Grammar : The Units of English English grammar is here understood as the body of rules describing the properties of the

English language. A language is such that its elements must be combined according to certain patterns. This article is concerned with (and restricted to) morphology, the building blocks of language, and syntax, the construction of meaningful phrases, clauses and sentences with the use of morphemes and words.
Let us start with the Units of English.What is called a UNIT? A Unit is a basic part, many of which bring out the whole. Units make a word or a sentence complete.

There are FIVE UNITS. 1. Letter 2. Word 3. Phrase 4.Clause 5.Sencente

1.Letter: There are twenty six letters in English language: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y and Z . These letters have been written in Capital forms. The same letters can also be written in Small forms: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y and z. All these twenty-six letters are collectively called ALPHABET. So the alphabet of English language has twenty-six letters. These twenty-six letters can be classified into two groups. They are: I. Consonants b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y and z. are called CONSONANTS. That means there are 21 consonants. II. Vowels a, e, i. o and u are called VOWELS. That means there are five vowels. 2.Word: A word converts the group of letters into a meaningful one. A word plays a pivotal role in the Units of English. A word is a group of letters with a meaning. Ball, nation, ocean, boy, courage, install, save and organization are words. 3.Phrase: This is another important Unit in the Units of English. A phrase is a group of words without a subject and a predicate but with a meaning. Let us see few phrases.
1.The leader of the group. 2.The red ball. 3.Your class-mates.

If the most important word in a phrase is a noun, it is called a Nominal phrase or a Noun phrase. In the examples given above, the first six phrases have nouns as the most important words. The leader of the group has the noun leader as the most important word in that phrase. The red ball has the noun ball as the most important word in that phrase. So they are called Nominal phrase or Noun phrase. Few more examples for Nominal phrases: 1.All the admitted students. 2.Tax-payers from that state. 3.Only English teachers . If the most important word in the phrase is verb, that phrase is called Verbal phrase. Few more examples for Verbal phrases: 1.To cultivate the . 2.To study into night. 3.To go around the city. 4.Clause: A clause is a group of words, with a subject and a predicate having a meaning.

Note: A phrase does not have a subject and a predicate. But a clause has both. 1.You are my best friend. 2.It is not possible for him to do that now.

3. As the election is declared. If clause is conveying the complete meaning, it is called Main clause. The clause You are my best friend conveys the complete meaning. So it is called the Main clause. Few more examples for main clauses: 1.His letter is full of eulogies. 2.The magicians have not yet come. 3.Red-colored cars have very good demand. If the meaning of the clause is incomplete, then that clause is called subordinate clause. The clause mentioned above if you are qualified does not have a complete meaning. So that clause is called subordinate clause
Few more examples for subordinate clauses:

1.It is possible only when. 2.Unless you score high marks. 3.Since your age is below 21. Subordinate clauses begin with words such as: Who, whom, whose, which, that, unless, as, because, when,
how, where, what, since, etc..

Note: A. There can not be a sentence without a Main clause. B. In few sentences, the subordinate clause may occur between two parts of a main clause.
5.Sentence:

A sentence is a group of clauses, conveying a complete meaning. A sentence is the form which carries all the five Units of English by remaining one of the five Units of English. Examples: 1.It is possible only when all the members support this project. ( 1 main clause and 1 subordinate clause). 2.When you come to my house, please, bring that book. (1 main clause and 1 subordinate clause). 3.He is intelligent but he is lazy. (2 main clauses). Grammar : Parts of Speech
The words constitute the Parts of Speech. The words used to the functions carried out by those words in a sentence. Those EIGHT PARTS are: 1. Noun 2. Verb 3. Adjective 4. Adverb in English are divided into eight parts according 5.Pronoun 6.Preposition 7.Conjunction 8.Interjection

1.Noun
A noun is a word used as a name of a person, place, thing, state, quality, activity, action etc... Examples: Mr. John is our English teacher. In this sentence the words Mr. John and teacher are nouns. Harvard University is the oldest University. In this sentence the words Harvard and University are nouns. He is my best friend. In this sentence, the words He and friend are nouns. Nouns can be classified into four Noun-Types. I.Proper noun: A proper noun is the name given to a particular person:Mr.Peter, Hemingway, Kennedy, London, Italy, Mango and California . Examples: Italy is a developed country. In this sentence, Italy is a Proper Noun. Mr. Clinton is good administrator. In this sentence, Mr. Clinton is a proper noun. Ford is a car producing company. In this sentence, the word Ford is a proper noun. II.Common noun:
A common noun is a name given in common to persons and things belonging to the same species. Examples:

 Italy is a developed country. In this sentence, Italy is a proper noun. A developed country has more responsibilities. In this sentence the word country is a common noun which could be used for other countries like India, England, Germany, Brazil etc Man, woman, city, fruit, tree, river, book, hotel, country, mountain are common nouns which we use in our day-to-day lives. Another type in Noun-Types is Common Noun. III.Collective noun: A collective noun is the name given to a collection or group of persons or things taken as a single group or entity. Examples: A herd of cows is crossing the road. A fleet of ships is sailing deep along the western coast. Army is called to rescue the boy caught in the flood. In these sentences the words herd, fleet and army are collective nouns. Herd means a group of cattle. Fleet means a group of ships. Few other collective nouns are police, gang, galaxy, family, team etc IV. Abstract noun: An abstract noun is the name given to a quality or action or state which we can understand but we can not touch and see. Examples: Kindness is expected of everyone. Laughter heals many deceases. Sleep regenerates our energy-system. In these sentences, the words kindness, laughter, sleep, are abstract nouns which we could only understand but could not see or touch. Other abstract nouns are quality, goodness, beauty, mercy, youth, movement, slowness, length, humility, truth, depth, wisdom, pride, sanity, vacancy, novelty, justness, etc In Grammar-Nouns, there are FOUR GENDERS. 1. Masculine gender: A noun is said to be in the Masculine gender if it refers to a male character a species: man, lion, hero, boy, king, horse and actor are nouns of masculine gender.

or member of

Example: A boy is playing in the play-ground. Hero of the movie is not a native of this country. 2. Feminine gender: A noun is said to be in the feminine gender if it refers to a female member of a species: woman, lioness, girl, mare, niece, empress, cow and actress are few of the feminine-gender nouns that we use. Example: A girl is playing in the play-ground. Heroine of the movie is not a native of this country. 3. Common gender: A noun is said to be in Common gender if it refers to a member of species which can be a male or a female:child, student, friend, applicant, candidate, servant, member, parliamentarian and leader
are few of the common-gender nouns.

Example: A child is playing in the play-ground. A Parliamentarian should have command over his language. 4. Neuter gender: A noun is said to be in the neuter gender if it refers to a member of a species which is neither a male nor a female. Normally nouns referring to lifeless objects are in neuter nouns. Table, tree, star, mountain, street, book, car, paper, pencil and computer are few of the neuter nouns which We use regularly. Example: Computer has brought about drastic changes in our lives. . Stars are not visible in the day-time. Books are our best friend. Masculine genders-----Feminine genders 1. Bachelor----- Spinster 6. Horse----- Mare 2. Bachelor----- Maid 7. Nephew----- Niece 3. Bullock----- Heifer 8. Jew----- Jewess 4. Dog----- Bitch 9. Wizard----- Witch 5. Drone------ Bee 10. Heir----- Heiress 3

11. Manager----- Manageress 12. Poet----- Poetess 13. Shepherd----- Shepherdess 14. Benefactor----- Benefactress 15. Hunter----- Huntress 16. Negro----- Negress 17. Emperor----- Empress 18. Traitor----- Traitress 19. Prince----- Princess 20. Lion----- Lioness

21. Bull----- Cow 22. Ox----- Cow 23. Mayor----- Mayoress 24. Tiger----- Tigress 25. Actor----- Actress 26. Host----- Hostress 27. Uncle----- Aunt 28. Monk----- Nun 29. Gentleman----- Lady 30. Duck----- Duchess

2.NOUN-CASES is another topic which comes under NOUN. The CASE of a noun tells us about the position of that noun in a sentence. In English there are FIVE CASES. Nominative case Objective case (or Accusative case) Dative case Possessive case (or Genitive case) Vocative case 1. Nominative case: A noun is said to be in the Nominative case if it is the subject of a verb. (SUBJECT is the person or the thing who or which carries out the action of the verb in the sentence) Examples: Mr. Ram is an intelligent boy. Mr. Ram is a proper noun in Nominative case. The painter paints the portraits. The painter is a common noun in Nominative case. I am buying vegetables for my family. I is a pronoun in Nominative case. 2.Objective case (or Accusative case): Nouns or pronouns are said to be in Objective cases if they are the direct objects of verbs or if they are the objects of preposition. (Direct object is the person or the thing upon whom or upon which the action of the verb is carried out). Examples: I met your sister. Your sister is in objective case. The vendors sell mangoes. Mangoes is in objective case. The book is on the table. Table is in objective case. 3. Dative case:A noun is said to be in dative case if it is the Indirect object of the verb. (Indirect object of the verb is the noun for whom or for which the action of the verb is carried out). There should not be a preposition before the indirect object because in that case it will be the object of that preposition. Examples: The Postman brought me a letter. Me is in dative case. Get him a pen. Him is in dative case. 4. Possessive case (Genitive case): A noun is said to be in possessive case, if it denotes possession or ownership. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case is governed by the noun that follows it. Examples: This is your pencil. (Your is in possessive case. It is our idea. Our is in possessive case. Johns sister has been hospitalized. Johns is in possessive case. 5. Vocative case: A noun or a pronoun is said to be in Vocative case if it is used to call (or to get the attention of) a person or persons. Examples: You there, stand up. You is in vocative case. Brother, a letter for you. Brother is in vocative case. Chairman, all the letters are posted two days ago. Chairman is in vocative case. The nouns do not change their forms in the Nominative and Objective cases. But few pronouns change their forms between Nominative and Objective cases.

Nominative case ________Objective case_________ Possessive case 1. I __________________ me__________________ my 2. We_________________us____________________our

3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

You________________ You___________________your He_________________ him____________________his She_________________her_____________________her It___________________it_______________________its They_________________them______________________their

Noun-Number

There are two numbers in Noun-Number: Singular and Plural. 1. Singular: When we speak about one person and one thing, we use the noun in singular form. Single means one. Plural means many. Examples: a. A man is smoking within the premises. b. A group of cows is called Herd. c. Joy is what we want in our lives. In these sentences, the nouns man, group, joy, church and chair are in singular forms. 2. Plural: When we speak about more than one person and one thing, we use the noun in plural form. Examples: a. Few men are standing in the foyer. b. The groups of cows, coming back to their sheds, are not milch cows. c. These chairs are made of plastic. In these sentences, the words men, groups, chairs, Children and knives are plural-nouns. How to form plural from singular? 1. By suffixing s to the singular-noun. Examples: Joy-joys Run-runs Chair-chairs Radio-radios Canto-cantos 2.By suffixing es to the singular-noun Examples: Glass-glasses Bench-benches Bush-bushes Church-churches Watch-watches Potato-potatoes 3. By changing the last letter y into ies. Examples: Baby-babies Lady-ladies Story-stories Momento-momentos Dynamo-dynamos Piano-pianos

Buffalo-buffaloes Negro-negroes Hero-heroes Echo-eches

City-cities Army-armies

4. By changing the inside vowel of the singular. Examples: Man-men Woman-women Foot-feet 5. By suffixing en to the singular. Examples: Ox-oxen Child-children 6. By changing f or fe into ves. Examples: Thief-thieves Life-lives Wife-wives Calf-calves Wolf-wolves Leaf-leaves Shelf-shelves Tooth-teeth Goose-geese

Exceptions: Chief-chiefs Safe-s Roof-roofs Proof-proofs Gulf-gulfs Hoof-hoofs 7. Singular-nouns from foreign languages retain their original plural. Examples: Erratum-errata Memorandum-memoranda Index-indices Terminus-termini (or terminuses) Radius-radii Hypothesis-hypotheses Formula-formulae (or formulas) Cherub-cherubim (or cherubs) Axis-axes Parenthesis-parentheses Basis-bases Criterion-criteria 8. By suffixing s to the main word in a compound word. Examples: Commander-in-chief..commanders-in-chief Son-in-lawsons-in-law Step-sonstep-sons Maid-servant.maid-servants Passer-by..passers-by Man-servant..man-servants 9. Special cases. a. Few nouns which end in s are used in singular form. Examples: News, Mathematics, Physics, politics, innings etc b. Few collective nouns, though they are in singular forms, are used in plural forms. Examples:Poultry, Cattle, People, gentry etc c. Few nouns have the same forms both in singular and plural forms. Examples: Sheep, deer, swine, cod etc d. Few nouns are used only in the plural forms. Examples: Trousers, scissors, spectacles, drawers, thanks, billiards, draughts, annals, tidings etc e. Few nouns have two different forms in plural. But the two forms have different meanings. Examples: Brother.Brothers (sons of same parents) Brethren (members of a society) Cloth.....Cloths (pieces of cloth) Clothes (items of cloth) FishFish (more than one of same variety) Fishes (of different varieties) GeniusGeniuses (persons of great talent) Genii (spirits) Index..Indexes (tables of contents) Indices (signs used in algebra) 10.Few nouns have different meanings in the singular and in the plural: Examples: Advice (counsel).advices (information) Good (morally correct)goods (merchandise) Force (strength)...forces (troops) Physic (medicine).physics (a branch of science) Wood (portion of tree)woods (a grove of trees) 11.Few nouns have one meaning in singular but two or more meanings in plural. Examples: Custom (habit)customs (habits & taxes collected on imports Quarter (one fourth & a direction)quarters (fourth parts, living places & directions) Effect (result)...effects (results & property) 12.Letters, numbers and other symbols form their plural by adding an apostrophe and s. Examples: Write your is and ls clearly. Add two 8s and six 4s.

2.Pronoun
A pronoun is a word that is used to represent a noun.Pronoun means for-a-noun. Example-1: Ramu is not a member of this organization.In this sentence the word Ramu is the name of a person. So Ramu is a noun. When we write about the same person in the following sentence, we use the word He. So, he could not attend the meeting meant only for the members.In this sentence the word he represents Ramu.He is a pronoun. Example-2: Sri Lanka is a big island. It has many tourist-attractions.In these sentences, Sri Lanka is a noun. It is a 6

pronoun. There are seven types of pronouns.They are: 1. Personal 5. Distributive 2. Reflexive 6. Relative 3. Demonstrative 7. Interrogative 4. Indefinite 1. Personal : There are only seven personal pronouns.They are He, She, It, They, You, We and I. SINGULAR PRONOUNS:I, He, She, It and You. PLURAL PRONOUNS:We, They and You. Examples: Mr. Gandhi, why not you seek his help? Here the word you is used to indicate only Mr. Gandhi (singular). See another sentence. Students, you have to be assembled at the Lawtey hall by 11pm.Here the word you has been used to indicate the students (plural).
All these seven Personal Pronouns have their own Possessive forms of Personal Pronouns. Mine( I ), ours(we), his(he), hers(she), its(it), yours(you) and theirs(they). Examples: This book is not mine. That house of hers is beautiful. That is the college of ours. This book is his. All these seven Personal Pronouns have their own Accusative forms of Personal Pronouns. Me( I ), us(we), you(you), him(he), her(she), it(it) and them(they). Examples: He gave a book to me. The presents are meant for you and her. The Dean warned all of them. He gave us his house to stay for ten days as he went to Tokyo. The pronouns I and we, which denote the person or persons speaking, are said to be Personal Pronouns of the FIRST PERSON. The pronoun you, which denotes the person or persons spoken to, is said to be a Personal Pronoun of SECOND PERSON. The pronouns, he, she, it, and they which denotes the person or persons spoken of, are said to be Personal Pronouns of THIRD PERSON.. 2. Reflexive (or Emphatic pronouns): The pronouns which are used to reflect upon the person or persons or thing or things which the pronouns represent are called reflexive pronouns.Himself, herself, itself, themselves, yourself, yourselves, ourselves and myself are the reflexive pronouns. Examples:. Mrs. Clinton herself came forward to contest the election to the post of Presidency of this association. You yourselves can organize a meeting to seek the opinions of all the students. I motivated myself. The singular form of the pronoun you has its reflexive form yourself. The plural form of the pronoun you has its reflexive form yourselves. 3. Demonstrative : This, that, those, and these are the demonstrative pronouns. Examples: I want only this book. These people are not qualified to attend the training program. That train is not the one for which we are waiting. 4. Indefinite :

These pronouns refer to persons or things in general.One, many, all, some, somebody, someone, few, many, others, nobody, everybody etc are the indefinite pronouns. Examples: Somebody crossed the road. Nobody came forward to assume responsibilities. Anybody can do that. 5.Distributive Examples: Everyone, present here, should take their dinner. Either of you can take the matter to the chairman. Neither of you is qualified to attend the final. 6. Relative : The pronouns which are used as conjunctions are called relative pronouns.Who, what, that, which and where are relative pronouns. Examples: The University which gave me admission is a very good University. Mr. Kobe who is a native of London is not the owner of this car. What you did is my problem. A grove of trees that is at the outskirts of the city is for sales. 7. Interrogative : The interrogative forms of the pronouns are used here.Whom, which, whose, what and that are interrogative pronouns. Examples: Mr. Kodak whom we are searching for is a native of Japan. Mrs. Goosd whose son is studying in Harvard has been hospitalized.

3.Verbs
Verbs are the word denoting actions or states. Examples:. The Students write their examination in the Lawtey hall. Here, the word write is the verb. The university disqualified him. Here, the word disqualified is the verb. 1. Transitive verbs. A transitive verb is the verb which takes an object. 2. Intransitive verb. An intransitive verb is a verb which does not take an object. 3. Auxiliary verb: A verb which helps another verb to form its tense, voice or mood is called an Auxiliary verb.

4. Modal verbs: The following verbs are called Modal verbs:. Shall, should, will, would, may, might, can, could, must, ought and dare are called modal verbs. For you attention please:
For you attention please: The list of verbs is long one. Every sentence will have a noun and a verb(predicate as well). For your kind attention, few verbs have been given below. 1. 2. 3. 4. arise bear beat behold 5. 6. 7. 8. bid bite blow break 9. begin 10. become 11. bind 12. bleed 13. 14. 15. 16. build burn carry catch

17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31.

cling come deal creep do draw drink eat fall feed feel fight find fling flee

32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46.

forbid forget forsake freeze get give grind have hold kneel know lay lead learn leave

47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61.

lend lie loose make mean meet pay read rid ride ring run rise see set

62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75.

shoot sling slit speak slay shake shed slide spin split spring stand wed write

The Verb Be
The Verb Be is a very important but peculiar verb in English. The Verb Be can be used as a main verb as well as an auxiliary verb. Examples: I am in London.In this sentence, the verb am has been used as a main verb. I am a qualified candidate. In this sentence, the verb 'am' has been used as an auxiliart verb.Whereas the main verb is qualify. It has other forms when it is used as an indicator of tense of the verb:Is, was, am, are and were. Examples: He is a teacher. (main verb) He was sent out of the meeting hall for his ill-behaviors. ( was is auxiliary verb and the main verb is send) The Verb Be is a very important but peculiar verb in English. It takes the following forms in the Principal forms. Present tense .Past tense..Past Participle Be................................................................Been Am.......................................was................. Is.......................................was................. Are......................................were................ So, be, been, is, was, are and were are the only different forms of the verb be. Examples: Many forms of the Verb-Be have beed used here. i. Be careful. Be kind to others. 1.I am the secretary of the association. 2.He is a kind man. 3.They are social workers. 4.She was a good companion. 5.The books were available. 6.She has been the secretary for two years. 7.You are not a member of this organization.

Note: The Verb Be can be used as a main verb and as an auxiliary verb. Main verb: Examples: 1.The child is very cute. 2.It was six oclock. 3.There were many people. 4.They are the people whom we are looking after. Auxiliary verb: Examples: The Verb Be is used as auxiliary verb as follows. 1.I am working here. 2.The train was running late. 3.The women were working in the field. Note: Unlike the other verbs, the verb be can not be split in the interrogative and negatve forms of sentences. We use it as follows.

Negative: Examples: 1.I am not your enemy. 2.He was not responsible for the accident. 3.The people were not excited. 1.Where is the building? 2.How was the film? 3.Were all the materials available?

Interrogative: Examples:

Note: The verbs do and have can be used as main verb and auxiliary verb. Main verb: Examples: 1.I do a lot of exercises. 2.He does his work rather carelessly.

3.They had a solution to this problem. 4.She has no compassion for others. Auxiliary verb: Examples: 1.I do not know anybody here. 2.She does not love him. 3.I have seen this film. 4.A plan has been prepared.

4.Adjective
An adjective is a word that tells us something about a noun. A noun may have many attributes.Those words which tell us about the quality of the nouns (which might have been used either as the subject or the object) are called adjectives. America is a country. America is a rich country. (rich is an adjective) Nile is a river. Nile is a long river.(long is an adjective) She is a student. She is a beautiful student. (Beautiful is an adjective)

An adjective will come before a noun. It will not come before a verb
1. Adjectives of quality: Good, honest, old, big etc

Examples : Their good performance in their final examinations gave them what they expected. Mr. Antonio is an honest policeman. Our Chairman is an old man. Their excellent presentation bagged them the first prize. 2. Adjectives of quantity: Little, some, much, enough etc Examples : I know little about music. Adding some sugar will make the coffee tastier. We have enough study-materials for the forth-coming examinations. 3. Definitive numeral adjectives: One, two, three, four, five, six, seven etc.. Examples :
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 One student came forward to become a leader of this class. Two children make a perfect family. 4. Indefinite numeral adjectives: All, no, many, few, several etc Examples : All the employees have to be here by 10am tomorrow. Few birds have become extinct. 5. Distributive numeral adjectives: Each, every, either, neither etc Examples : Each one of you should support this cause. I mean that every employee has stake in the growth of this company. Either of you should take care of your child. . 6. Demonstrative adjectives: This, that, these, those, such etc Examples : This dog is ours. That gentleman donated his fortunes to a charitable trust. These flowers are not for sales. 7. Interrogative adjectives : What, which, whose, when etc Examples : What happened after I came out of the house is not known to me. Whose child is this is a mystery. 8. Adjectival Phrase: Sometimes a phrase may be used as an adjective. In that case the phrase is called adjectival phrase. Very often this adjectival phrase appears after the noun that it qualifies. In the following sentences, the adjectival phrases are colored blue. Examples : The chief lived in house built-of-stone. A friend in need is a friend indeed. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. He was a student of great promise. 9. Adjectival Clause: Often a full-clause may add meaning to a noun in which case it is known as an adjectival clause. In the following sentences the adjectival clauses are colored blue. Examples : Nehru was a statesman whom everyone responded. The house which caught fire is in the street. John is the boy who broke the window.

5.Adverb
An Adverb will modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective or another adverb. Examples: The deer runs very fast. (The word fast is an adverb which modifies the verb run) Philips speaks quite clearly. (The word quite is an adverb which modifies the adverb clearly) I write slowly. (The adverb slowly modifies the verb write) The most common adverbs are those which answer the questions when, where, how, and why. 1. Adverbs may indicate time. Examples: Now, before, soon, yesterday, never, formerly etc 2. Adverbs may indicate frequency. Examples: Often, twice, again, frequently, seldom etc
11

3. Adverbs may indicate place. Examples: Here, there, everywhere, up, backward etc 4. Adverbs may indicate manner. Clearly, hard, soundly, slowly, sadly etc Note-1: If the work of the adverb is performed by a phrase, that adverb (phrase) is called adverbial phrase. Examples: He lived in this house for nearly twenty years. I stood on the bridge at midnight. They sat for a while on the bench. Note-2: A full-clause may also do the job of an adverb. In that case such a clause is called adverbial clause. Examples: When you finish the work, you may go home. Before you go, bring me some water. Since you were not there, I spoke to your brother. If it rains, we shall stay at home. Unless you work hard, you will fail in the test.

6.Conjunction
Conjunction is word or a phrase which connects two words or two phrases or two clauses or two sentences. The Conjuctionsare:and,or,either.or,for,but,also,neither nor,only,after,because,if,sothat,as,when,while,till
Examples: You and he should attend the function. (The word and is connecting two other words you & he) He and I are good friends. (The word and is connecting two other words HE& I) Pay the fees or you will not be admitted. (The word or is connecting two sentences Pay the fees & You will not be admitted) 1. A preposition may connect two words: Examples: Jack and Jill come up the hill. We bought a book as well as a pen. You could find clean air not in the city but in the village. They offer not only coffee but also tea. I will not attend mobile-phone calls while driving my car. 2. A preposition may connect two phrases: Examples: The police have to find out not only who committed this crime but also how this crime was executed in this day-light. A big-lorry in blue color as well as a car in white color went into this village one by one. 3. A preposition may connect two main clauses: Examples: The 1973 oil-price adjustment checked the runaway consumption trend, but it was the 1979-increase that reversed it. J.W.Jeffrey, a retired University of London professor, conducted a thorough economic assessment of British nuclear plants and concluded that nuclear plant is considerably more expensive than coal-fired power. 4. A preposition may connect a main and a subordinate clause: Examples: If our generation persists in mining the soil so that we may eat, many of our children and their children may go hungry as a result. I shall get my air ticket to USA as soon as I receive the visa. 5. Coordinating conjunctions:

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The conjunctions which coordinate two words are called coordinating conjunctions. The following conjunctions are called Coordinating conjunctions: and,but,for,or,nor,also,only,till. Examples: Mr. John and Mr. Rams are the only invitees to meet the Prime Minister. The whole country is waiting for the results of this international-tournament. We have to be here in London till we are acquainted by the court. 6. Subordinating conjunctions: A word introducing a subordinate clause is called subordinating clause. The following conjunctions are called subordinating conjunctions: 1.after 2. because 3. if 4. that 5. though 6. although 7. till 8. before 9. unless 10. as 11. when 12. while 13. how 14. until

Examples: You can come to the function after you finished your work. They have scored low marks in English because she did not study well. Your father has got you a motor-bike that is eight-year-old. He was not admitted to that college though he has scored very high marks in the entrance. Her boy-friend postponed her marriage-proposal till he started his own business. You can not get a new telephone connection before 1st of next month. 7. Compound conjunctions: There will be few words in every conjunction of this type.

1. in order that 2. in order to 3. on condition that 4. even if 5. so that

6. 7. 8. 9.

provided that as though in as much as as well as

7.Preposition
Preposition is a word that is used with a noun or a pronoun or a verb to explain their relation with another noun or pronoun.There are two types. 1. Simple prepositions:Examples: 1. A bird is on the tree. 2. I am fond of music. 3. The man was standing under the tree. 4. He runs after money. 5. I have to go to London to meet him. In the above sentences, the simple ones are colored red. Few others are:By, in, of, off, on, through, up, with, from, after, about, above,across, amidst, among, around, before, behind,below, within, between, inside, outside, without, beside, etc 2. Phrasal prepositions:A phrasal verb is formed by combining a verb with a preposition. According to, agreeable to, along with, away from, in addition to,in course of, in favor of, in honor of, in order to,in spite of, with reference to, with regard etc
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Nouns, verbs, adjectives and participles are often combined withprepositions such as Noun + Preposition, Verb + Preposition,Adjective + Preposition, and Participle + Preposition. Each combination has a separate meaning, sometimes totally different from the meaning of the main verb. Examples: 1. Every citizen should abide by the laws of his country. 2. This lake abounds in fish. 3. Rajeev Gandhi started his Prime Ministership with abundance of goodwill of Indians. 4. Why were you absent from class yester day? 5. When I entered the room, I found my grandfather absorbed in deep thought. NOTE: One can give thousands of examples. There is no grammatical rule to describe why a particular preposition is used along with a particular word to convey a particular meaning. You would yourself be using such phrases in your writings and speeches without your even being aware of them.There are two ways, a preposition can be used.The first is as in the following phrases: Examples: 1. On the table 2. In the year 3. With his friend 4. From the village 5. At the post office 6. Between the books 7. Underneath the tables

In sentences such as mentioned above, the preposition is written before the noun that governs it. That is why it is called pre-position.Few prepositions are in the forms of two-words, three-words, four-words.According to, in addition to,The second way in which a preposition is used is after a verb, adjective or adverb.Few are followed by or preceded by a certain words to provide a fixed meaning. Examples:
1. Go after 2. Endow with 3. Participate in 4. Divide into 5. Confine to 6. Abstain from 7. Conform to 8. Affection for 9. Pity towards 10. Alliance with 11. Acquaintance with 12. Distrust of 13. Result of 14. Access to 15. Opposition to 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. Incidental to Deficient in Acquainted with Delighted with Accused of Fond of Anxious about Grateful for Tantamount to Sympathy for Sure of Surrender to Suspect of Stick to Ready for

'In', 'at', and 'on' have similar meanings, but there are conventions about their usages. IN is used before large places such as a country, state or city. Examples: 1. In India

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2. In Texas 3. In New York ON is used before middle sized places such as a road, train, plane, ship etc Examples: 1. On Mount road 2. On Parliament road 3. On the East coast AT is used to denote an exact spot. Examples: 1. At the door 2. At 7 Oclock IN is also used to denote a very small place I was staying in a room at Door No.43 on Anderson Street in Boston on East coast in Massachusetts State in USA. There are three conventional uses of these three ones in regard to time also. IN is used before the year and month. ON is used before the day and date. AT is used before actual time. That accident happened at 7.30pm on 7th March in 1989. The correct phrasal forms to denote specific times of the day are: Examples: 1. 2. 3. 4. At In At In dawn the morning noon the afternoon 5. At dusk 6. At night

The preposition between must be used when referring to two things or persons. Examples: 1. The problem between Jack and Jill was solved by their parents. 2. This train is playing between New York and Chicago. When more than two things or persons are involved, the correct preposition to be used is among. Examples: 1. Among all the students in this class, John is the most intelligent. 2. He dose not show partiality among his three children 3. There is not a good understanding among the Parliamentarians of the ruling party. Examples: 1. Buttercups are avoided by the grazing animals because of the bitter juices. 2. By the time Columbus arrived at America in 1492, other Europeans had already reached the New York. 3. Between Stephen and his sister, the latter is the taller one. 4. Despite the road block, the police allowed us to enter the restricted area to search for our friends.

8.Articles
Three words are used as articles.They are: 1. a 2. an 3. the Of these, a and an are indefinite articles.Because, the indefinite-articles are used to indicate not any specific object or subject in the sentence. The is the only definite article.The definite article is used to indicate a specific object or subject in the sentence. 1. Indefinite articles: Examples: A man is standing at the corner of the road.
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 An apple a day keeps the doctor away. What he needed was an umbrella. Uses of the Indefinite articles: I. The indefinite articles are used before a singular countable noun. Examples: We want to construct a house for us. A ball costs only few cents. A boy was born to the couples two days back.
II. An is used before a word beginning with a vowel (or a vowel sound). Examples: He gave me an onion. An ass is leaping into your field. III. A is used before a word beginning with a consonant. Examples: A cat is running behind the rat. We need a man to safeguard our car. A hole in the boat will endanger its safety. IV. An is used before the word beginning with h in case the h is silent in pronunciation. Examples: An hour is a long time for the students who take this examination. An honor of this type is what everybody dreams to get. (A vowel sound) It is difficult to find an honest policeman. V. A is used before the words beginning with a vowel which is pronounced like the y in young. Examples: A European is better placed to reach the Oxford University than an Asian. The government decided to set a university in this area of the country. VI. When the word such is applied to countable things, the indefinite article is used after such. Examples: Mr. Ram is an honest man. You can not find such a man. He confused everybody with his witty talk. Such a blunder is rare to find in our lives. VII. A is used in expression like: Examples: A few students came forward to organize this function. A little sugar should be added to this coffee. A certain number of books have been sold off by the authorities of this library. VIII. The indefinite article is used when a singular noun stands for a whole group or species. Examples: A cow is a useful animal. A dog is a faithful animal. 2. Definite articles: Examples: The lion is a majestic animal. The boy who is standing there is my nephew. The Andamans belong to India. The omission of articles: The uses of articles should be avoided in few sentences to make the sentences meaningful. I. To refer to proper noun. Examples: New Delhi is the capital of India. (Not The New Delhi) Nile is one of the longest rivers. (Not The Nile)

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II. Before Abstract nouns when they are used in a general sense. Examples: Truth always triumphs. (Not The Truth) Suspicion should be based on evidence. (Not The Suspicion) Honesty is the best policy. Virtue is its own reward III. Before material nouns. Examples: Silver is not as costly as Gold. (Not The Silver) Cotton is grown in several parts of India. (Not The Cotton) IV. Before languages: Examples: We are learning English. He has planned to study French. They speak Hindi at home. V. Before plural countable nouns when they are used in general sense. Examples: o Children prefer playtimes. o Cars are sold like hot-cakes. VI. Before names of relations: Examples: Father is the head a family. Son should shoulder the responsibility of the family. Daughter-in-law is nothing but a daughter.

GERUND is the continuous form of a verb.

Read this sentence. Smoking is prohibited here.The word smoking is formed from the verb smoke by adding ing. You can see that here in this sentence, the word smoking does the function of a subject (Noun). So, it is a Verb-Noun.That is called Gerund. On many occasions the continuous form of the verb can be used as a noun. Smoke is the simple present-tense form. Smoked is the past-tense form of the verb smoke. Smoking is the continuous form of the verb smoke. Those continuous forms of many verbs can be used as nouns.Those nouns are called verbal nouns. GERUND is one of the two verbal nouns. The other verbal noun is Infinitive.We have seen the Infinitive in another section. Let us see Gerund now. A gerund is that form of the verb which ends in ing and has the force of a noun and a verb. 1. A gerund is used as the subject of a verb. Examples: Smoking is prohibited here. Reading improves your knowledge. Walking alone is what he likes the most. You can easily see that the subjects in all these sentences are in gerund forms. 2. A gerund is used as an object of a verb. Examples: Begin reading the book. I like going for a walk. They prefer buying online rather offline. 3. Object of a preposition. Examples:
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 My neighbor is good at breeding dogs I am fond of eating sweets. Before entering the room, please remove your foot-wear. 4. Complement of a verb. Examples: What I detest the most is drinking alcohol. Seeing is not believing. 5. A gerund is used in the following construction. Examples: Nehru did a lot of reading. We used to do a lot of writing when we were at school. 6. Only a gerund is used after the following verbs. Confess, imagine, finish, practice, hinder, excuse, forgive, drop, stop, prevent, mind etc Examples: Stop talking nonsense. I could not help admiring the picture. He did not mind waiting. 7. Few verbs of sensation take the gerund-forms if the action of the verb is in progress. Examples: I saw him doing that work. She felt an insect going up her leg. Have you ever heard a bird talking?

Infinitive
Eat, read, write, go, get, speak, walk, smile, cry and laugh are few of the verbs in the "infinitive" forms. When the preposition to is placed before such a verb, that verb is called full infinitive. To eat, to read, to write, to go, to get, to speak, to walk, to smile, to cry and to laugh are few of the "full-infinitive" forms.This type of the noun is called verbal-noun. This verbal-noun is called Infinitive which has the features of both a verb and a noun.There is another type of verbal-noun. That type is called Gerund which we have seen in another section. An infinitive can be used differently. 1. It can be used as the subject of the verb. Examples: To swim is good for health. To eat too much makes one fat. To read means to grow. 2.It can be used as the object of the verb. Examples: I forget to tell you an important matter. All of you begin to work. The doctor has come to check you up for blood-pressure. 3. The following verbs take only the infinitive as the object. Afford, appear, arrange, care, chance, come, dare, decide, fail, determine, happen, hurry, manage, mean, offer, pretend, promise, prove, refuse, seem, trouble, undertake, wish etc Examples: I can not afford to pay so much.
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The thief managed to escape. How dare you do it? 4. The following verbs take only an infinitive as an object,but also are used in the ways as given below.Ask, like, choose, want, intent, mean, hate, beg, love, expect, wish etc a. Subject + verb + infinitive Examples: My sister loves to sing. I like to view few television shows. She chose to stay away from the program.
b. Subject + verb + object + infinitive Examples: My sister likes my mother to sing. They begged me to help him. My father wished me to succeed in the competition. 5. The following verbs take only the verb + object + infinitive construction. Allow, advice, cause, compel, encourage, force, instruct, invite, oblige, order, permit, persuade, press, request, teach, tell, tempt, warn etc Examples: Do not allow him to interfere with his work. I warned him not to take up that job. He was tempted to take sweets every day. 6. The infinitive without to is used after the verbs make and let. Examples: Let him go. Make them do the job very well. 7. The full infinitive is used with the be verb to indicate commands or agreements or plans. Examples: Everybody is to wear a full suit. Nobody is to touch these things without permission. They are to be married next week. 8.It is used in the following construction.For + object + infinitive Examples: It is not for me to advice you. Is the road safe enough for the driver to take the bus on it? 9.It is used in the place of clauses. Examples: Tell him what to do? She does not know who to approach? So in these ways the infinitives can be used as nouns in the sentences. Note-1 The word to is frequently used with an infinitive. But to is not the essential part or sign of an infinitive verb.After few verbs (let, need, make, see, bid, hear, dare), we use the infinitive without to. Examples: You need not come to the function. I did not see him do that. They will not let you go out. I have not heard a bird sing. Note-2 The word to need not be added after 'had better', 'had rather', 'would rather', 'sooner than' and 'rather than'. Examples: You had better leave now. I had rather walk than take rest. They would rather leave the show than see the dull-movie.

Participle

is a word used to add extra meaning to the sentence. So, there are three types of Participles. A. Present Participle B. Past Participle

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C. Perfect Participle A.Present Participle: Examples: Going up the stairs, the boy fell down. Working all day, I was fatigued. Not knowing my way, I asked the Policeman. B.Past Participle: Examples: Encouraged by his wife, he persevered. We saw few trees laden with fruits. Blinded by smog, we lost our way. C.Perfect Participle: Examples: Having failed in the first attempt, he made no further attempts. Having lost my certificates, I applied for the duplicates.

Grammar : Voice
There are TWO TYPES of Voices in English language. They are:1.Active voice. 2. Passive voice. When we express an idea giving importance to the doer, the sentence is written in the active form. That means that the doer of the action is active. He wrote a letter. When we express an idea giving importance to the action rather than to the doer, the sentence is written in the passive form.That means that the doer of the action is not active but passive. A letter was written by him. 1.Active voice. Examples: He helped them in their studies. The boys pluck flowers.. BHEL exports boilers. 2.Passive voice. Examples: I. They treat me very well. (Active voice) II. He treats me very well. (Active voice) In the example-I, the subject is in plural form (they). So the verb (treat) is used in accordance with that.But in the example-II, the subject is in singular form (he). So the verb (treats) is used in accordance with that. Examples: I. I am treated very well by them. II. I am treated very well by him. In both these sentences, the verbs are modified only by the singular Pronoun I, not by the subjects of the sentences.
Examples: They tell the story. (Active voice) The story was told by them. (Passive voice) He helps us. (Active voice) We are helped by him. (Passive voice) We take him seriously. (Active voice) He was taken seriously by us. (Passive voice) Let us see the passive voices of the sentences given under the active voice section above. They invite me. (Active voice) I am invited by them. (Passive voice) My mother prepares delicious foods. (Active voice) Delicious foods were prepared by my mother. (Passive voice)

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 We expect you. (Active voice) You are expected by us. (Passive voice) Passive voice is also used when the doer of an action is unknown or is very obviously known. Examples: The local politician has been murdered. It is not known who murdered the local politician. The ship was wrecked. It is obvious that the ship can be wrecked only by wind or water. Only transitive verbs (verbs which take objects) can be put in the passive voice. Examples: He laughed. This sentence does not have its passive voice form.Because, the verb (laugh) is only an intransitive verb. Clanton killed his friend. This sentence has its passive voice form. (His friend was killed by Clanton)Because the verb (kill) is transitive a verb.

Degrees of Comparison
Degrees of Comparison are used when we compare one person or one thing with another.There are three Degrees of Comparison in English.They are: 1. Positive degree. 2.Comparative degree 3. Superlative degree. 1.Positive degree.When we speak about only one person or thing, We use the Positive degree. Examples: This house is big.In this sentence only one noun The house is talked about. He is a tall student. This flower is beautiful.
2.Comparative degree.When we compare two persons or two things with each other, We use both the Positive degree and Comparative degree. Examples: a. This house is bigger than that one. (Comparative degree) This house is not as big as that one. (Positive degree) The term bigger is comparative version of the term big. 3.Superlative degree: When we compare more than two persons or things with one another, We use all the three Positive, Comparative and Superlative degrees. Examples: c. He is the most intelligent in this class. (Superlative) He is more intelligent than other boys in the class. (Comparative) No other boy is as intelligent as this boy. (Positive) The term most intelligent is superlative version of the term intelligent.Both these sentences convey the same meaning. We have seen all the three Degrees of Comparison. Model -1: The best: Examples: 1. This is the best hotel in this area. No other hotel is as better as this on in this area.

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No other hotel is as good as this one in this area. Model-2: One of the best: Examples: 1. Calcutta is one of the largest cities in India. Calcutta is large than most other cities in India. Very few cities in India are as large as Calcutta. Model-3: Not the best: Examples: I. This is not the best solution to the problem. II. This is not better than few other solutions to this problem. III. Other solutions to this problem are not as good as this one. Examples: Beautiful..........more beautiful..........most beautiful Effective.more effectivemost effective Effectivelymore effectively.most effectively Enjoyable.more enjoyable.most enjoyable Useful.more useful..most useful Different..more differentmost different Honest..more honest..most honest Qualifiedmore qualifiedmost qualified Few adjectives and adverbs get their Comparative forms by simply getting er after them and their superlative terms, by getting est after them. Examples: Hard..harder..hardest Big.bigger.biggest Tall..tallertallest Longlongerlongest Short..shorter.shortest Costlycostliercostliest Simple.simpler.simplest

Interjection
An Interjection is a word which expresses some sudden feeling or emotions. Examples: Hello! What are you doing here?
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 Alas! He is dead. Hurrah! We have own the game. Ah! Have they gone? Oh! I got such a fright. Such words Hello, Alas, Hurrah, Ah, Oh and Hush are used to express the emotions or sudden feelings. The words of Interjection may be used to express joy, grief, surprise or approval. In case of Joy the following words are used.Hurrah, Huzza etc In case of Grief, the following words are used.Alas, Oh my god etc In case of Surprise, the following words are used.Ha, What etc In case of Approval, the following words are used.Bravo, Your goodness etc

The tense of a verb indicates the time of an action or event.The word tense comes from Latin word tempus which means time. There are four forms of tenses in each one of the three tenses. The four forms of present tense are: 1. Simple Present tense. (We write a letter now) 2. Present continuous tense. (We are writing a letter) 3. Present perfect tense. (We have written a letter) 4. Present perfect continuous tense. (We have been writing a letter) The four forms of past tense are: 1. Simple past tense. (We wrote letter) 2. Past continuous tense.(We were writing a letter) 3. Past perfect tense. (We had written a letter) 4. Past perfect continuous tense. (We had been writing a letter) The four forms of future tense are: 1. Simple future tense. (We will write a letter) 2. Future continuous tense. (We will be writing a letter) 3. Future perfect tense. (We will have written a letter) 4. Future perfect continuous tense. (We will have been writing a letter)

Tense

That means that there are twelve tenses in total.They are: 1. Simple present tense. 2. Simple past tense. 3. Simple future tense. 4. Present continuous tense. 5. Past continuous tense. 6. Future continuous tense. 7. Present perfect tense. 8. Past perfect tense. 9. Future perfect tense. 10. Present continuous tense. 11. Past prefect continuous tense. 12. Future perfect continuous tense. Using the verb write and the pronoun we, let us form all these twelve tenses. The following sentences can be related one by one as per the order mentioned in the above-stated sentences. 1.We write a letter now. 2. We wrote a letter yesterday. 3. We will write a letter tomorrow. 4. We are writing a letter now. 5. We were writing a letter yesterday. 6. We will be writing a letter tomorrow.

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7. We have written a letter now. 8. We had written a letter yesterday. 9. We will have written a letter tomorrow. 10. We have been writing a letter. 11. We had been writing a letter yesterday. 12. We will have been writing a letter tomorrow.

Present Tense
As we have seen already, the Present Tense is used when the verb refers to the present time.There are four forms in the Present Tense.They are: 1. Simple Present Tense. 2. Present Continuous Tense. 3. Present Perfect Tense. 4. Present Perfect Continuous Tense. Let us see one by one. 1.Simple Present Tense: The Simple Present Tense is used I.To indicate a habitual action. Examples: He drinks tea every morning. My father gets up at 6am everyday. II. To express general truth. Examples: The Sun rises in the east. Two twos give four. III. To express a future event that is part of a fixed timetable. Examples: The match starts at 10am. When does this shop reopen? IV. To introduce a quotation. Examples: Keats says, A thing of beauty is joy for ever. Bible says, To forgive is divine. 2.Present Continuous Tense:The Present Continuous Tense is used I. For an action going on at the time of speaking. Examples: She is writing a letter. He is walking along the road. 3.Present Perfect Tense:The Present Perfect Tense is used I. To indicate activities that completed in the near past. Examples: He has just gone out. They have earned goodwill. 4. Present Perfect Continuous Tense: This Present Perfect Continuous Tense is used for an action which began at some time in the
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past and is still continuing. Examples: They have been building this bridge for the last seven months. He has been working in this company for a long time.

Past Tense
As we have seen already, the Past Tense is used when the verb refers to the past time.There are four forms in the Past Tense.They are: 1. Simple Past Tense. 2. Past Continuous Tense. 3. Past Perfect Tense. 4. Past Perfect Continuous Tense. Let us see one by one. 1.Simple Past Tense:This Simple Past Tense is used I. To indicate an action completed in the past. It often occurs with adverbs or adverb phrases of past time.Yesterday, last year, ten-years back, few days ago, a week ago etc are adverbs or adverb phrases of past time. Examples: The College reopened yesterday. My friends left few minutes back. I posted the letter last week. II. To indicate an action completed in the past. (Without the adverb of past time) Examples: I went to the post office. They gave me this clock. The train left the station. III. To indicate the past habits. Examples: When I was a student, I carried a bag with me. He was a fan of this musician. He had always two cars with him. 2.Past Continuous Tense:This Past Continuous Tense is used to denote an action going on at some time in the past. Examples: When I reached the city, it was getting darker. The light went out when I was reading. He was playing chess when I saw him. 3.Past Perfect Tense: I. This Past Perfect Tense is used to describe an action completed before a certain moment in the past. Examples: He met me in Tokyo in 1989. We had known each other last ten years before. I had played Tennis for ten years before 1999. II. When two actions happened in the past, Past Perfect Tense should be used to indicate the action which happened earlier. Examples: When I reached the station, the train had left.
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 When I prepared all the materials for the application, the deadline had gone. 4.Past Perfect Continuous Tense: This Past Perfect Continuous Tense is used to indicate an action that began before a certain point in the past and continued up to that time. Examples: I met him on 7th June 1998. At that time he had been writing a novel. We prepared this project in 2005. At that time we had been working on another project.

Future Tense
As we have seen already, the Future Tense is used when the verb refers to the Future time. There are four forms in this Tense. 1. Simple Future Tense. 2. Future Continuous Tense. 3. Future Perfect Tense. 4. Future Perfect Continuous Tense. Let us see one by one. 1.Simple Future Tense I. This Simple Future Tense is used to talk about things which we can not control. Examples He will be sixty this December. It will be Christmas in a week. You may know your exam-results in month. II. This Simple Future Tense can be used to talk about what we believe will happen in the future. Examples I think India will win the match. We believe that he will score the highest marks. Probably, the train will arrive in time. III. This Tense can be used to indicate what we have planned to do in the future. Examples I will go to USA for my higher education. She will stay back at her home. Since it is raining, I will take an umbrella. 2.Future Continuous Tense This Future Continuous Tense is used to talk about action which will be in progress at a time in the future. Examples When I get home, my dog will be waiting for me at gate. This day next year, I will be writing my annual examinations. When you come here tomorrow, your parents will be waiting for you. 3.Future Perfect Tense This Tense is used to indicate an action which might have completed by a certain time in the future. Examples: I might have completed my studies by 2010. The train might have reached Chicago by 11pm. By the end of this year, I will have worked in this company for twenty long years. 4.Future Perfect Continuous Tense This Tense is used to indicate action which will be in progress over a period of future time and will end in the future. Examples: By this October, I will have been living in this house for twenty-five years. This Tense is very rarely used.

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