstacles to expansion of use of the

Internet in Arab countries.

At the same time, and despite these limitations, the rate of growth of the use of

the Internet in the Arab world is the highest in the world (311.9% - almost twice

as high as the world rate).

Yet conclusions from the Internet Freedom Model presented in this study show

that these issues not only were they obstacles in the past, but still limit the

diffusion of the Internet and prevent it from becoming free in the surveyed

countries.

In the Arab world commerce was the main catalyst of Internet diffusion in

contrast to the universities that led the development of the Internet in the

Western world. Still the delaying factors in the Arab world were and are the
governments, each for its own reasons – political legitimacy, religion, culture

and ethics.

A society willing to absorb technological novelties is the product of a liberal

attitude to access of information and exchange of views. Arab rulers often

declare the need to reform the attitude of the establishment towards the

citizens, yet they fear that this change may lead to instability of their rule, may

sever the traditional roots of the people and may damage the standing of the

rulers. This contradiction between the declared and real meaning, leads to the

fact the region's problems regarding Internet diffusion is a combination of

technical , political and cultural ones.

At first the authorities encourage use of the Internet, partly in order to enjoy the

economic advantages of the Internet. Later they realize the danger of the

becoming a tool in the hands of those who wish to destabilize their legitimacy or

the potential of the Internet, by means of its contents, to harm the culture and

ethics of the citizens.

Finally comes the stage in which the government starts to restrain the use of the

Internet in order to protect the religious, cultural and political values existing in

the country, at the same time maintaining control over the media and opposing

changes, mainly of western origin.

The means to these ends are: Technological – by limiting access to the Internet;

Legislative – monitoring of online activity and Economical - by fixing high prices

of Internet use. Opposing these measures are always citizens who try to bypass

the government's restrictions and by different methods reach the desired

contents in the Internet.

In all of the Middle Eastern countries described in this work as a background

(Iran, Tunisia, Libya, Bahrain, Jordan, Qatar), one can see a pattern of different

levels and means for governmental restrictions: Qatar and Bahrain being

relatively lenient and Iran and Tunisia strict to the point of arresting Internet

users.

Studies have been done regarding Internet accessibility and restrictions. Some

are field studies trying to figure the scope and the patterns of the phenomenon

in specific countries. Other studies have made models and set criteria by which

to compare the level of Internet accessibility in different countries.

Some researches have made an attempt to learn about the connection between

cultural, governmental and technological parameters and the level of restrictions

of free use of the Internet.

This work is based on a unique model developed for this purpose – Internet

Freedom Index - that has 36 parameters arranged in six groups: Internet and

Communication; Society; Economy; Level of Freedom in the Country; Aspects

of Restricted Regulation of Internet use; The Measure of Enforcement of

Existing Regulations.

As stated above, this model examined four different countries during four years:

2002-2005, while examining the history of the Internet absorption process in

each country, Internet usage rate and cost, existence of restrictive legislature

concerning Internet use, degree of supervision and restrictions of press and

personal freedom, varied expressions in the public discourse on this topic,

scruting of restricted Web sites and the reasons for these restrictions, arrests

and harassment of Web users and journalists, and the means by which the

citizens bypass these restrictions.

Analyzing the Internet Freedom Index Model conclusions revealed the high

importance of Human Capital (Education, Literacy), level of technological

readiness, communication and personal computers deployment and the

measure of economical freedom in the country. The discourse also deals with

the changes in each of these factors over the period of 2002-2005.

Based on the Internet Freedom Index, of the four countries surveyed U.A.E

enjoys the most freedom, yet it is deteriorating most quickly over three

consecutive years. It has the lowest improvement rate by the Internet Freedom

factors as compared to the other three countries.

Actually the rest of the three countries (Syria, Egypt, Saudi Arabia) have the

most potential – each one of them by making the necessary improvements of

the relevant parameters for advancement on the Internet Freedom Index in the

coming years.