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William Cronon - The Trouble with Wilderness; or, Getting Back to the Wrong Nature

TheTroublewithWildernessor,GettingBacktotheWrongNature byWilliamCronon (WilliamCronon,ed.,UncommonGround:RethinkingtheHumanPlaceinNature,NewYork:W.W.Norton&Co.,1995,69 90 linkstoprinterfriendlytextsavailableatbottomofthispage) Thetimehascometorethinkwilderness. Thiswillseemahereticalclaimtomanyenvironmentalists,sincetheideaofwildernesshasfordecadesbeenafundamentaltenet indeed,apassionoftheenvironmentalmovement,especiallyintheUnitedStates.FormanyAmericanswildernessstandsas thelastremainingplacewherecivilization,thatalltoohumandisease,hasnotfullyinfectedtheearth.Itisanislandinthe pollutedseaofurbanindustrialmodernity,theoneplacewecanturnforescapefromourowntoomuchness.Seeninthisway, wildernesspresentsitselfasthebestantidotetoourhumanselves,arefugewemustsomehowrecoverifwehopetosavethe planet.AsHenryDavidThoreauoncefamouslydeclared,InWildnessisthepreservationoftheWorld.(1) Butisit?Themoreoneknowsofitspeculiarhistory,themoreonerealizesthatwildernessisnotquitewhatitseems.Farfrom beingtheoneplaceonearththatstandsapartfromhumanity,itisquiteprofoundlyahumancreationindeed,thecreationof veryparticularhumanculturesatveryparticularmomentsinhumanhistory.Itisnotapristinesanctuarywherethelastremnant ofanuntouched,endangered,butstilltranscendentnaturecanforatleastalittlewhilelongerbeencounteredwithoutthe contaminatingtaintofcivilization.Instead,itsaproductofthatcivilization,andcouldhardlybecontaminatedbytheverystuff ofwhichitismade.Wildernesshidesitsunnaturalnessbehindamaskthatisallthemorebeguilingbecauseitseemssonatural. Aswegazeintothemirroritholdsupforus,wetooeasilyimaginethatwhatwebeholdisNaturewheninfactweseethe reflectionofourownunexaminedlongingsanddesires.Forthisreason,wemistakeourselveswhenwesupposethatwilderness canbethesolutiontoourculturesproblematicrelationshipswiththenonhumanworld,forwildernessisitselfnosmallpartof theproblem. Toasserttheunnaturalnessofsonaturalaplacewillnodoubtseemabsurdorevenperversetomanyreaders,soletmehastento addthatthenonhumanworldweencounterinwildernessisfarfrombeingmerelyourowninvention.Icelebratewithothers wholovewildernessthebeautyandpowerofthethingsitcontains.Eachofuswhohasspenttimetherecanconjureimagesand sensationsthatseemallthemorehauntinglyrealforhavingengravedthemselvessoindeliblyonourmemories.Suchmemories maybeuniquelyourown,buttheyarealsofamiliarenoughbetobeinstantlyrecognizabletoothers.Rememberthis?The torrentsofmistshootoutfromthebaseofagreatwaterfallinthedepthsofaSierracanyon,thetinydropletscoolingyourfaceas youlistentotheroarofthewaterandgazeuptowardtheskythrougharainbowthathoversjustoutofreach.Rememberthistoo: lookingoutacrossadesertcanyonintheeveningair,theonlysoundaloneravencallinginthedistance,therockwallsdropping awayintoachasmsodeepthatitsbottomallbutvanishesasyousquintintotheamberlightofthesettingsun.Andthis:the momentbesidethetrailasyousitonasandstoneledge,yourbootsdampwiththemorningdewwhileyoutakeintherichsmell ofthepines,andthesmallredfoxormaybeforyouitwasaraccoonoracoyoteoradeerthatsuddenlyamblesacrossyour path,stoppingforalongmomenttogazeinyourdirectionwithcautiousindifferencebeforecontinuingonitsway.Remember thefeelingsofsuchmoments,andyouwillknowaswellasIdothatyouwereinthepresenceofsomethingirreducibly nonhuman,somethingprofoundlyOtherthanyourselfWildernessismadeofthattoo. Andyet:whatbroughteachofustotheplaceswheresuchmemoriesbecamepossibleisentirelyaculturalinvention.Goback 250yearsinAmericanandEuropeanhistory,andyoudonotfindnearlysomanypeoplewanderingaroundremotecornersof theplanetlookingforwhattodaywewouldcallthewildernessexperience.Aslateastheeighteenthcentury,themostcommon usageofthewordwildernessintheEnglishlanguagereferredtolandscapesthatgenerallycarriedadjectivesfardifferentfrom theonestheyattracttoday.Tobeawildernessthenwastobedeserted,savage,desolate,barreninshort,awaste, thewordsnearestsynonym.Itsconnotationswereanythingbutpositive,andtheemotiononewasmostlikelytofeelinits presencewasbewildermentorterror.(2) Manyofthewordsstrongestassociationsthenwerebiblical,foritisusedoverandoveragainintheKingJamesVersiontorefer

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toplacesonthemarginsofcivilizationwhereitisalltooeasytoloseoneselfinmoralconfusionanddespair.Thewildernesswas whereMoseshadwanderedwithhispeopleforfortyyears,andwheretheyhadnearlyabandonedtheirGodtoworshipagolden idol.(3)ForPharaohwillsayoftheChildrenofIsrael,wereadinExodus,Theyareentangledintheland,thewildernesshath shutthemin.(4)ThewildernesswaswhereChristhadstruggledwiththedevilandenduredhistemptations:Andimmediately theSpiritdrivethhimintothewilderness.AndhewasthereinthewildernessforfortydaystemptedofSatanandwaswiththe wildbeastsandtheangelsministereduntohim.(5)ThedeliciousParadiseofJohnMiltonsEdenwassurroundedbyasteep wilderness,whosehairysides/Accessdeniedtoallwhosoughtentry.WhenAdamandEveweredrivenfromthatgarden,the worldtheyenteredwasawildernessthatonlytheirlaborandpaincouldredeem.Wilderness,inshort,wasaplacetowhichone cameonlyagainstoneswill,andalwaysinfearandtrembling.Whatevervalueitmighthavearosesolelyfromthepossibility thatitmightbereclaimedandturnedtowardhumanendsplantedasagarden,say,oracityuponahill.(7)Initsrawstate,it hadlittleornothingtooffercivilizedmenandwomen. Butbytheendofthenineteenthcentury,allthishadchanged.Thewastelandsthathadonceseemedworthlesshadforsome peoplecometoseemalmostbeyondprice.ThatThoreauin1862coulddeclarewildnesstobethepreservationoftheworld suggeststheseachangethatwasgoingon.Wildernesshadoncebeentheantithesisofallthatwasorderlyandgoodithadbeen thedarkness,onemightsay,onthefarsideofthegardenwallandyetnowitwasfrequentlylikenedtoEdenitself.WhenJohn MuirarrivedintheSierraNevadain1869,hewoulddeclare,NodescriptionofHeaventhatIhaveeverheardorreadofseems halfsofine.(8)Hewashardlyaloneinexpressingsuchemotions.Onebyone,variouscornersoftheAmericanmapcametobe designatedassiteswhosewildbeautywassospectacularthatagrowingnumberofcitizenshadtovisitandseethemfor themselves.NiagaraFallswasthefirsttoundergothistransformation,butitwassoonfollowedbytheCatskills,theAdirondacks, Yosemite,Yellowstone,andothers.YosemitewasdeededbytheU.S.governmenttothestateofCaliforniain1864asthe nationsfirstwildlandpark,andYellowstonebecamethefirsttruenationalparkin1872.(9) Bythefirstdecadeofthetwentiethcentury,inthesinglemostfamousepisodeinAmericanconservationhistory,anational debatehadexplodedoverwhetherthecityofSanFranciscoshouldbepermittedtoaugmentitswatersupplybydammingthe TuolumneRiverinHetchHetchyvalley,wellwithintheboundariesofYosemiteNationalPark.Thedamwaseventuallybuilt, butwhattodayseemsnolesssignificantisthatsomanypeoplefoughttopreventitscompletion.Evenasthefightwasbeinglost, HetchHetchybecamethebafflecryofanemergingmovementtopreservewilderness.Fiftyyearsearlier,suchoppositionwould havebeenunthinkable.Fewwouldhavequestionedthemeritsofreclaimingawastelandlikethisinordertoputittohuman use.NowthedefendersofHetchHetchyattractedwidespreadnationalattentionbyportrayingsuchanactnotasimprovementor progressbutasdesecrationandvandalism.Lestonedoubtthattheoldbiblicalmetaphorshadbeenturnedcompletelyontheir heads,listentoJohnMuirattackthedamsdefenders.Theirarguments,hewrote,arecuriouslylikethoseofthedevil,devised forthedestructionofthefirstgardensomuchoftheverybestEdenfruitgoingtowastesomuchofthebestTuolumnewater andTuolumnescenerygoingtowaste.(10)ForMuirandthegrowingnumberofAmericanswhosharedhisviews,Satans homehadbecomeGodsOwnTemple. Thesourcesofthisratherastonishingtransformationweremany,butforthepurposesofthisessaytheycanbegatheredunder twobroadheadings:thesublimeandthefrontier.Ofthetwo,thesublimeistheolderandmorepervasiveculturalconstruct, beingoneofthemostimportantexpressionsofthatbroadtransatlanticmovementwetodaylabelasromanticismthefrontieris morepeculiarlyAmerican,thoughittoohaditsEuropeanantecedentsandparallels.Thetwoconvergedtoremakewildernessin theirownimage,freightingitwithmoralvaluesandculturalsymbolsthatitcarriestothisday.Indeed,itisnottoomuchtosay thatthemodernenvironmentalmovementisitselfagrandchildofromanticismandpostfrontierideology,whichiswhyitisno accidentthatsomuchenvironmentalistdiscoursetakesitsbearingsfromthewildernesstheseintellectualmovementshelped create.Althoughwildernessmaytodayseemtobejustoneenvironmentalconcernamongmany,itinfactservesasthe foundationforalonglistofothersuchconcernsthatontheirfaceseemquiteremotefromit.Thatiswhyitsinfluenceisso pervasiveand,potentially,soinsidious. Togainsuchremarkableinfluence,theconceptofwildernesshadtobecomeloadedwithsomeofthedeepestcorevaluesofthe culturethatcreatedandidealizedit:ithadtobecomesacred.Thispossibilityhadbeenpresentinwildernesseveninthedays whenithadbeenaplaceofspiritualdangerandmoraltemptation.IfSatanwasthere,thensowasChrist,whohadfoundangels aswellaswildbeastsduringHissojourninthedesert.Inthewildernesstheboundariesbetweenhumanandnonhuman,between naturalandsupernatural,hadalwaysseemedlesscertainthanelsewhere.ThiswaswhytheearlyChristiansaintsandmysticshad oftenemulatedChristsdesertretreatastheysoughttoexperienceforthemselvesthevisionsandspiritualtestingHehadendured.

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Onemightmeetdevilsandruntheriskoflosingonessoulinsuchaplace,butonemightalsomeetGod.Forsomethat possibilitywasworthalmostanyprice. Bytheeighteenthcenturythissenseofthewildernessasalandscapewherethesupernaturallayjustbeneaththesurfacewas expressedinthedoctrineofthesublime,awordwhosemodernusagehasbeensowatereddownbycommercialhypeandtourist advertisingthatitretainsonlyadimechoofitsformerpower.(11)InthetheoriesofEdmundBurke,ImmanuelKant,William Gilpin,andothers,sublimelandscapeswerethoserareplacesonearthwhereonehadmorechancethanelsewheretoglimpsethe faceofGod.(12)Romanticshadaclearnotionofwhereonecouldbemostsureofhavingthisexperience.AlthoughGodmight, ofcourse,choosetoshowHimselfanywhere,Hewouldmostoftenbefoundinthosevast,powerfullandscapeswhereonecould nothelpfeelinginsignificantandbeingremindedofonesownmortality.Wherewerethesesublimeplaces?Theeighteenth centurycatalogoftheirlocationsfeelsveryfamiliar,forwestillseeandvaluelandscapesasittaughtustodo.Godwasonthe mountaintop,inthechasm,inthewaterfall,inthethundercloud,intherainbow,inthesunset.Onehasonlytothinkofthesites thatAmericanschosefortheirfirstnationalparksYellowstone,Yosemite,GrandCanyon,Rainier,Ziontorealizethat virtuallyallofthemfitoneormoreofthesecategories.Lesssublimelandscapessimplydidnotappearworthyofsuchprotection notuntilthe1940s,forinstance,wouldthefirstswampbehonored,inEvergladesNationalPark,andtothisdaythereisno nationalparkinthegrasslands.(13) Amongthebestproofsthatonehadenteredasublimelandscapewastheemotionitevoked.Fortheearlyromanticwritersand artistswhofirstbegantocelebrateit,thesublimewasfarfrombeingapleasurableexperience.Theclassicdescriptionisthatof WilliamWordsworthasherecountedclimbingtheAlpsandcrossingtheSimplonPassinhisautobiographicalpoemThe Prelude.There,surroundedbycragsandwaterfalls,thepoetfelthimselfliterallytobeinthepresenceofthedivineand experiencedanemotionremarkablyclosetoterror: Theimmeasurableheight Ofwoodsdecaying,nevertobedecayed, Thestationaryblastsofwaterfalls, Andinthenarrowrentateveryturn Windsthwartingwinds,bewilderedandforlorn, Thetorrentsshootingfromtheclearbluesky, Therocksthatmutteredcloseuponourears, Blackdrizzlingcragsthatspakebythewayside Asifavoicewereinthem,thesicksight Andgiddyprospectoftheravingstream, TheunfetteredcloudsandregionoftheHeavens, Tumultandpeace,thedarknessandthelight Werealllikeworkingsofonemind,thefeatures Ofthesameface,blossomsupononetree CharactersofthegreatApocalypse, ThetypesandsymbolsofEternity, Offirst,andlast,andmidst,andwithoutend.(14) Thiswasnocasualstrollinthemountains,nosimplesojourninthegentlelapofnonhumannature.WhatWordsworthdescribed wasnothinglessthanareligiousexperience,akintothatoftheOldTestamentprophetsastheyconversedwiththeirwrathful God.Thesymbolshedetectedinthiswildernesslandscapeweremoresupernaturalthannatural,andtheyinspiredmoreaweand dismaythanjoyorpleasure.Nomeremortalwasmeanttolingerlonginsuchaplace,soitwaswithconsiderablereliefthat Wordsworthandhiscompanionmadetheirwaybackdownfromthepeakstotheshelteringvalleys.Lestyoususpectthatthis viewofthesublimewaslimitedtotimidEuropeanswholackedtheAmericanknowhowforfeelingathomeinthewilderness, rememberHenryDavidThoreaus1846climbofMountKatahdin,inMaine.AlthoughThoreauisregardedbymanytodayas oneofthegreatAmericancelebratorsofwilderness,hisemotionsaboutKatahdinwerenolessambivalentthanWordsworths abouttheAlps. Itwasvast,Titanic,andsuchasmanneverinhabits.Somepartofthebeholder,evensomevitalpart,seemsto escapethroughtheloosegratingofhisribsasheascends.Heismorelonethanyoucanimagine.Vast,Titanic,

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William Cronon - The Trouble with Wilderness; or, Getting Back to the Wrong Nature

inhumanNaturehasgothimatdisadvantage,caughthimalone,andpilfershimofsomeofhisdivinefaculty.She doesnotsmileonhimasintheplains.Sheseemstosaysternly,whycameyeherebeforeyourtime?Thisgroundis notpreparedforyou.IsitnotenoughthatIsmileinthevalleys?Ihavenevermadethissoilforthyfeet,thisairfor thybreathing,theserocksforthyneighbors.Icannotpitynorfondletheehere,butforeverrelentlesslydrivethee hencetowhereIamkind.WhyseekmewhereIhavenotcalledthee,andthencomplainbecauseyoufindmebuta stepmother?(15) ThisissurelynotthewayamodernbackpackerornatureloverwoulddescribeMainesmostfamousmountain,butthatis becauseThoreausdescriptionowesasmuchtoWordsworthandotherromanticcontemporariesastotherocksandcloudsof Katahdinitself.Hiswordstookthephysicalmountainonwhichhestoodandtransmuteditintoaniconofthesublime:asymbol ofGodspresenceonearth.Thepowerandthegloryofthaticonweresuchthatonlyaprophetmightgazeonitforlong.In effect,romanticslikeThoreaujoinedMosesandthechildrenofIsraelinExoduswhentheylookedtowardthewilderness,and behold,thegloryoftheLordappearedinthecloud.(16) Butevenasitcametoembodytheawesomepowerofthesublime,wildernesswasalsobeingtamednotjustbythosewho werebuildingsettlementsinitsmidstbutalsobythosewhomostcelebrateditsinhumanbeauty.Bythesecondhalfofthe nineteenthcentury,theterribleawethatWordsworthandThoreauregardedastheappropriatelypiousstancetoadoptinthe presenceoftheirmountaintopGodwasgivingwaytoamuchmorecomfortable,almostsentimentaldemeanor.Asmoreand moretouristssoughtoutthewildernessasaspectacletobelookedatandenjoyedforitsgreatbeauty,thesublimeineffect becamedomesticated.Thewildernesswasstillsacred,butthereligioussentimentsitevokedweremorethoseofapleasantparish churchthanthoseofagrandcathedraloraharshdesertretreat.Thewriterwhobestcapturesthislateromanticsenseofa domesticatedsublimeisundoubtedlyJohnMuir,whosedescriptionsofYosemiteandtheSierraNevadareflectnoneofthe anxietyorterroronefindsinearlierwriters.Hereheis,forinstance,sketchingonNorthDomeinYosemiteValley: Nopainhere,nodullemptyhours,nofearofthepast,nofearofthefuture.Theseblessedmountainsareso compactlyfilledwithGodsbeauty,nopettypersonalhopeorexperiencehasroomtobe.Drinkingthischampagne waterispurepleasure,soisbreathingthelivingair,andeverymovementoflimbsispleasure,whilethebodyseems tofeelbeautywhenexposedtoitasitfeelsthecampfireorsunshine,enteringnotbytheeyesalone,butequally throughallonesfleshlikeradiantheat,makingapassionateecstaticpleasureglownotexplainable. TheemotionsMuirdescribesinYosemitecouldhardlybemoredifferentfromThoreausonKatahdinorWordsworthsonthe SimplonPass.Yetallthreemenareparticipatinginthesameculturaltraditionandcontributingtothesamemyththemountain ascathedral.ThethreemaydifferinthewaytheychoosetoexpresstheirpietyWordsworthfavoringanawefilled bewilderment,Thoreauasternloneliness,Muirawelcomeecstasybuttheyagreecompletelyaboutthechurchinwhichthey prefertoworship.MuirsclosingwordsonNorthDomedivergefromhisoldercontemporariesonlyinmood,notintheir ultimatecontent: PerchedlikeaflyonthisYosemitedome,Igazeandsketchandbask,oftentimessettlingdownintodumbadmirationwithout definitehopeofeverlearningmuch,yetwiththelonging,unrestingeffortthatliesatthedoorofhope,humblyprostratebefore thevastdisplayofGodspower,andeagertoofferselfdenialandrenunciationwitheternaltoiltolearnanylessoninthedivine manuscript.(17) MuirsdivinemanuscriptandWordsworthsCharactersofthegreatApocalypseareinfactpagesfromthesameholybook. Thesublimewildernesshadceasedtobeplaceofsatanictemptationandbecomeinsteadasacredtemple,muchasitcontinuesto beforthosewholoveittoday. ButtheromanticsublimewasnottheonlyculturalmovementthathelpedtransformwildernessintoasacredAmericanicon duringthenineteenthcentury.Nolessimportantwasthepowerfulromanticattractionofprimitivism,datingbackatleasttoof thatthebestantidotetotheillsofanoverlyrefinedandcivilizedmodernworldwasareturntosimpler,moreprimitiveliving.In theUnitedStates,thiswasembodiedmoststrikinglyinthenationalmythofthefrontier.ThehistorianFrederickJacksonTurner wrotein1893theclassicacademicstatementofthismyth,butithadbeenpartofAmericanculturaltraditionsforwellovera century.AsTurnerdescribedtheprocess,easternersandEuropeanimmigrants,inmovingtothewildunsettledlandsofthe frontier,shedthetrappingsofcivilization,rediscoveredtheirprimitiveracialenergies,reinventeddirectdemocraticinstitutions, andbyreinfusedthemselveswithavigor,anindependence,andacreativitythatthesourceofAmericandemocracyandnational

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character.Seeninthisway,wildcountrybecameaplacenotjustofreligiousredemptionbutofnationalrenewal,the quintessentiallocationforexperiencingwhatitmeanttobeanAmerican. OneofTurnersmostprovocativeclaimswasthatbythe1890sthefrontierwaspassingaway.Neveragainwouldsuchgiftsof freelandofferthemselvestotheAmericanpeople.Thefrontierhasgone,hedeclared,andwithitsgoinghasclosedthefirst periodofAmericanhistory.(18)Builtintothefrontiermythfromitsverybeginningwasthenotionthatthiscrucibleof Americanidentitywastemporaryandwouldpassaway.Thosewhohavecelebratedthefrontierhavealmostalwayslooked backwardastheydidso,mourninganolder,simpler,truerworldthatisabouttodisappear,forever.Thatworldandallofits attractions,Turnersaid,dependedonfreelandonwilderness.Thus,inthemythofthevanishingfrontierlaytheseedsof wildernesspreservationintheUnitedStates,forifwildlandhadbeensocrucialinthemakingofthenation,thensurelyonemust saveitslastremnantsasmonumentstotheAmericanpastandasaninsurancepolicytoprotectitsfuture.Itisnoaccidentthat themovementtosetasidenationalparksandwildernessareasbegantogainrealmomentumatpreciselythetimethatlaments aboutthepassingfrontierreachedtheirpeak.Toprotectwildernesswasinaveryrealsensetoprotectthenationsmostsacred mythoforigin. AmongthecoreelementsofthefrontiermythwasthepowerfulsenseamongcertaingroupsofAmericansthatwildernesswas thelastbastionofruggedindividualism.Turnertendedtostresscommunitarianthemeswhenwritingfrontierhistory,asserting thatAmericansinprimitiveconditionshadbeenforcedtobandtogetherwiththeirneighborstoformcommunitiesand democraticinstitutions.Forotherwriters,however,frontierdemocracyforcommunitieswaslesscompellingthanfrontier freedomforindividuals.(19)Byfleeingtotheoutermarginsofsettledlandandsocietysothestoryrananindividualcould escapetheconfiningstricturesofcivilizedlife.Themoodamongwriterswhocelebratedfrontierindividualismwasalmost alwaysnostalgictheylamentednotjustalostwayoflifebutthepassingoftheheroicmenwhohadembodiedthatlife.Thus OwenWisterintheintroductiontohisclassic1902novelTheVirginiancouldwriteofavanishedworldinwhichthe horseman,thecowpuncher,thelastromanticfigureuponoursoilrodeonlyinhishistoricyesterdayandwouldnevercome again.ForWister,thecowboywasamanwhogavehiswordandkeptit(WallStreetwouldhavefoundhimbehindthe times),whodidnottalklewdlytowomen(Newportwouldhavethoughthimoldfashioned),whoworkedandplayedhard, andwhoseungovernedhoursdidnotunmanhim.(20)TheodoreRooseveltwrotewithmuchthesamenostalgicfervorabout thefine,manlyqualitiesofthewildroughrideroftheplains.Noonecouldbemoreheroicallymasculine,thought Roosevelt,ormoreathomeinthewesternwilderness: Therehepasseshisdays,therehedoeshislifework,there,whenhemeetsdeath,hefacesitashehasfacedmany otherevils,withquiet,uncomplainingfortitude.Brave,hospitable,hardy,andadventurous,heisthegrimpioneer ofourracehepreparesthewayforthecivilizationfrombeforewhosefacehemusthimselfdisappear.Hardand dangerousthoughhisexistenceis,ithasyetawildattractionthatstronglydrawstoithisbold,freespirit(21) Thisnostalgiaforapassingfrontierwayoflifeinevitablyimpliedambivalence,ifnotdownrighthostility,towardmodernityand allthatitrepresented.Ifonesawthewildlandsofthefrontierasfreer,truer,andmorenaturalthanother,moremodernplaces, thenonewasalsoinclinedtoseethecitiesandfactoriesofurbanindustrialcivilizationasconfining,false,andartificial.Owen Wisterlookedatthepostfrontiertransitionthathadfollowedthehorsemanoftheplains,anddidnotlikewhathesaw:a shapelessstate,aconditionofmenandmannersasunlovelyasisthatmomentintheyearwhenwinterisgoneandspringnot come,andthefaceofNatureisugly.(22)IntheeyesofwriterswhosharedWistersdistasteformodernity,civilization contaminateditsinhabitantsandabsorbedthemintothefaceless,collective,contemptiblelifeofthecrowd.Forallofitstroubles anddangers,anddespitethefactthatitmustpassaway,thefrontierhadbeenabetterplace.Ifcivilizationwastoberedeemed,it wouldbebymenliketheVirginianwhocouldretaintheirfrontiervirtuesevenastheymadethetransitiontopostfrontierlife. Themythicfrontierindividualistwasalmostalwaysmasculineingender:here,inthewilderness,amancouldbearealman,the ruggedindividualhewasmeanttobebeforecivilizationsappedhisenergyandthreatenedhismasculinity.Wisters contemptuousremarksaboutWallStreetandNewportsuggestwhatheandmanyothersofhisgenerationbelievedthatthe comfortsandseductionsofcivilizedlifewereespeciallyinsidiousformen,whoalltooeasilybecameemasculatedbythe feminizingtendenciesofcivilization.Moreoftenthannot,menwhofeltthiswaycame,likeWisterandRoosevelt,fromelite classbackgrounds.Thecuriousresultwasthatfrontiernostalgiabecameanimportantvehicleforexpressingapeculiarly bourgeoisformofantimodernism.Theverymenwhomostbenefitedfromurbanindustrialcapitalismwereamongthosewho believedtheymustescapeitsdebilitatingeffects.Ifthefrontierwaspassing,thenmenwhohadthemeanstodososhould

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preserveforthemselvessomeremnantofitswildlandscapesothattheymightenjoytheregenerationandrenewalthatcamefrom sleepingunderthestars,participatinginbloodsports,andlivingofftheland.Thefrontiermightbegone,butthefrontier experiencecouldstillbehadifonlywildernesswerepreserved. ThusthedecadesfollowingtheCivilWarsawmoreandmoreofthenationswealthiestcitizensseekingoutwildernessfor themselves.Theelitepassionforwildlandtookmanyforms:enormousestatesintheAdirondacksandelsewhere (disingenuouslycalledcampsdespitetheirmanyservantsandamenities),cattleranchesforwouldberoughridersontheGreat Plains,guidedbiggamehuntingtripsintheRockies,andluxuriousresorthotelswhereverrailroadspushedtheirwayinto sublimelandscapes.Wildernesssuddenlyemergedasthelandscapeofchoiceforelitetourists,whobroughtwiththemstrikingly urbanideasofthecountrysidethroughwhichtheytraveled.Forthem,wildlandwasnotasiteforproductivelaborandnota permanenthomerather,itwasaplaceofrecreation.Onewenttothewildernessnotasaproducerbutasaconsumer,hiring guidesandotherbackcountryresidentswhocouldserveasromanticsurrogatesfortheroughridersandhuntersofthefrontierif onewaswillingtooverlooktheirnewstatusasemployeesandservantsoftherich.Injustthisway,wildernesscametoembody thenationalfrontiermyth,standingforthewildfreedomofAmericaspastandseemingtorepresentahighlyattractivenatural alternativetotheuglyartificialityofmoderncivilization.Theirony,ofcourse,wasthatintheprocesswildernesscametoreflect theverycivilizationitsdevoteessoughttoescape.Eversincethenineteenthcentury,celebratingwildernesshasbeenanactivity mainlyforwelltodocityfolks.Countrypeoplegenerallyknowfartoomuchaboutworkingthelandtoregardunworkedlandas theirideal.Incontrast,eliteurbantouristsandwealthysportsmenprojectedtheirleisuretimefrontierfantasiesontotheAmerican landscapeandsocreatedwildernessintheirownimage. Therewereotherironiesaswell,Themovementtosetasidenationalparksandwildernessareasfollowedhardontheheelsof thefinalIndianwars,inwhichthepriorhumaninhabitantsoftheseareaswereroundedupandmovedontoreservations.The mythofthewildernessasvirginuninhabitedlandhadalwaysbeenespeciallycruelwhenseenfromtheperspectiveofthe Indianswhohadoncecalledthatlandhome.Nowtheywereforcedtomoveelsewhere,withtheresultthattouristscouldsafely enjoytheillusionthattheywereseeingtheirnationinitspristine,originalstate,inthenewmorningofGodsowncreation.(23) Amongthethingsthatmostmarkedthenewnationalparksasreflectingapostfrontierconsciousnesswastherelativeabsenceof humanviolencewithintheirboundaries.Theactualfrontierhadoftenbeenaplaceofconflict,inwhichinvadersandinvaded foughtforcontroloflandandresources.Oncesetasidewithinthefixedandcarefullypolicedboundariesofthemodern bureaucraticstate,thewildernesslostitssavageimageandbecamesafe:aplacemoreofreveriethanofrevulsionorfear. Meanwhile,itsoriginalinhabitantswerekeptoutbydintofforce,theirearlierusesofthelandredefinedasinappropriateoreven illegal.Tothisday,forinstance,theBlackfeetcontinuetobeaccusedofpoachingonthelandsofGlacierNationalParkthat originallybelongedtothemandthatwerecededbytreatyonlywiththeprovisothattheybepermittedtohuntthere.(24) TheremovalofIndianstocreateanuninhabitedwildernessuninhabitedasneverbeforeinthehumanhistoryoftheplace remindsusjusthowinvented,justhowconstructed,theAmericanwildernessreallyis.Toreturntomyopeningargument:there isnothingnaturalabouttheconceptofwilderness.Itisentirelyacreationoftheculturethatholdsitdear,aproductofthevery historyitseekstodeny.Indeed,oneofthemoststrikingproofsoftheculturalinventionofwildernessisitsthoroughgoing erasureofthehistoryfromwhichitsprang.Invirtuallyallofitsmanifestations,wildernessrepresentsaflightfromhistory.Seen astheoriginalgarden,itisaplaceoutsideoftime,fromwhichhumanbeingshadtobeejectedbeforethefallenworldofhistory couldproperlybegin.Seenasthefrontier,itisasavageworldatthedawnofcivilization,whosetransformationrepresentsthe verybeginningofthenationalhistoricalepic.Seenastheboldlandscapeoffrontierheroism,itistheplaceofyouthand childhood,intowhichmenescapebyabandoningtheirpastsandenteringaworldoffreedomwheretheconstraintsofcivilization fadeintomemory.Seenasthesacredsublime,itisthehomeofaGodwhotranscendshistorybystandingastheOnewho remainsuntouchedandunchangedbytimesarrow.Nomatterwhattheanglefromwhichweregardit,wildernessoffersusthe illusionthatwecanescapethecaresandtroublesoftheworldinwhichourpasthasensnaredus.(25) Thisescapefromhistoryisonereasonwhythelanguageweusetotalkaboutwildernessisoftenpermeatedwithspiritualand religiousvaluesthatreflecthumanidealsfarmorethanthematerialworldofphysicalnature.Wildernessfulfillstheoldromantic projectofsecularizingJudeoChristianvaluessoastomakeanewcathedralnotinsomepettyhumanbuildingbutinGodsown creation,Natureitself.ManyenvironmentalistswhorejecttraditionalnotionsoftheGodheadandwhoregardthemselvesas agnosticsorevenatheistsnonethelessexpressfeelingstantamounttoreligiousawewheninthepresenceofwildernessafact thattestifiestothesuccessoftheromanticproject.ThosewhohavenodifficultyseeingGodastheexpressionofourhuman dreamsanddesiresnonethelesshavetroublerecognizingthatinasecularageNaturecanofferpreciselythesamesortofmirror.

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Thusitisthatwildernessservesastheunexaminedfoundationonwhichsomanyofthequasireligiousvaluesofmodern environmentalismrest.Thecritiqueofmodernitythatisoneofenvironmentalismsmostimportantcontributionstothemoraland politicaldiscourseofourtimemoreoftenthannotappeals,explicitlyorimplicitly,towildernessasthestandardagainstwhichto measurethefailingsofourhumanworld.Wildernessisthenatural,unfallenantithesisofanunnaturalcivilizationthathaslostits soul.Itisaplaceoffreedominwhichwecanrecoverthetrueselveswehavelosttothecorruptinginfluencesofourartificial lives.Mostofall,itistheultimatelandscapeofauthenticity.Combiningthesacredgrandeurofthesublimewiththeprimitive simplicityofthefrontier,itistheplacewherewecanseetheworldasitreallyis,andsoknowourselvesaswereallyareor oughttobe. Butthetroublewithwildernessisthatitquietlyexpressesandreproducestheveryvaluesitsdevoteesseektoreject.Theflight fromhistorythatisverynearlythecoreofwildernessrepresentsthefalsehopeofanescapefromresponsibility,theillusionthat wecansomehowwipecleantheslateofourpastandreturntothetabularasathatsupposedlyexistedbeforewebegantoleave ourmarksontheworld.Thedreamofanunworkednaturallandscapeisverymuchthefantasyofpeoplewhohavenever themselveshadtoworkthelandtomakealivingurbanfolkforwhomfoodcomesfromasupermarketorarestaurantinstead ofafield,andforwhomthewoodenhousesinwhichtheyliveandworkapparentlyhavenomeaningfulconnectiontothe forestsinwhichtreesgrowanddie.Onlypeoplewhoserelationtothelandwasalreadyalienatedcouldholdupwildernessasa modelforhumanlifeinnature,fortheromanticideologyofwildernessleavespreciselynowhereforhumanbeingsactuallyto maketheirlivingfromtheland. This,then,isthecentralparadox:wildernessembodiesadualisticvisioninwhichthehumanisentirelyoutsidethenatural.Ifwe allowourselvestobelievethatnature,tobetrue,mustalsobewild,thenourverypresenceinnaturerepresentsitsfall.Theplace whereweareistheplacewherenatureisnot.Ifthisissoifbydefinitionwildernessleavesnoplaceforhumanbeings,save perhapsascontemplativesojournersenjoyingtheirleisurelyreverieinGodsnaturalcathedralthenalsobydefinitionitcan offernosolutiontotheenvironmentalandotherproblemsthatconfrontus.Totheextentthatwecelebratewildernessasthe measurewithwhichwejudgecivilization,wereproducethedualismthatsetshumanityandnatureatoppositepoles.Wethereby leaveourselveslittlehopeofdiscoveringwhatanethical,sustainable,honorablehumanplaceinnaturemightactuallylooklike. Worse:totheextentthatweliveinanurbanindustrialcivilizationbutatthesametimepretendtoourselvesthatourrealhomeis inthewilderness,tojustthatextentwegiveourselvespermissiontoevaderesponsibilityforthelivesweactuallylead.We inhabitcivilizationwhileholdingsomepartofourselveswhatweimaginetobethemostpreciouspartalooffromits entanglements.Weworkourninetofivejobsinitsinstitutions,weeatitsfood,wedriveitscars(notleasttoreachthe wilderness),webenefitfromtheintricateandalltooinvisiblenetworkswithwhichitsheltersus,allthewhilepretendingthat thesethingsarenotanessentialpartofwhoweare.Byimaginingthatourtruehomeisinthewilderness,weforgiveourselves thehomesweactuallyinhabit.Initsflightfromhistory,initssirensongofescape,initsreproductionofthedangerousdualism thatsetshumanbeingsoutsideofnatureinalloftheseways,wildernessposesaseriousthreattoresponsibleenvironmentalism attheendofthetwentiethcentury. BynowIhopeitisclearthatmycriticisminthisessayisnotdirectedatwildnatureperse,orevenateffortstosetasidelarge tractsofwildland,butratheratthespecifichabitsofthinkingthatflowfromthiscomplexculturalconstructioncalledwilderness. Itisnotthethingswelabelaswildernessthataretheproblemfornonhumannatureandlargetractsofthenaturalworlddo deserveprotectionbutratherwhatweourselvesmeanwhenweusethelabel.Lestonedoubthowpervasivethesehabitsof thoughtactuallyareincontemporaryenvironmentalism,letmelistsomeoftheplaceswherewildernessservesastheideological underpinningforenvironmentalconcernsthatmightotherwiseseemquiteremotefromit.Defendersofbiologicaldiversity,for instance,althoughsometimesappealingtomoreutilitarianconcerns,oftenpointtountouchedecosystemsasthebestand richestrepositoriesoftheundiscoveredspecieswemustcertainlytrytoprotect.Althoughatfirstblushanapparentlymore scientificconceptthanwilderness,biologicaldiversityinfactinvokesmanyofthesamesacredvalues,whichiswhy organizationsliketheNatureConservancyhavebeensoquicktoemployitasanalternativetotheseeminglyfuzzierandmore problematicconceptofwilderness.Thereisaparadoxhere,ofcourse.Totheextentthatbiologicaldiversity(indeed,even wildernessitself)islikelytosurviveinthefutureonlybythemostvigilantandselfconsciousmanagementoftheecosystemsthat sustainit,theideologyofwildernessispotentiallyindirectconflictwiththeverythingitencouragesustoprotect.(26)Themost strikinginstancesofthishaverevolvedaroundendangeredspecies,whichserveasvulnerablesymbolsofbiologicaldiversity whileatthesametimestandingassurrogatesforwildernessitself.ThetermsoftheEndangeredSpeciesActintheUnitedStates haveoftenmeantthatthosehopingtodefendpristinewildernesshavehadtorelyonasingleendangeredspecieslikethespotted

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owltogainlegalstandingfortheircasetherebymakingthefullpowerofthesacredlandinhereinasinglenuminousorganism whosehabitatthenbecomestheobjectofintensedebateaboutappropriatemanagementanduse.(27)Theeasewithwhichanti environmentalforceslikethewiseusemovementhaveattackedsuchsinglespeciespreservationeffortssuggeststhevulnerability ofstrategieslikethese. Perhapspartlybecauseourownconflictsoversuchplacesandorganismshavebecomesomessy,theconvergenceofwilderness valueswithconcernsaboutbiologicaldiversityandendangeredspecieshashelpedproduceadeepfascinationforremote ecosystems,whereitiseasiertoimaginethatnaturemightsomehowbeleftalonetoflourishbyitsownpristinedevices.The classicexampleisthetropicalrainforest,whichsincethe1970shasbecomethemostpowerfulmoderniconofunfallen,sacred landaveritableGardenofEdenformanyAmericansandEuropeans.AndyetprotectingtherainforestintheeyesofFirst Worldenvironmentalistsalltoooftenmeansprotectingitfromthepeoplewholivethere.Thosewhoseektopreservesuch wildernessfromtheactivitiesofnativepeoplesruntheriskofreproducingthesametragedybeingforceablyremovedfrom anancienthomethatbefellAmericanIndians.ThirdWorldcountriesfacemassiveenvironmentalproblemsanddeepsocial conflicts,butthesearenotlikelytobesolvedbyaculturalmyththatencouragesustopreservepeoplelesslandscapesthathave notexistedinsuchplacesformillennia.Atitsworst,asenvironmentalistsarebeginningtorealize,exportingAmericannotionsof wildernessinthiswaycanbecomeanunthinkingandselfdefeatingformofculturalimperialism.(28) Perhapsthemostsuggestiveexampleofthewaythatwildernessthinkingcanunderpinotherenvironmentalconcernshas emergedintherecentdebateaboutglobalchange.In1989thejournalistBillMcKibbenpublishedabookentitledTheEndof Nature,inwhichhearguedthattheprospectofglobalclimatechangeasaresultofunintentionalhumanmanipulationofthe atmospheremeansthatnatureasweonceknewitnolongerexists.(29)Whereasearliergenerationsinhabitedanaturalworldthat remainedmoreorlessunaffectedbytheiractions,ourowngenerationisuniquelydifferent.Weandourchildrenwillhenceforth liveinabiospherecompletelyalteredbyourownactivity,aplanetinwhichthehumanandthenaturalcannolongerbe distinguished,becausetheonehasoverwhelmedtheother.InMcKibbensview,naturehasdied,andweareresponsiblefor killingit.Theplanet,hedeclares,isutterlydifferentnow.(30) Butsuchaperspectiveispossibleonlyifweacceptthewildernesspremisethatnature,tobenatural,mustalsobepristine remotefromhumanityanduntouchedbyourcommonpast.Infact,everythingweknowaboutenvironmentalhistorysuggests thatpeoplehavebeenmanipulatingthenaturalworldonvariousscalesforaslongaswehavearecordoftheirpassing. Moreover,wehaveunassailableevidencethatmanyoftheenvironmentalchangeswenowfacealsooccurredquiteapartfrom humaninterventionatonetimeoranotherintheearthspast.(31)Thepointisnotthatourcurrentproblemsaretrivial,orthatour devastatingeffectsontheearthsecosystemsshouldbeacceptedasinevitableornatural.Itisratherthatweseemunlikelyto makemuchprogressinsolvingtheseproblemsifweholduptoourselvesasthemirrorofnatureawildernessweourselves cannotinhabit. Todosoismerelytotaketoalogicalextremetheparadoxthatwasbuiltintowildernessfromthebeginning:ifnaturedies becauseweenterit,thentheonlywaytosavenatureistokillourselves.Theabsurdityofthispropositionflowsfromthe underlyingdualismitexpresses.Notonlydoesitascribegreaterpowertohumanitythatweinfactpossessphysicaland biologicalnaturewillsurelysurviveinsomeformoranotherlongafterweourselveshavegonethewayofallfleshbutinthe enditoffersuslittlemorethanaselfdefeatingcounselofdespair.Thetautologygivesusnowayout:ifwildnatureistheonly thingworthsaving,andifourmerepresencedestroysit,thenthesolesolutiontoourownunnaturalness,theonlywaytoprotect sacredwildernessfromprofanehumanity,wouldseemtobesuicide.Itisnotapropositionthatseemslikelytoproducevery positiveorpracticalresults. Andyetradicalenvironmentalistsanddeepecologistsalltoofrequentlycomeclosetoacceptingthispremiseasafirstprinciple. Whentheyexpress,forinstance,thepopularnotionthatourenvironmentalproblemsbeganwiththeinventionofagriculture, theypushthehumanfallfromnaturalgracesofarbackintothepastthatallofcivilizedhistorybecomesataleofecological declension.EarthFirst!founderDaveForemancapturesthefamiliarparablesuccinctlywhenhewrites, BeforeagriculturewasmidwifedintheMiddleEast,humanswereinthewilderness.Wehadnoconceptofwildernessbecause everythingwaswildernessandwewereapartofit.Butwithirrigationditches,cropsurpluses,andpermanentvillages,we becameapartfromthenaturalworld.Betweenthewildernessthatcreatedusandthecivilizationcreatedbyusgrewanever wideningrift.(32)

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William Cronon - The Trouble with Wilderness; or, Getting Back to the Wrong Nature

Inthisviewthefarmbecomesthefirstandmostimportantbattlefieldinthelongwaragainstwildnature,andallelsefollowsin itswake.Fromsuchastartingplace,itishardnottoreachtheconclusionthattheonlywayhumanbeingscanhopetolive naturallyonearthistofollowthehuntergatherersbackintoawildernessEdenandabandonvirtuallyeverythingthatcivilization hasgivenus.Itmayindeedturnoutthatcivilizationwillendinecologicalcollapseornucleardisaster,whereupononemight expecttofindanyhumansurvivorsreturningtoawayoflifeclosertothatcelebratedbyForemanandhisfollowers.Formostof us,though,suchadebaclewouldbecauseforregret,asignthathumanityhadfailedtofulfillitsownpromiseandfailedtohonor itsownhighestvaluesincludingthoseofthedeepecologists. Inofferingwildernessastheultimatehuntergathereralternativetocivilization,Foremanreproducesanextremebutstilleasily recognizableversionofthemythoffrontierprimitivism.WhenhewritesofhisfellowEarthFirstersthatwebelievewemust returntobeinganimal,togloryinginoursweat,hormones,tears,andbloodandthatwestruggleagainstthemodern compulsiontobecomedull,passionlessandroids,heisfollowinginthefootstepsofOwenWister.(33)Althoughhisarguments giveprimacytodefendingbiodiversityandtheautonomyofwildnature,hisprosebecomesmostpassionatewhenhespeaksof preservingthewildernessexperience.HisownidealBigOutsidebearsanuncannyresemblancetothatofthefrontiermyth: wideopenspacesandvirginlandwithnotrails,nosigns,nofacilities,nomaps,noguides,norescues,nomodernequipment. Tellingly,itisalandwherehardytravelerscansupportthemselvesbyhuntingwithprimitiveweapons(bowandarrow,atlatl, knife,sharprock).(34)ForemanclaimsthattheprimaryvalueofwildernessisnotasaprovinggroundforyoungHuckFinns andAnnieOakleys,buthisheartiswithHuckandAnnieallthesame.Headmitsthatpreservingaqualitywilderness experienceforthehumanvisitor,lettingherorhimflexPaleolithicmusclesorseekvisions,remainsatremendouslyimportant secondarypurpose.(35)JustsodoesTeddyRooseveltsroughriderliveoninthegreenergarbofanewage. Howevermuchonemaybeattractedtosuchavision,itentailsproblematicconsequences.Forone,itmakeswildernessthelocus foranepicstrugglebetweenmaligncivilizationandbenignnature,comparedwithwhichallothersocial,political,andmoral concernsseemtrivial.Foremanwrites,Thepreservationofwildnessandnativediversityisthemostimportantissue.Issues directlyaffectingonlyhumanspaleincomparison.(36)Presumablysodoanyenvironmentalproblemswhosevictimsare mainlypeople,forsuchproblemsusuallysurfaceinlandscapesthathavealreadyfallenandarenolongerwild.Thiswould seemtoexcludefromtheradicalenvironmentalistagendaproblemsofoccupationalhealthandsafetyinindustrialsettings, problemsoftoxicwasteexposureonunnaturalurbanandagriculturalsites,problemsofpoorchildrenpoisonedbylead exposureintheinnercity,problemsoffamineandpovertyandhumansufferingintheoverpopulatedplacesoftheearth problems,inshort,ofenvironmentaljustice.Ifwesettoohighastockonwilderness,toomanyothercornersoftheearthbecome lessthannaturalandtoomanyotherpeoplebecomelessthanhuman,therebygivinguspermissionnottocaremuchabouttheir sufferingortheirfate. Itisnoaccidentthatthesesupposedlyinconsequentialenvironmentalproblemsaffectmainlypoorpeople,forthelongaffiliation betweenwildernessandwealthmeansthattheonlypoorpeoplewhocountwhenwildernessistheissuearehuntergatherers, whopresumablydonotconsiderthemselvestobepoorinthefirstplace.Thedualismattheheartofwildernessencouragesits advocatestoconceiveofitsprotectionasacrudeconflictbetweenthehumanandthenonhumanor,moreoften,between thosewhovaluethenonhumanandthosewhodonot.Thisinturntemptsonetoignorecrucialdifferencesamonghumansand thecomplexculturalandhistoricalreasonswhydifferentpeoplesmayfeelverydifferentlyaboutthemeaningofwilderness. Why,forinstance,isthewildernessexperiencesooftenconceivedasaformofrecreationbestenjoyedbythosewhoseclass privilegesgivethemthetimeandresourcestoleavetheirjobsbehindandgetawayfromitall?Whydoestheprotectionof wildernesssooftenseemtopiturbanrecreationistsagainstruralpeoplewhoactuallyearntheirlivingfromtheland(excepting thosewhosellgoodsandservicestothetouriststhemselves)?Whyinthedebatesaboutpristinenaturalareasareprimitive peoplesidealized,evensentimentalized,untilthemomenttheydosomethingunprimitive,modern,andunnatural,andtherebyfall fromenvironmentalgrace?Whataretheconsequencesofawildernessideologythatdevaluesproductivelaborandthevery concreteknowledgethatcomesfromworkingthelandwithonesownhands?(37)Allofthesequestionsimplyconflictsamong differentgroupsofpeople,conflictsthatareobscuredbehindthedeceptiveclarityofhumanvs.nonhuman.Ifinanswering theseknottyquestionsweresorttososimplisticanopposition,wearealmostcertaintoignoretheverysubtletiesand complexitiesweneedtounderstand. Butthemosttroublingculturalbaggagethataccompaniesthecelebrationofwildernesshaslesstodowithremoterainforestsand peoplesthanwiththewayswethinkaboutourselvesweAmericanenvironmentalistswhoquiterightlyworryaboutthefuture

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oftheearthandthethreatsweposetothenaturalworld.Idealizingadistantwildernesstoooftenmeansnotidealizingthe environmentinwhichweactuallylive,thelandscapethatforbetterorworsewecallhome.Mostofourmostserious environmentalproblemsstartrighthere,athome,andifwearetosolvethoseproblems,weneedanenvironmentalethicthatwill tellusasmuchaboutusingnatureasaboutnotusingit.Thewildernessdualismtendstocastanyuseasabuse,andthereby deniesusamiddlegroundinwhichresponsibleuseandnonusemightattainsomekindofbalanced,sustainablerelationship.My ownbeliefisthatonlybyexploringthismiddlegroundwillwelearnwaysofimaginingabetterworldforallofus:humansand nonhumans,richpeopleandpoor,womenandmen,FirstWorldersandThirdWorlders,whitefolksandpeopleofcolor, consumersandproducersaworldbetterforhumanityinallofitsdiversityandforalltherestofnaturetoo.Themiddleground iswhereweactuallylive.Itiswhereweallofus,inourdifferentplacesandwaysmakeourhomes. Thatiswhy,whenIthinkofthetimesImyselfhavecomeclosesttoexperiencingwhatImightcallthesacredinnature,Ioften findmyselfrememberingwildplacesmuchclosertohome.Ithink,forinstance,ofasmallpondnearmyhousewherewater bubblesupfromlimestonespringstofeedaseriesofpoolsthatrarelyfreezeinwinterandsoplayhometowaterfowlthatstay herefortheprotectivewarmthevenonthecoldestofwinterdays,glidingsilentlythroughstreamingmistsasthesnowfallsfrom grayFebruaryskies.IthinkofaNovembereveninglongagowhenIfoundmyselfonaWisconsinhilltopinrainanddensefog, onlytohavethesettingsunbreakthroughthecloudstocastanotherworldlygoldenlightonthemistyfarmsandwoodlands below,ascenesounexpectedandjoyousthatIlingeredpastdusksoasnottomissanypartofthegiftthathadcomemyway. AndIthinkperhapsmostespeciallyoftheblownout,bankruptfarminthesandcountryofcentralWisconsinwhereAldo LeopoldandhisfamilytriedoneofthefirstAmericanexperimentsinecologicalrestoration,turningravagedandinfertilesoilinto carefullytendedgroundwherethehumanandthenonhumancouldexistsidebysideinrelativeharmony.WhatIcelebrateabout suchplacesisnotjusttheirwildness,thoughthatcertainlyisamongtheirmostimportantqualitieswhatIcelebrateevenmoreis thattheyremindusofthewildnessinourownbackyards,ofthenaturethatisallaroundusifonlywehaveeyestoseeit. Indeed,myprincipalobjectiontowildernessisthatitmayteachustobedismissiveorevencontemptuousofsuchhumbleplaces andexperiences.Withoutourquiterealizingit,wildernesstendstoprivilegesomepartsofnatureattheexpenseofothers.Most ofus,Isuspect,stillfollowtheconventionsoftheromanticsublimeinfindingthemountaintopmoregloriousthantheplains,the ancientforestnoblerthanthegrasslands,themightycanyonmoreinspiringthanthehumblemarsh.EvenJohnMuir,inarguing againstthosewhosoughttodamhisbelovedHetchHetchyvalleyintheSierraNevada,arguedforalternativedamsitesinthe gentlervalleysofthefoothillsapreferencethathadnothingtodowithnatureandeverythingwiththeculturaltraditionsofthe sublime.(38)Justasproblematically,ourfrontiertraditionshaveencouragedAmericanstodefinetruewildernessasrequiring verylargetractsofroadlesslandwhatDaveForemancallsTheBigOutside.Leavingasidethelegitimateempiricalquestion inconservationbiologyofhowlargeatractoflandmustbebeforeagivenspeciescanreproduceonit,theemphasisonbig wildernessreflectsaromanticfrontierbeliefthatonehasntreallygottenawayfromcivilizationunlessonecangofordaysata timewithoutencounteringanotherhumanbeing.Byteachingustofetishizesublimeplacesandwideopencountry,these peculiarlyAmericanwaysofthinkingaboutwildernessencourageustoadopttoohighastandardforwhatcountsasnatural.If itisnthundredsofsquaremilesbig,ifitdoesntgiveusGodseyeviewsorgrandvistas,ifitdoesntpermitustheillusionthat wearealoneontheplanet,thenitreallyisntnatural.Itstoosmall,tooplain,ortoocrowdedtobeauthenticallywild. IncritiquingwildernessasIhavedoneinthisessay,Imforcedtoconfrontmyowndeepambivalenceaboutitsmeaningfor modernenvironmentalism.Ontheonehand,oneofmyownmostimportantenvironmentalethicsisthatpeopleshouldalwaysbe consciousthattheyarepartofthenaturalworld,inextricablytiedtotheecologicalsystemsthatsustaintheirlives.Anywayof lookingatnaturethatencouragesustobelieveweareseparatefromnatureaswildernesstendstodoislikelytoreinforce environmentallyirresponsiblebehavior.Ontheotherhand,Ialsothinkitnolesscrucialforustorecognizeandhonornonhuman natureasaworldwedidnotcreate,aworldwithitsownindependent,nonhumanreasonsforbeingasitis.Theautonomyof nonhumannatureseemstomeanindispensablecorrectivetohumanarrogance.Anywayoflookingatnaturethathelpsus rememberaswildernessalsotendstodothattheinterestsofpeoplearenotnecessarilyidenticaltothoseofeveryother creatureoroftheearthitselfislikelytofosterresponsiblebehavior.Totheextentthatwildernesshasservedasanimportant vehicleforarticulatingdeepmoralvaluesregardingourobligationsandresponsibilitiestothenonhumanworld,Iwouldnotwant tojettisonthecontributionsithasmadetoourcultureswaysofthinkingaboutnature. Ifthecoreproblemofwildernessisthatitdistancesustoomuchfromtheverythingsitteachesustovalue,thenthequestionwe mustaskiswhatitcantellusabouthome,theplacewhereweactuallylive.Howcanwetakethepositivevaluesweassociate withwildernessandbringthemclosertohome?Ithinktheanswertothisquestionwillcomebybroadeningoursenseofthe

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othernessthatwildernessseekstodefineandprotect.Inremindingusoftheworldwedidnotmake,wildernesscanteach profoundfeelingsofhumilityandrespectasweconfrontourfellowbeingsandtheearthitself.Feelingsliketheseargueforthe importanceofselfawarenessandselfcriticismasweexerciseourownabilitytotransformtheworldaroundus,helpingusset responsiblelimitstohumanmasterywhichwithoutsuchlimitstooeasilybecomeshumanhubris.Wildernessistheplace where,symbolicallyatleast,wetrytowithholdourpowertodominate.WallaceStegneroncewroteof thespecialhumanmark,thespecialrecordofhumanpassage,thatdistinguishesmanfromallotherspecies.Itisrareenough amongmen,impossibletoanyotherformoflife.Itissimplythedeliberateandchosenrefusaltomakeanymarksatall.We arethemostdangerousspeciesoflifeontheplanet,andeveryotherspecies,eventheearthitself,hascausetofearourpowerto exterminate.Butwearealsotheonlyspecieswhich,whenitchoosestodoso,willgotogreatefforttosavewhatitmight destroy.(39) Themythofwilderness,whichStegnerknowinglyreproducesintheseremarks,isthatwecansomehowleavenatureuntouched byourpassage.Bynowitshouldbeclearthatthisforthemostpartisanillusion.ButStegnersdeepermessagethenbecomesall themorecompelling.Iflivinginhistorymeansthatwecannothelpleavingmarksonafallenworld,thenthedilemmawefaceis todecidewhatkindsofmarkswewishtoleave.Itisjustherethatourculturaltraditionsofwildernessremainsoimportant.Inthe broadestsense,wildernessteachesustoaskwhethertheOthermustalwaysbendtoourwill,and,ifnot,underwhat circumstancesitshouldbeallowedtoflourishwithoutourintervention.Thisissurelyaquestionworthaskingabouteverything wedo,andnotjustaboutthenaturalworld. Whenwevisitawildernessarea,wefindourselvessurroundedbyplantsandanimalsandphysicallandscapeswhoseotherness compelsourattention.Inforcingustoacknowledgethattheyarenotofourmaking,thattheyhavelittleornoneedofour continuedexistence,theyrecallforusacreationfargreaterthanourown.Inthewilderness,weneednoreminderthatatreehas itsownreasonsforbeing,quiteapartfromus.Thesameislesstrueinthegardensweplantandtendourselves:thereitisfar easiertoforgettheothernessofthetree.(40)Indeed,onecouldalmostmeasurewildernessbytheextenttowhichourrecognition ofitsothernessrequiresaconscious,willedactonourpart.Theromanticlegacymeansthatwildernessismoreastateofmind thanafactofnature,andthestateofmindthattodaymostdefineswildernessiswonder.Thestrikingpowerofthewildisthat wonderinthefaceofitrequiresnoactofwill,butforcesitselfuponusasanexpressionofthenonhumanworldexperienced throughthelensofourculturalhistoryasproofthatoursisnottheonlypresenceintheuniverse. Wildernessgetsusintotroubleonlyifweimaginethatthisexperienceofwonderandothernessislimitedtotheremotecornersof theplanet,orthatitsomehowdependsonpristinelandscapesweourselvesdonotinhabit.Nothingcouldbemoremisleading. Thetreeinthegardenisinrealitynolessother,nolessworthyofourwonderandrespect,thanthetreeinanancientforestthat hasneverknownanaxorasaweventhoughthetreeintheforestreflectsamoreintricatewebofecologicalrelationships.The treeinthegardencouldeasilyhavesprungfromthesameseedasthetreeintheforest,andwecanclaimonlyitslocationand perhapsitsformasourown.Bothtreesstandapartfromusbothshareourcommonworld.Thespecialpowerofthetreeinthe wildernessistoremindusofthisfact.Itcanteachustorecognizethewildnesswedidnotseeinthetreeweplantedinourown backyard.Byseeingtheothernessinthatwhichismostunfamiliar,wecanlearntoseeittoointhatwhichatfirstseemedmerely ordinary.Ifwildernesscandothisifitcanhelpusperceiveandrespectanaturewehadforgottentorecognizeasnaturalthen itwillbecomepartofthesolutiontoourenvironmentaldilemmasratherthanpartoftheproblem. Thiswillonlyhappen,however,ifweabandonthedualismthatseesthetreeinthegardenasartificialcompletelyfallenand unnaturalandthetreeinthewildernessasnaturalcompletelypristineandwild.Bothtreesinsomeultimatesensearewild bothinapracticalsensenowdependonourmanagementandcare.Weareresponsibleforboth,eventhoughwecanclaimcredit forneither.Ourchallengeistostopthinkingofsuchthingsaccordingtosetofbipolarmoralscalesinwhichthehumanandthe nonhuman,theunnaturalandthenatural,thefallenandtheunfallen,serveasourconceptualmapforunderstandingandvaluing theworld.Instead,weneedtoembracethefullcontinuumofanaturallandscapethatisalsocultural,inwhichthecity,the suburb,thepastoral,andthewildeachhasitsproperplace,whichwepermitourselvestocelebratewithoutneedlessly denigratingtheothers.WeneedtohonortheOtherwithinandtheOthernextdoorasmuchaswedotheexoticOtherthatlives farawayalessonthatappliesasmuchtopeopleasitdoesto(other)naturalthings.Inparticular,weneedtodiscovera commonmiddlegroundinwhichallofthesethings,fromthecitytothewilderness,cansomehowbeencompassedintheword home.Home,afterall,istheplacewherefinallywemakeourliving.Itistheplaceforwhichwetakeresponsibility,theplace wetrytosustainsowecanpassonwhatisbestinit(andinourselves)toourchildren.(41)

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ThetaskofmakingahomeinnatureiswhatWendellBerryhascalledtheforeverunfinishedlifeworkofourspecies.The onlythingwehavetopreservenaturewithhewrites,isculturetheonlythingwehavetopreservewildnesswithis domesticity.(42)Callingaplacehomeinevitablymeansthatwewillusethenaturewefindinit,fortherecanbenoescape frommanipulatingandworkingandevenkillingsomepartsofnaturetomakeourhome.Butifweacknowledgetheautonomy andothernessofthethingsandcreaturesaroundusanautonomyourculturehastaughtustolabelwiththewordwildthen wewillatleastthinkcarefullyabouttheusestowhichweputthem,andevenaskifweshouldusethematall.justsocanwestill joinThoreauindeclaringthatinWildnessisthepreservationoftheWorld,forwildness(asopposedtowilderness)canbe foundanywhere:intheseeminglytamefieldsandwoodlotsofMassachusetts,inthecracksofaManhattansidewalk,eveninthe cellsofourownbodies.AsGarySnyderhaswiselysaid,Apersonwithaclearheartandopenmindcanexperiencethe wildernessanywhereonearth.Itisaqualityofonesownconsciousness.Theplanetisawildplaceandalwayswillbe.(43)To thinkourselvescapableofcausingtheendofnatureisanactofgreathubris,foritmeansforgettingthewildnessthatdwells everywherewithinandaroundus. Learningtohonorthewildlearningtorememberandacknowledgetheautonomyoftheothermeansstrivingforcriticalself consciousnessinallofouractions.Itmeansthedeepreflectionandrespectmustaccompanyeachactofuse,andmeanstoothat wemustalwaysconsiderthepossibilityofnonuse.Itmeanslookingatthepartofnatureweintendtoturntowardourownends andaskingwhetherwecanuseitagainandagainandagainsustainablywithoutitsbeingdiminishedintheprocess.Itmeans neverimaginingthatwecanfleeintoamythicalwildernesstoescapehistoryandtheobligationtotakeresponsibilityforourown actionsthathistoryinescapablyentails.Mostofall,itmeanspracticingremembranceandgratitude,forthanksgivingisthe simplestandmostbasicofwaysforustorecollectthenature,theculture,andthehistorythathavecometogethertomakethe worldasweknowit.Ifwildnesscanstopbeing(just)outthereandstartbeing(also)inhere,ifitcanstartbeingashumaneasit isnatural,thenperhapswecangetonwiththeunendingtaskofstrugglingtoliverightlyintheworldnotjustinthegarden,not justinthewilderness,butinthehomethatencompassesthemboth. Notes 1.HenryDavidThoreau,Walking,TheWorksofThoreau,ed.HenryS.Canby(Boston,Massachusetts:HoughtonMifflin, 1937),p.672. 2.OxfordEnglishDictionary,s.v.wildernessseealsoRoderickNash,WildernessandtheAmericanMind,3rded.(New Haven,Connecticut:YaleUniv.Press,1982),pp.122andMaxOelsehlaeger,TheIdeaofWilderness:FromPrehistorytothe AgeofEcology(NewHaven,Connecticut:YaleUniv.Press,1991). 3.Exodus32:135,KJV. 4.Exodus14:3,KJV. 5.Mark1:1213,KJVseealsoMatthew4:111Luke4:113 6.JohnMilton,ParadiseLost,JohnMilton:CompletePoemsandMajorProse,ed.MerrittY.Hughes(NewYork:Odyssey Press,1957),pp.28081,lines13142 7.IhavediscussedthisthemeatlengthinLandscapesofAbundanceandScarcity,inClydeMilneretal.,eds.,OxfordHistory oftheAmericanWest(NewYork:OxfordUniv.Press,1994),pp.60337.TheclassicworkonthePuritancityonahillin colonialNewEnglandisPerryMiller,ErrandintotheWilderness(Cambridge,Massachusetts:HarvardUniv.Press,1956). 8.JohnMuir,MyFirstSummerintheSierra(1911),reprintedinJohnMuir:TheEightWildernessDiscoveryBooks(London, England:DiademSeattle,Washington:Mountaineers,1992),P.211. 9.AlfredRoute,NationalParks:TheAmericanExperience,2nded.(Lincoln:Univ.ofNebraskaPress,1987) 10.JohnMuir,TheYosemite(1912),reprintedinJohnMuir:EightWildernessDiscoveryBooks,P.715. 11.Scholarlyworkonthesublimeisextensive.AmongthemostimportantstudiesareSamuelMonk,TheSublime:AStudyof CriticalTheoriesinXVIIICenturyEngland(NewYork:ModernLanguageAssociation,1935)BasilWilley,TheEighteenth

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CenturyBackground:StudiesontheIdeaofNatureintheThoughtofthePeriod(London,England:ChattusandWindus,1949) MarjorieHopeNicolson,MountainGloomandMountainGlory:TheDevelopmentoftheAestheticsoftheInfinite(Ithaca,New York:CornellUniv.Press,1959)ThomasWeiskel,TheRomanticSublime:StudiesintheStructureandPsychologyof Transcendence(Baltimore,Maryland:JohnsHopkin.sUniv.Press,1976)BarbaraNovak,NatureandCulture:American LandscapePainting,18251875(NewYork:OxfordUniv.Press,ig8o). 12.TheclassicworksareImmanuelKant,ObservationsontheFeelingoftheBeautifulandSublime(1764),trans.JohnT. Goldthwait(Berkeley:Univ.ofCaliforniaPress,196o)EdmundBurke,APhilosophicalEnquiryintotheOriginofOurIdeasof theSublimeandBeautiful,ed.JamesT.Boulton(1958NotreDame,Indiana:Univ.ofNotreDamePress,1968)William Gilpin,ThreeEssays:OnPicturesqueBeautyonPicturesqueTravelandonSketchingLandscape(London,England,1803) 13.SeeAnnVileisis,FromWastelandstoWetlands(unpublishedsenioressay,YaleUniv.,1989)Route,NationalParks. 14.WilliamWordsworth,ThePrelude,bk.6,inThomasHutchinson,ed.,ThePoeticalWorksofWordsworth(London, England:OxfordUmv.Press,1936),p.536. 15.HenryDavidThoreau,TheMaineWoods(1864),inHenryDavidThoreau(NewYork:LibraryofAmerica,1985),pp.640 41. 16.Exodus16:10,KJV. 17.JohnMuir,MyFirstSummerintheSierra,p.238.Partofthedifferencebetweenthesedescriptionsmayreflectthe landscapesthethreeauthorsweredescribing.Inhisessay,ReinventingCommonNature:YosemiteandMountRushmoreA MeanderingTaleofaDoubleNature,KennethOlwignotesthatearlyAmericantravelersexperiencedYosemiteasmuch throughtheaesthetictropesofthepastoralasthroughthoseofthesublime.TheeasewithwhichMuircelebratedthegentle divinityoftheSierraNevadahadmuchtodowiththepastoralqualitiesofthelandscapehedescribed.SeeOlwig,Reinventing CommonNature:YosemiteandMountRushmoreAMeanderingTaleofaDoubleNature,UncommonGround:Toward ReinventingNature,ed.WilliamCronon(NewYork:W.W.Norton&CO,1995),PP379408. 18.FrederickJacksonTurner,TheFrontierinAmericanHistory(NewYork:HenryHolt,1920),pp.3738. 19.RichardSlotkinhasmadethisobservationthelinchpinofhiscomparisonbetweenTurnerandTheodoreRoosevelt.See Slotkin,GunfighterNation:TheMythoftheFrontierinTwentiethCenturyAmerica(NewYork:Atheneum,1992),pp.2962. 20.OwenWister,TheVirginian:AHorsemanofthePlains(NewYork:Macmillan,1902),pp.viiiix. 21.TheodoreRoosevelt,RanchLifeandtheHuntingTrail(1888NewYork:Century,1899),p.100. 22.Wister,Virginian,p.x. 23.Onthemanyproblemswiththisview,seeWilliamM.Denevan,ThePristineMyth:TheLandscapeoftheAmericasin 1492,AnnalsoftheAssociationofAmericanGeographers82(1992):36985 24.LouisWarren,TheHuntersCame:Poachers,Conservationists,andTwentiethCenturyAmerica(Ph.D.diss.,Yale University,1994). 25.WildernessalsoliesatthefoundationoftheClementsianecologicalconceptoftheclimax.SeeMichaelBarbour,Ecological FragmentationintheFiftiesinCronon,UncommonGround,pp.23355,andWilliamCronon,Introduction:InSearchof Nature,inCronon,UncommonGround,pp.2356. 26.Onthemanyparadoxesofhavingtomanagewildernessinordertomaintaintheappearanceofanunmanagedlandscape,see JohnC.Hendeeetal.,WildernessManagement,USDAForestServiceMiscellaneousPublicationNo.1365(Washington,D.C.: GovernmentPrintingOffice,1978). 27.SeeJamesProctor,WhoseNature?:TheContestedMoralTerrainofAncientForests,inCronon,UncommonGround,pp.

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26997 28.SeeCandaceSlater,AmazoniaasEdenicNarrative,inCronon,UncommonGround,pp.11431.Thisargumenthasbeen powerfullymadebyRamachandraCuba,RadicalAmericanEnvironmentalism:AThirdWorldCritique,EnvironmentalEthics 11(1989):7183 29.BillMcKibben,TheEndofNature(NewYork:RandomHouse,1989). 30.McKibben,TheEndofNature,p.49 31.Evencomparableextinctionrateshaveoccurredbefore,thoughwesurelywouldnotwanttoemulatetheCretaceousTertiary boundaryextinctionsasamodelforresponsiblemanipulationofthebiosphere! 32.DaveForeman,ConfessionsofanEcoWarrior(NewYork:HarmonyBooks,1991,p.69(italicsinoriginal).Forasampling ofotherwritingsbyfollowersofdeepecologyand/orEarthFirst!,seeMichaelTobias,ed.,DeepEcology(SanDiego, California:AvantBooks,1984)BillDevallandGeorgeSessions,DeepEcology:LivingasifNatureMattered(SaltLakeCity, Utah:GibbsSmith,1985)MichaelTobias,AfterEden:History,Ecology,andConscience(SanDiego,California:AvantBooks, 1985)DaveForemanandBillHaywood,eds.,Ecodefense:AFieldGuidetoMonkeyWrenching,2nded.(Tucson,Arizona: NedLuddBooks,1987)BillDevall,SimpleinMeans,RichinEnds:PracticingDeepEcology(SaltLakeCity,Utah:Gibbs Smith,1988)SteveChase,ed.,DefendingtheEarth:ADialoguebetweenMurrayBookchin&DaveForeman(Boston, Massachusetts:SouthEndPress,1991)JohnDavis,ed.,TheEarthFirst,Reader.TenYearsofRadicalEnvironmentalism(Salt LakeCity,Utah:GibbsSmith,1991)BillDevall,LivingRichlyinanAgeofLimits:UsingDeepEcologyforanAbundantLife (SaltLake,City,Utah:GibbsSmith,1993)MichaelE.Zimmermanctal.,eds.,EnvironmentalPhilosophy:FromAnimalRights toRadicalEcology(EnglewoodCliffs,NewJersey:PrenticeHall,1993).Ausefulsurveyofthedifferentfactionsofradical environmentalismcanbefoundinCarolynMerchant,RadicalEcology:TheSearchforaLivableWorld(NewYork:Routledge, 1992).Foraveryinterestingcritiqueofthisliterature(firstpublishedintheanarchistnewspaperFifthEstate),seeGeorge Bradford,HowDeepisDeepEcology?(Ojai,California:TimesChangePress,1989). 33.Foreman,ConfessionsofanEcoWarrior,P.34. 34.Foreman,ConfessionsofanEcoWarrior,p.65.SeealsoDaveForemanandHowieWolke,TheBigOutside:ADescriptive InventoryoftheBigWildernessAreasoftheU.S.(Tucson,Arizona:NedLuddBooks,1989). 35.Foreman,ConfessionsofanEcoWarrior,p.63 36.Foreman,ConfessionsofanEcoWarrior,P.27 37.SeeRichardWhite,AreYouanEnvironmentalistorDoYouWorkforaLiving?:WorkandNature,inCronon, UncommonGround,pp.17185.CompareitsanalysisofenvironmentalknowledgethroughworkwithJenniferPricesanalysis ofenvironmentalknowledgethroughconsumption.Itisnotmuchofanexaggerationtosaythatthewildernessexperienceis essentiallyconsumeristinitsimpulses. 38.ComparewithMuir,Yosemite,inJohnMuir:EightWildernessDiscoveryBooks,p.714 39.WallaceStegner,ed.,ThisIsDinosaur:EchoParkCountryandItsMagicRivers(NewYork:Knopf,1955),P.17(italicsin original). 40.KatherineHayleshelpedmeseetheimportanceofthisargument. 41.AnalogousargumentscanbefoundinJohnBrinckerhoffJackson,BeyondWilderness,ASenseofPlace,aSenseofTime (NewHaven,Connecticut:YaleUniv.Press,1994),pp.7191,andinthewonderfulcollectionofessaysbyMichaelPollan, SecondNature:AGardenersEducation(NewYork:AtlanticMonthlyPress,1991). 42.WendellBerry,HomeEconomics(SanFrancisco,California:NorthPoint,1987),pp.138,143.

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43.GarySnyder,quotedinNewYorkTimes,WeekinReview,18September1994,p.6. ExcerptedfromUncommonGround:TowardReinventingNature,editedbyWilliamCronon.Copyright1995byWilliam Cronon.Reprintedwithpermissionofthepublisher,W.W.Norton&Company,Inc. CopyrightWilliamCronon (Pleasedonotreprintwithoutpermissionlinkstothiswebsitearefine.) 5103HumanitiesBuilding 455N.ParkSt. UniversityofWisconsinMadison Madison,WI53706 (608)2656023 Email:bill@williamcronon.net Website:http://www.williamcronon.net Forprinterfriendlycopy,click:htmlpdf

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