THE ORIGINS OF LANGUAGE (Chapter 1)

(1) The divine source:

According to:
1. Judeo-Christian belief Adam
2. Egyptian Thoth
3. Babylonians Nabu
4. Hindus Sarasvati
5. Muslims Allah
6. The Tower of Babel story: because the Lord did there
confound the language of all the earth and from thence did the Lord
scatter them abroad upon the face of all the earth: (Genesis II: 9)
accounts for the diversity of languages.
(2) Experiments to verify divine origins of language:
1. Egyptian Pharaoh Psammeticus (664 610 B.C.) two newborn
infants with goats cared for by mute shepherd after 2 years, the
first word uttered becos meaning bread, a Phrygian word Phrygian,
ancient language of Phrygia (N. W. corner of Turkey).
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2. James IV of Scotland (1473 1513) performed a similar
experiment children matured spoke Hebrew.
3. In 1920, two wild children, Amala and Kamala, were found in
India in 1970, a child called Genie discovered - had been confined to
small room received minimal human contact none of these children
was able to speak or knew any language conclusion: children living
without access to human speech grow up with no langue at all.
(3) The natural-sound source:
1. Bow-wow theory of language origin: Formation of words by
imitating (echoing) natural sound (onomatopoeia) bow wow, cawcaw,
cuckoo, buzz, hiss, rattle, screech, etc. how about soundless objects
stone, wood abstract ideas truth, happiness language is not simply
a set of words used as names for entities.
2. Yo heave ho theory of language origin: Sounds made by
persons involved in physical efforts grunts, groans, swear words
indicating that language developed in social context but does not shed
light on the origin of the sounds produced apes have grunts and social
calls, but have not developed the capacity for speech.
3
3. Natural cries of emotions as source of language: Emotional
cries of pain, joy, sorrow, disgust, etc. expressed in words, such as
ouch, wow, ah, yuck, etc. interjections (expressive noises) seem to be
unlikely candidate as source of language sounds.
(4) The oral-gesture source:
Oral gesture theory a link between physical gesture and oral
gesture originally a set of physical gestures (pantomimes
representing actions, characters, moods, etc.) were developed for
(nonverbal) communication then oral gestures (movements of tongue,
lips, etc.) were recognized according to patterns of movements similar to
physical gestures movement of tongue representing waving of hand in
a goodbye message called a specialized pantomime of the tongue
and lips hard to visualize oral gestures that can mimic various
physical gestures or vice-versa.
(5) Glossogenetics:
Focuses on the biological basis of the formation and development
of human language transition to upright posture bipedal (two-legged)
locomotion revised roll for the hands differences between the skull
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of a gorilla and a Neanderthal man (around 60, 000 B.C.) Neanderthals
could have made some consonant-like sound distinctions reconstructed
fossilized skeletons of about 35,000 B.C. resemble modern humans
there was partial adaptation of certain physical features that appears
relevant for speech.
(6) Physiological adaptation:
Teeth: upright, roughly even in height lips: more intricate muscle
interlacing than in other primates very flexible mouth: relatively
small open / close rapidly tongue: very complex muscular structure
very flexible larynx: the voice box contains vocal cord (folds) lower
in humans pharynx: cavity above larynx can act as resonator brain:
lateralized in humans each of the two brain hemispheres has
specialized function analytical functions, such as tool using and
language largely confined to the left hemisphere for most humans 1.
Ability to name objects 2. Combining naming words to build complex
messages.


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(7) Interaction and transaction:
1. Interaction: Use of language to interact with one another,
socially or emotionally to indicate friendliness, co-operation, hostility,
annoyance, pain, pleasure.
2. Transaction: Transfer of knowledge, skills, information form
one generation to the next through spoken and written language.
6
THE DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING (Chapter 2)
The development of writing was one of the greatest inventions of
humans. Writing allows human knowledge to transcend time and space.
For many of us it is hard to imagine language without writing; the
spoken word seems intricately tied to the written word.
However, children speak before they learn to write. Millions of
people in the world speak languages with no written form.
Development of writing is relatively recent phenomenon. Cave
drawings such as those found in the Altamira cave in northern Spain
were drawn by men living over 20,000 years ago. They are literal
portrayals of aspects of life at that time.
Clay tokens from about 10,000 years ago appear to have been an
early attempt at book-keeping.
Cave drawings and clay tokens are best described as ancient
precursors of writing.
Writing based on some type of alphabetic script can only be traced
back to inscriptions of about 3,000 years ago.

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(1) Pictograms and ideograms:
1. Pictograms: When drawings or pictures begin to represent
particular images or objects in a consistent way, they are considered a
form of picture-writing or pictograms.
Pictogram is a direct image of the object it represents. There is
non-arbitrary relationship between the form and meaning of the
pictogram. Picture meaning sun.
However, pictograms do not have any direct relationship to the
language spoken, since pictograms represent objects rather than their
linguistic names.
Examples: road signs, signs on public toilets.
2. Ideograms: In the course of time the pictograms meaning was
extended, in that the pictogram represents not only the original object
but attributes of that object, or concepts associated with it.
Thus, a picture of sun could represents heat, light, daytime as
well as sun symbolic form .
The pictograms that represent ideas are called ideograms or idea-
writing.
8
The more picture-like forms are pictograms, the more
abstract derived forms are ideograms.
Example: Egyptian hieroglyphic writing.
Ideograms, like pictograms, do not represent words or sounds in a
particular language.
(2) Logograms:
When symbols come to be used to represent words in a language,
they are called logograms, or word-writing.
The written form or visual shape of the symbol has no direct
relationship with the object it represents or symbolizes.
The relationship between written form and the object it
represents becomes arbitrary.
The written form represents the meaning of the word, not its
sounds.
Examples: Sumerian cuneiform (wedge-shaped) writing in the
southern part of modern Iraq, between 5,000 to 6,000 years ago.
Chinese written symbols or characters represent the meanings of
words, not the sounds of spoken language, thus is logographic writing.
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Chinese writing system has the longest continuous history of use about
3,000 years.
(3) Rebus writing:
Rebus writing involves a process whereby the symbol used for an
entity comes to be used for the sound of the spoken word used for that
entity. That symbol (syllable) then can be used for that sound in any
word.
Example: Pictogram for develops into logogram for eye
and then for the sound I.
(4) Syllabic writing:
When a writing system uses a set of symbols, which represent
the pronunciation of syllables, it is described as syllabic writing.
A single symbol represents a syllable in syllabaries or syllabic
writing systems. Japanese, Bengali, Hindi and many other languages use
syllabic or partially syllabic writing systems.
First syllabic writing system was of Phoenicians who lived in the
area now known as Lebanon (between 3,000 to 4,000 years ago).
10
In the 19
th
century, chief Sequoyah invented a syllabic writing
system, which was used by Cherokee Indians for their language
Cherokee.
Examples: Hindi represents [b] syllable
represents [s] syllable
(5) Alphabetic writing:
When a writing system uses a single symbol to represent a
single sound, it is described as alphabetic writing.
Arabic and Hebrew use alphabetic writing system. Their alphabets
largely consist of consonant symbols Arabic: [s], [b].
Greeks added separate symbols to represent vowel sounds a
(alpha), (epsilon).
From the Greeks, this revised alphabet passed to the rest of
Europe. It underwent several modifications to suit individual languages.
A modified version, called Cyrillic alphabet (after St Cyril, a
ninth century Christian missionary), is the basis of the writing system
used in Russia.
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(6) Written English:
Why there is a frequent mismatch between the forms of written
English and sounds of spoken English?
1. Spelling of written English was largely fixed in the form that
was used when printing was introduced into 15
th
century England.
2. Many printers were Dutch speakers who could not make
consistently accurate decisions about English pronunciation.
3. Many changes in spoken English occurred between 1400 and
1600 mostly in vowels (from Middle English to Modern English).
These changes increased opacity between English alphabet letters
(graphemes) and English sound types (phonemes).
4. Conventions derived from those that were used for writing Latin
and French words were used for writing English words.




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THE PROPERTIES OF LANGUAGE (Chapter 3)
(1) Displacement:
Human language-users can refer to past and future time, and to
other locations. This property of human language is called
displacement.
It allows us to talk about things and events not present in the
immediate environment. We can talk about things and places whose
existence we cannot even be sure of. We can refer to mythical creatures,
demons, fairies, angels, and recently invented characters such as
Superman and Wonderwoman.
Language users can talk about any thing or event real or imaginary,
fictional. Animal communication is generally considered to lack the
property of displacement. It seems that animal communication is almost
exclusively designed for this moment, here and now.
(2) Arbitrariness:
The forms (words) of human language posses a property called
arbitrariness that is, there is no natural connection between a
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linguistic form and the object it represents. There is no natural
relationship between a word and its meaning.
If there was natural connection between a word and the object it
stands for, then there should be single word or form in all languages for
the four-legged barking object, but it is not. It is dog in English in
Hindi, in Arabic.
However, there are some words in language which seem to echo
the sounds of objects or activities. Examples form English: crash, slurp,
whirr, which are onomatopoeic words.
On the other hand, animal communication consists of a fixed and
limited set of vocal or gestural forms or signals. There is a close
connection in the forms or signals and the situations in which they are
used. Animal signaling is non-arbitrary.
(3) Productivity:
In relation to language productivity means producing new words
and sentences. It is a feature of all languages that new utterances are
continually being created.
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A child learning language is especially active in forming and
producing utterances which he or she has never learned before.
When new situations arise or new objects have to be described
adult language users manipulate their linguistic resources to produce
new words, new expressions, and new sentences. All human languages
have the potential to produce infinite number of sentences novel
sentences. Thus, productivity is also creativity or open-endedness.
On the other hand, animal signaling appears to have little
flexibility. Animals have a limited number of signals to choose from.
Moreover, animal signals have a feature called fixed reference. That
is, each signal is fixed as relating to a particular object or occasion.
(4) Cultural transmission:
Although, all humans are born with an innate predisposition to
acquire a language any language, they are not born with the ability to
produce utterances in a particular / specific language, such as English, or
Chinese, or Korean. An infant born to Korean parents, which is adopted
and brought up from birth by English speaker in the United States will
eventually speak English not Korean. Obviously, language is not
15
inherited; it is acquired in a culture from caregivers and other
speakers. This process whereby language is passed on from one
generation to the next is described as cultural transmission. Cultural
transmission of a specific language is crucial in the human language
acquisition. Human infants growing up in isolation produce no
language.
However, signals used in animal communication are instinctive not
learned. A kitten growing up in the company of puppies will meow not
bark.
(5) Discreteness:
The property of language described as discreteness simply means
that those sounds in a language that can distinguish one word from
another are discrete sounds, that is, meaningfully distinct sounds.
For example: p and b sounds in English are discrete sounds. The
difference in the meaning of the words pack and back is due to the
initial sounds p and b in these words: bad/bed, late/rate, six/fix, etc.


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(6) Duality:
In speech production (spoken language) two distinct levels are
recognized:
1. A level of distinct sounds, such as n, b, and i. Although, these
sounds are physically different and can make difference in the meaning
of the words, but they themselves have no intrinsic or inherent meaning.
2. Another level of distinct meaning. When above mentioned
sounds occur in different combination, such as bin /nib, they make
different words with different meanings.
This organization of language at two levels is designated as
duality (or double articulation) property of language.
These six properties: displacement, arbitrariness, productivity,
cultural transmission, discreteness, and duality are the core features of
human langue. There are some other properties of human language, but
they are not uniquely human characteristics.
(7) Other properties:
A. The vocal-auditory channel: speech sounds used in human
communication are typically produced by the vocal organs and
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perceived via the ears. However, humans can also communicate by
written language, sign language, drum language, smoke signals, etc.
Moreover, other species (e.g. dolphins) also use vocal-auditory channel.
Thus, this property is not a defining feature of human language.
B. Reciprocity: There must be a speaker and a listener for the
communication to occur. Mutual exchange of information, ideas
between a speaker and a listener is called reciprocity.
C. Specialization: Linguistic signals are only for language-
communication. They do not serve any other purpose, such as breathing.
D. Non-directionality Once produced, linguistic signals spread
out in all directions. Within hearing range, they can be heard by anyone.
E. Rapid fade: Linguistic signals are produced and disappear
quickly.
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THE SOUNDS OF LANGUAGE (Chapter 5)
Letters (Graphemes) / Sounds (Phonemes) Mismatches:
The letters used in written English do not always match the sounds
used in spoken English for the same word. Lot of the time, English
speakers do not use the letters of the alphabet in a consistent way to
represent the sound they make:
seagh can spell chef: [ the s of sure; the ea of dead; and
the gh of laugh].
ghoti can spell fish: [the gh of tough; the o of women;
and the ti of nation].
The symbols of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) can be
used to represent vowel and consonant sounds of English accurately.
(1) Phonetics:
Phonetics is the systematic study of all aspects of human speech
sounds, such as articulatory, acoustic, and auditory (or perceptual)
aspects.
Articulatory phonetics deals with the articulation of sounds, that
is, how speech sounds are made.
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Acoustic phonetics deals with the physical properties of speech
sounds, that is, the frequency, intensity, duration, etc. of speech sounds.
Auditory phonetics deals with the perception of speech sounds,
that is, in what form speech sounds arrive at the ear and in what form
they reach the perception areas of the brain where they are recognized.
Forensic phonetics deals with the analysis of recoded utterances
and the identification of the speaker of those utterances. It has
application in legal cases.
# Our primary interest is in articulatory phonetics. Our focus will
be on how the consonant and vowel sounds of English are
articulated or produced.
(2) Articulation: Voiced and Voiceless consonants
We start with the air pumped up by the breathing mechanism from
the lungs through the trachea (the wind-pipe) to the larynx (the voice-
box). Inside the larynx are two vocal cords (or folds) arranged from front
to back. The vocal fold can be separated, or drown together.
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(1) When the vocal folds are separated (spread apart), the air from
the lungs passes between them unmodified. Sounds produced in this way
are described as voiceless.
(2) When the vocal folds are drawn together, the air from the lungs
repeatedly pushes them apart and the elasticity of the vocal folds
repeatedly brings them together, thereby producing vibrations of the
vocal folds. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced.
In English, all vowels, diphthongs, nasals and approximants are
voiced. Also stops /b/, /d/, /g/; fricatives /v/, / /, /z/, /z/; and affricate /j/
are voiced. Whereas, stops /p/, /t/, /k/; fricatives /f/, //, /s/, /s/; affricate
/c/ are voiceless.
(3) Place of articulation:
The air passing through the larynx moves through the pharynx and
then passes out through the mouth, or the nose.
The consonant sounds are produced by some sort of
constriction in the vocal tract (pharynx + oral cavity + nasal cavities).
The location of the constriction is called place of articulation.
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(See consonant chart: textbook p. 45)
1. Bilabials: /p/, /b/, /m/, and /w/.
2. Labiodentals: /f/and /v/.
3. Dentals (interdentals): // and //.
4. Alveolars: /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /n/, /l/, and /r/.
5. Alveopalatals (palatoalveolars): /s/, /z/, /c/, and /j/.
6. Palatal: /y/
7. Velars: /k/, /g/, and /p/.
8. Glottals: /h/ and [1].
(4) Manner of articulation:
The consonant sounds are produced by different degrees of
constriction in the vocal tract. Different degrees of constriction are
described as manner of articulation.
(See consonant chart: textbook p. 45)
1. Stops: /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/, and [1].
2. Fricatives: /f/, /v/, //, //, /s/, /z/, /s/, and /z/.
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3. Affricates: /t/ and /j/.
4. Nasals: /m/, /n/, and /p/.
5. Approximants: A. Liquids: /l/ and /r/.
B. Semivowels (Glides): /y/, /w/, and /h/
/h/ is a glottal fricative, not a glide.
6. Flap: [r] /t/ in butter, latter, writer, and rider is a flap produced
by the tongue tip being thrown against the alveolar ridge for an
instant. Plato play-dough
(5) Vowels:
As indicated earlier, vowel sounds are typically voiced. They are
produced with a relatively unconstricted (open) vocal tract. Air
flows freely through the vocal tract during their production. Also, the
lips may be rounded or unrounded in vowel production. Thus, the
manner of production of vowels is quite different from that of the
consonants. Recall that consonants are produced with a relatively
constricted vocal tract.
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The place of articulation (production) of vowels can be described
in terms of the position of the tongue on front-to-back and high-to-low
dimensions of the vowel space in the mouth, such as high front, low
back, etc.
However, the vowel cannot be so easily described as consonants
in terms of place and manner of articulation. The labels, such as high
front or low back serve to indicate how each vowel sounds auditorily
in relation to the other vowels.
(See vowel chart: textbook p. 48)
1. Simple vowels or monophthongs: vocal organs (tongue, lips,
and jaw) remain relatively steady.
A. Short duration: /i/, /c/, /c/ (\ ), /o/.
B. Long duration: /i/, //, /a/, /5/, /u/.
2. Complex vowels or diphthongs: vocal organs (tongue, lips,
and jaw) move from one vocalic position to another vocalic position.
A. Long duration diphthongized vowels: /e/, /o/ = /ey/,
/ow/, respectively.
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B. Long duration diphthongs: /ay/, /aw/, /5y/.
2. Descriptive labels for vowels
A. High front unrounded: /i/.
B. Lower high front unrounded: /i/.
C. Mid front unrounded: /e/ diphthongized.
D. Lower mid front unrounded: /c/.
E. Low front unrounded: //.
F. High back rounded: /u/.
G. Lower high back rounded: /o/.
H. Mid back rounded: /o/ diphthongized.
I. Lower mid back rounded: /5/.
J. Low back unrounded: /a/.
#1. It is important to note that vowel sounds [c] and [\] are really
two kinds (= tokens) of one type of central vowel and can be
represented by /c/ called schwa.
#2. In your dialect of spoken English which sound do you use in
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the words caught and cot, /5/ and /a/, respectively, or /a/ in
both words?
#3. Since, the consonants and vowels shown in the two charts are
all (except 1 and \) phonemes of English, I have not used
square brackets [ ] (used for phones or allophones), I have
rather used slashed (virgules) / / (used to indicate phonemes).
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THE SOUND PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE (Chapter 6)
(1) Phonology
Phonetics, as discussed in the previous chapter, provides a means
for the description of speech sounds, but phonology studies the ways in
which speech sounds form patterns (systems) in a language. It involves
studying a language to determine its distinctive sounds and to find out
which sounds convey a difference in meaning.
For example [t] sound in the words tar, star, and writer in actual
speech (spoken language) are physically quite different sounds, but they
do not convey the difference in meaning of the words. Thus, in the
phonology of English, they are considered the same sound and are
represented by a singe symbol /t/. Phonology is concerned with the
abstract underlying set of sounds which, as indicated above, allow us
to distinguish meaning of the words.
(2) Phonemes Phones Allophones:
Phoneme is an abstract unit which consists of phonetically
(physically) different sounds.
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pill pronounced as [phil]
spill pronounced as [spil]
till pronounced as [thil]
still pronounced as [stil]
kill pronounced as [khil]
skill pronounced as [skil]
Phonemes Allophones
/p/ is phonetically realized as [ph] or [p]
/t/ is phonetically realized as [th] or [t]
/k/ is phonetically realized as [kh] or [k]
The prefix allo- means other or variation.
An allophone consists of a set of phones.
Phones are the actual phonetic units which we use when we
produce speech.
In the words pill, till and kill, p, t and k are called aspirated sounds,
because they are accompanied by h-like noise or glottal friction.
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Aspiration is not the puff of air this is pedagogical definition of
aspiration. Aspiration is glottal friction.
(3) Minimal pairs and sets:
Minimal pairs: fan van, late rate
(contrastive sounds) bet bat, site side
Minimal sets: pig big rig dig fig wig
(contrastive sounds) feat fit fat fought foot
(4) Phonotactics:
Phonotactics deals with the constraints on the sequences or
position of phonemes in the words. That is, some sequences of
phonemes (or combinations of phonemes) are permitted, others are not.
For example:
Permitted sequences: figs, ring, black
Not permitted sequences: fsig, rnig, lback
Although, words like lig and vig do not occur in English, but they
are possible (or potential) words because they do not violate
phonotactive rules of English. Sometimes they are said to represent
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accidental gaps in the vocabulary of English. Phonotactic rules are part
of every speakers phonological knowledge
(5) Syllables and cluster:
Syllable a smallest unit of pronunciation.
It must contain a vowel (or vowel-like) sound.
A syllable may consist of:
A. a single vowel a
B. a vowel preceded and/or followed by one or more consonants
no, on, glow, opt, slept, street
Syllable: Onset + rime (rhyme)
rime: nucleus + coda
Onset: one or more consonants preceding rime
Nucleus: vowel or vowel-like sound
Coda: one or move constants following nucleus
Syllables without coda are called open syllables.
Syllables with coda are called closed syllables.
Types of syllable: (V=Vowel, C=Consonant)
V a, VC on, CV do, CVC ham,
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VCC opt, CCV glow, CCVC blade,
CVCC kept, CCCVC street, etc.
Cluster: two or more consonants occurring before or after a vowel are
called clusters.
(6) Co-articulation
The process of making a sound almost at the same time as the next
is called coarticulation.
Coarticulation effects:
1. Assimilation: When two phonemes occur in sequence and some
aspect of one phoneme is taken or copied by the other is called
assimilation associated with ease of articulation.
A. Anticipatory (Right to Left) pan, soon, tenth, eighth
B. Carryover (perseverative Left to Right) net, meat,
Eggs.
2. Elision: The omission of a sound which would be present in
the deliberate pronunciation of a word is called elision.
friendship frenship; postman posman;
aspects aspecs; must mus
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interest intrest; every evry,
cabinet cabnet; Metairie - Metrie
Elision with assimilation:
grandpa granpa grampa
handkerchief hangkerchief





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WORDS AND WORD-FORMATION PROCESSES (Chapter 7)
(1) Coinage: process of inventing or making up new words
(neologisms). From specific trade names to generic (general) terms:
aspirin, nylon, zipper, kleenex, xerox.
(2) Borrowing: taking over of words from other languages loan
words: alcohol (Arabic), lilac (Persian), boss (Dutch), pretzel (German),
piano (Italian), croissant (French), robot (Czech), tycoon (Japanese),
yogurt (Turkish), zebra (Bantu), shampoo (Hindi), rodeo (Spanish).
Loan translations or calque: From German Ubermensch to
superman, Lehnwort to loan-word; from French un gratteciel to
skyscraper.
(3) Compounding: joining two separate words to produce a single
word: bookcase, fingerprint, sunburn, wallpaper, doorknob, textbook,
and waterbed.
(4) Blending: 1.Combining beginning part of a word with the end part
of another word to form a new word gasoline + alcohol gasohol;
smoke + fog smog; breakfast + lunch brunch; motor + hotel motel;
television + broadcast telecast;
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2. Combining beginning part of a word with the beginning part of
another word to form a new word teleprinter + exchange telex;
modulator + demodulator modem.
(5) Clipping: a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter
form gasoline gas; advertisement ad; condominium condo;
facsimile fax; telephone phone; math, lab, prof, gym, Sam, Sue,
Tom, Ed, etc.
(6) Backformation: a reduction process Typically, a word of one type
(usually a noun) is reduced to form another word (usually a verb).
Examples: televise (from television), donate (from donation). opt
(from option), babysit (from babysitter).
Backformed verbs work, edit, sculpt, burgle, peddle, swindle
from nouns worker, editor, sculptor, burglar, peddler, swindler by
removing agentive morpheme [-er].
Hypocorism (favored in Australian and British English): First, a
longer word is reduced to a single syllable, then -y or -ie is added to the
end Aussie (Australian), telly (television), bookie (bookmaker),
brekky (breakfast), hankie (handkerchief).
34
(7) Conversion: - a change in the function of a word (functional shift)
or (category change) without any reduction:
1. N to V: paper papering; butter buttered; bottle bottled;
vacation vacationing; salt salted; milk milked.
2. V to N: guess a guess; spy a spy;
run a run; printout a printout.
3. V to Adj: see through see-through material; stand up stand-
up comedian.
4. Adj to V: dirty dirtied; empty emptied; total totaling.
5. Adj to N: crazy a crazy, nasty a nasty
6. Post conversion semantic change;
a doctor to doctor a manuscript;
total to total a car
to run around a runaround (excuses, delays, deceptions)
(8) Acronyms: formed from the initial letters of a set of words CD
(compact disk); VCR (video cassette recorder); PIN (personal
identification number); ATM (automatic teller machine); NATO (North
Atlantic Treaty Organization); NASA (National Aeronautics and Space
35
Administration); UNESCO (United Nations Educational Scientific and
Cultural Organization); radar (radio detecting and ranging).
(9) Derivation: most common word-formation process accomplished
by adding small bits called affixes (prefixes, suffixes, and infixes) to
the words.
Prefixes: co-, ex- re-, un-, pre-, mis-, dis-, co-author, ex-wife,
reexamine, unhappy, prejudge, mislead, disarm.
Suffixes: -ful, -ness, -ish, -ism, -less
careful, goodness, childish, terrorism, hopeless.
Infixes: not normally found in English. An example from
Kamhmu, a language spoken in South East Asia, infix -rn-
(to drill) see srnee (a drill)
(to chisel) toh trnoh (a chisel)
(to eat with a spoon) hiip hrniip (a spoon)
(to tie) hoom hrnoom (a thing with which to tie)
(10) Multiple processes:
Borrowing + clipping: deli form German delicatessen.
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Compounding + conversion: snowballed from snow and ball
snowball (N) to snowball (V).
Loss of capital letters + derivation: waspish from WASP
(White Anglo-Saxon Protestant) + suffix -ish.
Hypocorism: yuppie from yup (acronym without capital letters
from young urban professional) + suffix -ie. It was formed by analogy
to an earlier word hippie.
37
MORPHOLOGY (Chapter 8)
The study of elements that form the words is called
morphology. The elements that form the words are called
morphemes.
(1) Morphemes:
A morpheme is a minimal (smallest) unit of meaning or
grammatical function.
Example: The word reopened has three morphemes. re -
(meaning again), open (meaning unclose), and -ed (indicating past
tense). The word tourists also has three morphemes: tour (meaning
trip), -ist (meaning person who takes the trip), and -s (indicating
plural).
(2) Free and bound morphemes:
A. Free morphemes: those which can stand alone as single word,
e.g. open and tour.
B. Bound morphemes: those which cannot stand alone, but which
are attached to another form, e.g., re-, -ist, -ed, and -s. These are called
affixes. All affixes in English are bound morphemes.
38
C. Stem: When the free morphemes (or separate words) are used
with bound morphemes, they are called stems. For example:
undressed carelessnes
un- dress -ed care -less -ness
prefix stem suffix stem suffix suffix
(bound) (free) (bound) (free) (bound) (bound)
In the words receive, repeat, and reduce: re- clearly is a bound
morpheme, but -ceive, -peat, and -duce which are stems are not free
morphemes; they are bound morphemes. So, they are called bound
stems.
(3) Free morphemes:
A. Lexical morphemes: content words nouns, adjectives, verbs,
such as man, woman, house, tiger; brown, sad, sincere, long; open, look,
follow, break. These are considered as an open class of words.
B. Functional morphemes: functional words pronouns,
prepositions, conjunctions, articles, such as you, me, he, it; in, on, near,
above; and, but, because; a, an, the These are described as a closed
class of words. No new words are ever added to these.
39
(4) Bound morphemes: (affixes)
A. Derivational morphemes: consist of:
Prefixes: pre- , dis-, mis-, co-, ex-, re-, un-
Suffixes: -ness, -less, -ful, -ish, -ism, -ly, -al, -ment
Used to make new word: happy unhappy, respect
disrespect, lead mislead
Can change grammatical category: adjective good
to noun goodness, noun care to adjective careful;
adjective bad to adverb badly.
B. Inflectional morphemes: Consist of only suffixes (or endings
8 in all) attached to:
Noun + -s, -s
Verb + -s, -ing, -ed, -en
Adjective + -er, -est
Not used to make new words
Indicate grammatical function of words:
-s/s (possessive) Jims, boys
-s (plural) girls, cars
40
-s (3
rd
person present singular) runs, plays
-ing (present participle) eating, making
-ed (past tense) liked, followed
-en (past participle) taken, stolen
-er (comparative) greater, faster
-est (superlative) greatest, fastest
lexical
free
functional
morpheme
derivational
bound
inflectional
(5) Problems in morphological description:
What is the inflectional morpheme in:
sheep plural of sheep
men plural of man
put past tense of put
41
went past tense of go
What is the stem in:
legal it isnt leg
legal is not an adjective form of the noun law
law was borrowed into Old English from Old Norse.
legal is borrowing from the Latin
form legalis (of the law).
(6) Morphs and allomorphs:
phone allophone phoneme
Parallelism between
morph- allomorph morpheme
When we talk (produce speech), a phoneme is actually realized as
a phone; likewise, a morpheme is actually realized as a morph. As a
phoneme has one or more allophones, so a morpheme has one or more
allomorphs.
Plural morpheme -s: allomorphs -s, -z, -iz, -o
Examples: cats, dogs, bridges, sheep.
42
Past tense morpheme -ed: allomorphs -t, -d, -id, -o
Examples: wished, dreamed, sighted, hit.
Irregular plurals: men/man, feet/foot, oxen/ox, knives/knife.
Irregular past tenses: went/go, took/take, brought/bring,
drove/drive.
(6) Other languages: Different morphological patterns are used in other
languages.
1. Kanuri (Nigeria):
kura (big) ncmkura (bigness)
dibi (bad) ncmdibi (badness)
Derivational prefix ncm- Adj. to Noun
2. Ganda (Uganda):
omusawo (doctor) abasawo (doctors)
omukazi (woman) abakazi (women)
Inflectinal prefix omu- used with singular nouns and aba -
used with plural nouns.

43
3. Ilocano (Philippines):
ulo (head) ululo (heads)
dalan (road) daldalan (roads)
Reduplication for inflectional marking First syllable of the
stem is repeated to make plural nouns.
4. Tagalog (Philippines):
basa (read) sulat (write)
bumasa (Read!) sumulat (Write!)
babasa (will read) susulat (will write)
The infix -um- inserted into the stem after the initial consonant to
form imperative. First syllable of the stem is reduplicated
(repeated) for marking future reference.
5. Aztec (Mexico): 1. English, 2. Aztec
stem derivational inflectional
1. DARK + -EN (make) + ED (past) = DARKENED
2. MIC (die) + TIA (cause to) + -S (future) = MICTIAS (will
kill)
44
PHRASES AND SENTENCES: GRAMMAR (Chapter 9)
(1) Grammar:
When you learn a language, you learn the sounds used in that
language, the basic units of meaning, such as morphemes, and the rules
to combine these to form phrases and sentences.
The phrase: the lucky boys
Sounds: vowels c, \, i
diphthong y
consonants , z (voiced fricatives)
b (voiced stop)
k (voiceless stop)
l (approximant)
Morphemes: lexical luck, boy
functional the
derivational y
inflectional s

45
the lucky boys well formed (Grammatical) obeys the rules of
English grammar.
* boys the lucky both ill-formed (ungrammatical) violate
* lucky boys the the rules of English grammar
# The elements and rules constitute the grammar
(2) Types of grammar
1. Mental grammar internalized subconscious linguistic
knowledge it represents our linguistic competence (ability) - of
most interest to a psychologist, since it deals with what goes on in
peoples minds.
2. Prescriptive grammar identification and use of proper or
best structures of a language involves what might be called
linguistic etiquette may be of interest to a sociologist, since it
has to do with peoples social attitudes and values.
3. Descriptive grammar analysis and description of the
structures found in a language of most interest to linguists, since
it deals with the nature of language.

46

(3) The parts of speech (From classical Latin & Greek studies):
1. Nouns: refer to people, places, objects, creatures, qualities,
phenomena and abstract ideas girl, bank, chair, cat, beauty, eclipse,
heaven.
2. Adjectives: used with nouns provide more information about
the things referred to beautiful woman, big man, cute puppy, great
idea.
3. Verbs: refer to actions (run, jump, play) and states (be,
seem) involving the things in events.
4. Adverbs: used with verbs to provide more information about
the actions and events suddenly, slowly, greatly; also used with
adjectives to modify the information about things very large, really
pretty
5. Prepositions: used with nouns providing information about time
(at 5, in the morning), place (on the table, near the window) and other
connections (with a knife, without a thought) involving actions and
things.
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6. Pronouns: used in place of nouns refer to things already
known Sam loves Harry Potter He reads it all the time.
7. Conjunctions: used to connect and to show relationship
between events and things (although, and, but, if) we swam although
it was very cold.
(4) Traditional categories: (from classical Latin & Greek studies):
1. Number: singular (boy), plural (boys)
2. Person: first person (involving the speaker I) second person
(involving the hearer you), and third person (involving any others he,
she, it)
3. Gender: natural gender masculine (he, his),
feminine (she, her) grammatical gender may not be appropriate in
describing English, but used in other languages: (not based on biological
differences)
Spanish - masculine (el sol the sun)
feminine (la luna the moon)
German - masculine (der Mond the moon)
feminine (die Sonne the sun)
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neuter (das feuer the fire)
(das Madchen young girl)
French - masculine (le livre the book)
feminine (la table)
# Notice that in these languages the articles (also adjectives) take
different forms to agree with the gender of the noun.
4. Tense: present tense (likes, like), past tense (liked), future tense
(will like)
active voice the boy likes the dog.
passive voice the dog is liked by the boy
5. Agreement: verb form agreement in English is based on the
categories of number and person The boy (singular) likes his dog.
The boys (plural) like their dogs.
I, we (1
st
person) like the dog.
You (2
nd
person) like the dog.
He, she (3
rd
person) likes the dog.

49
(5) Traditional analysis: (Lists and Paradigms)
Traditional grammars of English presented tables similar to those
found in Latin grammars


Present
tense,
active
voice

1
st
person singular I love
2
nd
person singular You love
3
rd
person singular He loves
1
st
person plural We love
2
nd
person plural You love
3
rd
person plural They love

amo
amas
amat
amamus
amatis
amant


# Note that each of the Latin verb forms is different, according to the
categories of person and number, yet the English verb forms, except one,
are the same.


50
(6) The prescriptive approach:
Following the model of Latin grammars, eighteenth-century
grammarians set out rules for correct or proper use of language. This
view of grammar as a set of rules for the proper use of language is
characterized as the prescriptive approach.
(1) You must not split an infinitive.
(2) You must not end a sentence with a preposition.
(3) You must not begin a sentence with and.
Captain Kirks infinitive (From Star Trek):
English infinitive form to + verb, as in to go
can be used with an adverb such as boldly.
Captain Kirks expression To boldly go an example of split
infinitive. According to the prescriptive grammars, the correct form
should be To go boldly or Boldly to go.
Rule 1 (above) from Latin where an infinitive is a ingle word
is fine for Latin (ire to go, audacter boldly), but not for English
where an infinitive consists of two words to + verb. In English such
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expressions as to boldly go, to solemnly swear or to purposely
avoid are quite acceptable.
Susan picked up the book Susan picked the book up.
He gave the money back to Bill. And then he left.
Whom did you see? Who did you see?
Mary runs faster than I. Mary runs faster than me.
# Proper or correct use of language is a matter of linguistic
etiquette a social expectation.
(7) The descriptive approach:
Analysts collect samples of a language attempt to describe the
regular structures of that language as actually used by the speakers of
that language not how they should be used according to some view of
grammar.
This approach is the basis of most modern attempts to characterize
the structures of different languages.



52
1. Structural analysis: (test-frames, substitutability)
Main concern of structural analysis to investigate the distribution
of forms in a language. Method used test-frames or test-sentences
with empty slots in them:
A. The ____________ makes a lot of noise.
B. I heard a __________ yesterday.
donkey, car, dog, radio, child, and many other form can fit
in these slots, but not Cathy, it, the dog, a car, an old car,
the professor with Scottish accent these forms require
different test-frames.
C. __________ makes a lot of noise.
D. I heard __________ yesterday.
The grammatical category for the filler in A and B is noun, in
C and D noun phrase
# By the test-frame method you can produce a description of (at
least some) aspects of the sentence structures of language.


53
2. Immediate constituents analysis:
Main concern of immediate constituent analysis to show
how small constituents (or components) in a sentence go together to
form larger constituents:
Her father brought a shotgun to the wedding,
A. Word level constituents: 8 in all
B. Phrase level constituents: Her father, a shotgun, the wedding are
noun phrases; to the wedding is a prepositional phrase; brought a
shotgun is a verb phrase. (Any other combination of these words will
not produce an English phrase.)
This analysis of the constituents structure of the sentence represented
in diagram form:

Noun Phrase Verb Phrase Prepositional Phrase
Her father brought | a shotgun to | the | wedding
Noun phrase Noun phrase


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Substitutability:
Her father brought a shotgun to the wedding
The man saw the thief in a car
Fred took Jean to Honolulu
He came here
(3) Labeled and bracketed sentences:
1. Bracketed sentence: (See textbook p. 94)
2. Bracketed and labeled sentence:
Art=Article; N=Noun; NP=Noun phrase;
V=Verb; VP=Verb Phrase; and
S=Sentence: (See textbook p. 94)
# This type of analysis reveals the hierarchical organization of the
constituents of a sentence.
Higher than and contains
Sentence noun phrase & verb phrase
noun phrase (article) and noun
verb phrase verb & noun phrase
and so on.
55
SYNTAX (Chapter 10)
The word syntax came originally from Greek and literally
meant a setting out together or arrangement the ordering
arrangement of elements in the linear structure of sentences.
(1) Generative grammar: (Noam Chomsky)
The grammar with a very explicit system of rules specifying what
combinations of basic elements would result in well-formed sentences.
This explicit system of rules would have much in common with the
types of rules found in mathematics.
Algebraic expression like 3x + 2y can generate endless values by
giving x and y the values of any whole number, and then by using the
simple rules of arithmetic.
Following Chomsky (Syntactic Structures, 1957), if a language is
considered to be a (finite or infinite) set of sentences, then there must be
a set of explicit rules which can generate those sentences. Such a set of
explicit rules is a generative grammar.
56
(2) Properties of generative grammar:
I. This grammar will generate all and only well-formed (or
grammatical) sentences (This is the all and only criterion).
II. This grammar will have a finite (i.e. limited) number of rules,
but will be capable of generating an infinite number of well-formed (or
grammatical) sentences. (This is the creativity criterion).
III. This grammar will also have the crucial property of recursion,
that is, the rules can be applied more than once in generating a structure.
(This is the reapplication of rules criterion).
Recursion earth back of turtle the little old lady.
Example:
1. This is the dog that chased the cat that killed the rat
2. The book was on the table near the window in the hallway
besides the
3. John said Cathy thought George helped Mary. (See p. 108 of the
textbook)
#1. In principle, there is no end to the recursion of sentence structures of
this type in the English language.
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#2. Sentences and phrases may have other sentences and phrases inside
them.
Rule: S NP VP
VP V S and so on
(3) Deep and surface structure
A. One deep structure with two surface structures
For example:
1. Charlie broke the window. (active sentence)
2. The window was broken by Charlie. (passive sentence)
` The two sentences have the same meaning. They are very closely
related, even identical at some less superficial (or underlying) level.
The difference in the two sentences is in their surface structure,
that is, the syntactic form they take as actual spoken sentences of
English.
Even though the surface structures of the two sentences are
different, both sentences have the same deep structure.
58
Deep structure: An underlying abstract level of structural
organization in which all the elements determining structural
interpretations are represented.
Sentence 1: Charlie broke the window.
Sentence 2: The window was broken by Charlie.
Sentence 2 is a passive transform of sentence 1.
B. Two deep structures with only one surface structure. (structural
` ambiguity)
Examples:
SS: Annie whacked a man with an umbrella.
DS #1: Annie whacked a man who was carrying an umbrella.
DS #2: Annie had an umbrella and she whacked a man with it.

SS: John loves Richard more than Martha
DS #1: John loves Richard more than Martha loves Richard.
DS #2: John loves Richard more than John loves Martha.
Visiting professor can be boring
George wanted the presidency more than Elizabeth.
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The matador fought the bull with courage.
I saw the man riding my bike.
One morning I shot an elephant in my pajama.
(4) Symbols used in syntactic description
S sentence N noun PN proper noun
Pro pronoun V verb Adj adjective
Art article Adv adverb Prep preposition
NP noun phrase VP verb phrase PP propositional phrase
consists of, or rewrite as * ungrammatical
( ) optional constituent
{ } only one of these constituents must be selected
NP Art N
NP Art (Adj) N
Art N
NP Pronoun
Proper noun
(5) Labeled tree diagrams
(See diagrams: textbook p. 105)
60
(6) Phrase structure rule: (An alternative format of tree diagram)
S NP VP
Art (Adj) N
NP PN
Pro
VP V NP (PP) (Adv)
PP Prep NP
Lexical rules: (indicate the words to be used for constituents)
N {boy, girl, dog}
PN {George, Mary}
Art {a, the}
Adj {small, crazy}
V {saw, followed, helped}
Prep {with, near}
Adv {yesterday, recently}
These phrase structure rules and lexical rules can generate many
grammatical sentences. (See p. 107 of the textbook)

61
(7) Transformational rules:
1. Phrase structure rules build tree diagrams.
2. Transformational rules alter tree diagrams.
3. T-rules move constituents from one place to another in the tree
diagram.
4. T-rules take a branch of the tree away from the one part of the
Tree diagram and attach it to a different part
(Adverb & Particle movement: See textbook pp. 108, 109)
62
SEMANTICS (Chapter 11)
The study of linguistic meaning is called semantics. Linguistic
semantics deals with the conventional, objective, general meaning of
words, phrases and sentences of a language.
(1) Conceptual versus associative meaning
1. Conceptual (denotative) meaning: covers those basic, essential
components of meaning which are conveyed by the literal use of a word.
It is analogous to the dictionary definition of word.
For example: the basic components of words like needle might be
thin, sharp, steel, instrument.
2. Associative (connotative) meaning: refers to the association
and emotional reaction one has to a word. suggested meaning.
For example: The word needle makes you to think something
painful which is not treated as part of conceptual meaning.
(2) Semantic features:
The basic features involved in differentiating the meanings of each
word in a language from every other word.
For example: animate, human, male, and adult.
63
These features are assigned + or values.
+ animate (denotes an animate being).
- animate (does not denote an animate being).
The meaning of the words table, cow, girl, woman, boy, man can
be differentiated in terms of the semantic features indicated above, but
not of the words advice, threat, warning.
# Differentiation of the meaning of the words of a language in terms of
the semantic features is not without problem.
However, semantic features are helpful in accounting the
oddness of the following sentences:
The hamburger ate the man
My cat studies linguistics
A table was listening to some music
These sentences are syntactically good, but semantically odd, since
hamburger cannot eat anything, being inanimate; table cannot listen to
anything, being inanimate; and cat cannot study anything, being
nonhuman.

64
(3) Semantic roles:
1. Agent: the performer of the action, the doer.
2. Theme: the entity involved in or affected by the action.
3. Instrument: the entity used in performing or carrying out an
action.
For example: in Pat ate her soup with a spoon
Pat is agent, soup is theme, and spoon is
instrument.
4. Experiencer: the entity human or animal who has a feeling, a
perception, a state
5. Location: where an entity is or event takes place.
6. Source: where the entity moves from.
7. Goal: where the entity moves to.
For example: in Mary saw a dog in the street Mary is
experiencer, a dog is theme, the street is location; and in The dog ran
from the street to her house the dog is agent; the street is source,
her house is goal.

65
(4) Lexical relations:
When you give the meaning of conceal as the same as hide, or
of shallow as the opposite of deep, or of daffodil as a kind of
flower, you are characterizing these words not in terms of their
component features, but in terms of their relationship to other words.
The types of lexical relations and their examples:
1. Synonymy:
Synonyms: Two or more forms with closely related meanings
(sameness of meaning). Examples: broad wide, conceal hide, cab
taxi, liberty freedom, almost nearly, answer reply.
2. Antonymy:
Antonyms: Two forms with opposite meaning. Examples: quick
slow, big small, long short, rich poor, happy sad, hot cold,
young old, male female, true false, alive dead.
A. Gradable antonyms: such as, big small, hot cold can be
used in comparative constructions like bigger than, smaller than,
hotter than, etc. Also, the negative of one member does not imply the
66
other. For example: that dog is not old does not mean that dog is
young.
B. Non-gradable antonyms: such as, dead alive, male
female, true false cannot be used in comparative constructions
For example: deader or more dead sound strange. And, the negative of
one member does imply the other, that person is not dead does mean
that person is alive.
C. Reversives: in pairs, such as dress undress, pack unpack,
lock unlock, one member does not mean the negative of another. For
example: untie does not mean not tie.
3. Hyponymy: Meaning of one form (word) included in the
meaning of another word daffodil flower, dog animal, poodle
dog, carrot vegetable, banyan tree. In these word pairs, the
meaning of the second member is included in the meaning of the first
member. For example: daffodil is a kind of flower, so the meaning
of flower is included in the meaning of daffodil, that is, daffodil is a
hyponym of flower.
67
Hypo means under or below, implies a semantic hierarchy
(rank order). Example: A poodle is a kind of dog, which is a kind of
animal.
Co-hyponym: Two or more terms (words) which share the same
superordinate (higher-up) term are co-hyponyms. Example: horse and
dog are co-hyponyms, and the superordinate term is animal.
4. Prototypes: (archetype, a typical example, or the best exemplar)
the prototype or the best exemplar of the category bird is robin not
dove, duck, canary, parrot, pelican, penguin, flamingo, ostrich, etc.,
although all of them are co-hyponym of the superordinate term bird,
but they are not good exemplar of the category bird - robin is the
best exemplar.
5. Homophony: When two or more different (written) forms
have the same pronunciation (sound the same), they are called
homophones.
For example: bare bear, meet meat, flour flower, pail
pale, sew so, male mail.
68
6. Homonymy: When one form (written or spoken) has two or
more unrelated meanings. Homonyms are the words which have quite
different meanings, but have exactly the same form (written or spoken).
For example: bank (of a river) bank (financial institution);
race race; pupil pupil; mole mole; pole pole
7. Polysemy: When one form (written or spoken) has many
related meanings (related by extension).
For example: head (of body, of department, of company); foot
(of person, of bed, of mountain); run (person does, water does, colors
do).
#1. Polysemic words: have a single entry in dictionary with
numbered list of different (but related) meanings.
#2. Homonymous words: have separate entries in dictionary.
#3. The distinction between homonymy & polysemy is not always
clear cut.
For example: date / date (fruit / point in time) are homonyms
(unrelated meanings), while date (day and month on a letter); date
(an appointment); date (social meeting with a person of opposite sex);
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(person as in Mary is my date tonight) are polysems (related
meanings).
# Humor often based on homophony, homonymy and ploysemy:
Homophony: What is black and white and red all over? Answer: a
newspaper red / read.
Homonymy: Why are trees often mistaken for dogs? Answer: because of
their bark.
8. Metanymy: The relationship between words, based simply on a
close connection in every day experience. Examples:
A. Container / contents: bottle/coke, can/juice.
I drank the whole bottle.
B. Whole/part: car /wheels, house/roof.
I dont have wheels tonight.
C. Representative/symbol: king/crown, President/White House
The White House vetoed the bill.
9. Collocation: Words frequently occurring together, side-by-side
Examples: bread and butter, husband and wife, salt and
pepper, knife and fork.
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PRAGMATICS (Chapter 12)
Pragmatics is concerned with the meaning of words in terms of
the writers or speakers intentions in using them. That is, when we
read or hear pieces of language, we normally try to understand not only
what the words mean, but what the writer or speaker of those words
intended to convey. The study of speakers intended meaning is called
pragmatics.
(1) Invisible meaning:
In many ways, pragmatics is the study of invisible or hidden
meaning how we recognize what is meant even when it isnt actually
said (or written) it depends on shared assumptions and
expectations.
1. Heated Attendant Parking (Parking lot sign)
2. Baby & Toddler Sale (Newspaper advertisement)
Well, we use the meanings of the words in combination and the
context in which they occur, and try to figure out what the writer of
these signs intended to convey.
Notice that signs do not even have the words car and clothes.
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(2) Context:
1. Linguistic context (also known as co-text): The other words
that are used in the same sentence. Example: I am going to the bank to
cash a check. The co-text tells us that it is not a bank along side a
river.
2. Physical context: The word bank on the wall of a building in a
city, the physical location will help understand the intended meaning of
the word bank.
(3) Deixis: (pointing through language):
1. Personal deixis: Words used to point to a person (I, you, they,
me, him, her, them).
2. Place deixis: Words used to point to location (here, there,
yonder).
3. Time deixis: Words use to point to a time (now, then, yesterday,
tonight, last week).
# All these deictic expressions have to be interpreted in terms of
what person, place or time the speaker has in mind. Deictic words in a
72
language cannot be interpreted unless the physical context,
especially the physical context of the speaker, is known.
4. Distance from speaker: close/far
Close: marked by this, here, now
Far: marked by that, there, then
5. Movement towards or away from speaker:
Towards speaker: Here she comes.
Bring that here.
Away from speaker: There she goes.
Take that there.
# Use of deixis for fun
Bar owner puts the sign Free Beer Tomorrow Rest
assured you will never get your beer.
(4) Reference: (directing attention to)
Reference can be defined as an act by which a speaker (or writer)
uses language to enable a listener (or reader) to identify something.
Restaurant talk: Waiter to waiter
Wheres the fresh salad sitting?
73
Hes sitting by the door.
#1. Name of a thing (salad) is used to refer to a person.
Someone studying linguistics
Can I look at your Chomsky?
Sure, its on the shelf over there.
#2. Name of a person (Chomsky) is used to refer to the book he
wrote.
#3. The process involved here is called inference (deriving by
reasoning). By this process listner connects what is said to what is
meant.
(5) Anaphora:
Subsequent reference to a previously introduced entity
(antecedent coming before in time)
Example: 1. After John ate, he left for home.
John is the antecedent and he is the anaphoric expression.
2. Can I borrow your book?
Yeah, it is on the table.
book is the antecedent and it is the anaphoric expression.
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(6) Presupposition:
What a speaker assumes is true or known to the hearer.
Examples: 1. Why did you arrive late?
Presupposition: You did arrive late.
2. Your brother is waiting outside for you.
Presupposition: You have a brother.
3. When did you stop beating your wife?
Presupposition: You used to beat her.
Constancy (of presupposition) under negation:
Examples: 1. My car is a wreck.
2. My car is not a wreck.
# Although, these sentences have opposite meaning, the underlying
presupposition, I have a car, remains true in both.
(7) Speech acts:
The term speech act covers actions, such as requesting,
commanding, questioning and informing.
1. Direct speech act: When questions, commands, requests and
statements are used by speakers to perform their own functions, that is,
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question functioning as question, request functioning as request , then
speakers use of them is called direct speech act.
Examples: Function:
1. Did you eat the food? (question)
2. Eat the food. (command)
3. Please, eat the food. (request)
4. You ate the food. (statement)
2. Indirect speech act: When questions, commands, requests and
statements are used by speakers to perform functions other than their
own, that is, question functioning as request, statement functioning as
request , then speakers use of them is called indirect speech act.
Examples: Function
1. Can you pass the salt? (question request)
2. You left the door open. (statement request)
Humorous effects:
Do you know where Lockett Hall is?
Ans: yes and you walk away.
You took the question to be a direct speech act.
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# Indirect commands or requests are generally considered more
gentle or more polite in most societies.
(8) Politeness:
Politeness is showing awareness for another persons face.
1. Face: your public self-image. The emotional and social sense of
self that everyone has and expects everyone else to recognize.
2. Face-threatening act: Direct speech act representing a threat to
another persons self-image.
Example: Give me that paper. You are acting as if you have
more social power than the other person, but you dont.
3. Face-saving act: Indirect speech acts are face-saving acts. They
are considered gentle or polite. This removes the assumption of social
power. Example: Could you pass me that paper, please?
4. Negative face: Your need to be independent and to have
freedom from imposition.
Example: I am sorry to bother you I know you are busy,
but show concern about imposition.
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5. Positive face: Your need to be connected, to belong to, to be a
member of group.
Example: You & I have the same problem, so , Let us do this
together show solidarity, common goal.














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DISCOURSE ANALYSIS (Chapter 13)
Major Questions: 1. How do we make sense of what we read in
texts? 2. How do we understand what speakers mean despite what
they say? 3. How do we recognize connected as opposed to jumbled
or incoherent discourse? 4. How do we successfully participate in a
discourse?
(1) Interpreting discourse:
As language users, we are capable of more than simply
recognizing correct versus incorrect forms and structures. We can cope
with fragments such as:
1. Trains collide, two die (causal relationship between the two
phrases).
2. No shoes, no service (conditional relationship between the
two phrases).
3. The Saudi ESL student (his errors). (See p. 140 of the textbook)
4. We try to make sense out of it. We attempt to arrive at a
reasonable interpretation of what the writer intended to convey.

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(2) Cohesion:
1. The ties and connections which exist within the text.
2. Cohesive links: Pronouns: father he he; my my I,
Lincoln it; My father once bought a Lincoln See Text, p. 140.
3. Lexical connections: Lincoln convertible that car the
convertible;
4. Meaning sharing elements: (e.g. money) bought saving
penny worth a fortune sold pay; (e.g. time) once nowadays
sometimes;
5. Connectors: However connects what follows to what went
before.
# But, cohesion by itself would not be sufficient to enable us to
make sense of what we read. There must be some other factor which
leads us to distinguish connected texts which makes sense from those
which do not this factor is coherence. (See also the text, p. 141 of the
textbook, which has cohesive links, but is nonsensical & unintelligible).
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(3) Coherence:
Unlike cohesion, which exists actually in the spoken or written
discourse, coherence exists in the minds (experiential memory of the
way the world is) of those reading or listening (readers or listeners).
1. Casual conversation:
Her: Thats the telephone
Him: Im in bath
Her: O. K.
2. No cohesive ties within this fragment of discourse this type of
exchanges are best understood in terms of conventional actions
performed by speakers in such interactions.
She makes a request of him to perform action (indirect request)
He states reason why he cannot comply with request
She undertakes to perform action
(4) Speech events:
Such as, debates, interviews, various types of discussions. There is
enormous variation in what people say or do in different situations and
circumstances.
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Sources of variation:
1. Roles of speaker and hearer, or hearers;
2. their relationships friends, strangers, young, old, equal,
unequal, educated, uneducated;
3. topic of conversation;
4. setting or context in which it took place.
(5) Conversational interaction:
A. Turn-taking: In conversational interaction two or more people
take turns at speaking.
B. Completion point: Signaled by asking question or by pausing at
the end of the phrase or sentence.
C. Wanting to take turn: Signaled by making short sounds, body
shifts, and facial expressions.
D. Strategies of participation:
1. Butting-in (characterized as rude), shyness (keep waiting
for the turn)
2. Keeping the turn (holding the floor) avoid the end of a
sentence and pause occurring together; place the pause where message is
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incomplete; fill the pause with the hesitation markers (such as, er, em,
ah); make sentences run on by using and, and then, so, but.
# One of the most noticeable feature of conversational discourse is
that it is generally very co-operative.
(6) The co-operative principle:
Make your conversational contribution, such as is required, at the
stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk,
exchange in which you are engaged.
1. The four maxims supporting the co-operative principle:
A. Quantity: be informative & to the point
B. Quality: be truthful
C. Relation: be relevant
D. Manner: be clear, brief and orderly
2. What we say that indicates we are aware of these maxims:
A. to make long story short or I wont bore you with all
the details (Quantity)
B. as far as I know, now correct me if I am wrong, I am
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not absolutely sure, but, I think/feel that, It may be /
is possible that (Quality)
C. Not to change the topic, but (Relation).
3. Conversational implicature:
Carol: Are you coming to the party tonight?
Lara: I have got an exam tomorrow.
#1. Although, Laras statement is not an answer to Carols
question, but Carol interprets it as meaning No or Probably not.
Carol arrives at this interpretation, because she knows that exam
tomorrow conventionally involves study tonight. Laras
statement contained this implicature (an additional conveyed
meaning or implication) concerning tonights activities.
#2. We use our background knowledge to arrive at interpretations
of what we hear or read.
(7) Background knowledge:
1. How we use background knowledge to build interpretation of
what we read or hear example:
a. John was on his way to school last Friday.
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b. He was really worried about the math lesson.
c. Last week he had been unable to control the class.
d. It was unfair of the math teacher to leave him in charge.
e. After all, it is not a normal part of a janitors duty.
2. Schema: (Mental image)
A general term for a conventional knowledge structure which
exists in long-term memory. We have many schemata which
we use in the interpretation of what we experience, read or
hear.
For example: supermarket schema, restaurant schema,
classroom schema, etc.
3. Script:
A kind of dynamic schema in which a series of conventional
actions take place. Examples: Going to the dentist, Going to the
movie, Eating in a restaurant, Going to an athletic event, etc. (See
text on p. 147 of the textbook)
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LANGUAGE AND THE BRAIN (Chapter 15)
(1) Neurolinguistics:
The study of relationship between language and brain.
The case of Pineas Gage (a construction foreman)
A huge metal rod (three-and-a-half-foot long) had gone
through the front part of Mr. Gages brain, but his language abilities
were unaffected. The point of this amazing tale is that, if language
ability is located in the brain, it clearly is not situated right at the front.
(2) Parts of the brain:
The brain has three major subdivisions:
1. the cerebrum
2. the cerebellum
3. the brain stem
1. The cerebrum forms the largest part of the brain. It is
composed of two roughly symmetrical bilateral masses called cerebral
hemispheres. Each hemisphere is composed of a superficial wrinkled
layer of gray matter called the cerebral cortex which is responsible for
consciousness, intelligence, and volitional behavior. The left
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hemisphere is primarily responsible for controlling the right side of the
body, and the right hemisphere is responsible for controlling the left
side of the body. A large band of fibers, called corpus callosum
interconnects the two cerebral hemispheres.
Each hemisphere is further subdivided into four lobes: frontal,
parietal, temporal, and occipital. These lobes are generally considered
to be functionally distinct but highly interactive.
The frontal lobes are primarily associated with the initiation and
regulation of movement.
The parietal lobes are primarily associated with the perception of
general sensations.
The temporal lobes process auditory sensations.
The occipital lobes process visual sensations.
2. The cerebellum is critical to coordinated movement of any kind
because it regulates the rate, range, force, and direction of motor
behavior.
3. The brain stem forms the junction between the brain and the
spinal cord. Moreover, the brain stem serves as the origin or
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terminal of 12 pairs of peripheral nerves called cranial nerves.
# In the illustration of the cerebral cortex of the brain (in the textbook on
page 163) the shaded areas indicate the general location of language
functions. These areas were determined through examination, in
autopsies, of the brains of people who were known to have specific
language disabilities.
(3) Brocas area: (located in the frontal lobe, #1 in the illustration)
Paul Broca (a French surgeon) in the 1860s reported that damage
to the area described as the anterior speech cortex or Brocas area, was
related to extreme difficulty in producing speech. The damage to the
corresponding areas of the right hemisphere had no such effect.
This finding was used to argue that language ability must be
located in the left hemisphere. Since then Brocas area has been
considered to be crucially involved in speech production.
(4) Wernickes area: (located in the temporal lobe, #2 in the
illustration)
Carl Wernicke (a German doctor) in the 1870s reported that
damage to the area described as the posterior speech cortex or
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Wernickes area of the left hemisphere was related to speech
comprehension difficulties. This finding led to the view that
Wernickes area is crucially involved in understanding speech.
This finding further supported the view that language ability was
located in the left hemisphere of the brain.
(5) The motor cortex: (#3 in the illustration)
The motor cortex generally controls movement of the muscles.
Close to Brocas area is part of the motor cortex that controls the
muscles of the face, jaw, tongue and larynx that are involved in the
articulation of speech. In this regard, supportive evidence comes from
the work reported in the 1950s by Wilder Penfield and Lamar Roberts
(two Canadian neurosurgeons). By applying electrical stimulation to
specific areas of the brain, they determined which areas of the brain
were involved in speech production.
(6) The arcuate fasciculus: (#4 in the illustration)
The arcuate fasciculus is a bundle of nerve fibers that connects
Wernickes area to Brocas area. Severance of this connection (that is,
the arcuate fasciculus) seriously affect the normal speech production.
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(7) The localization view:
According to this view, specific aspects of language ability can be
accorded specific locations in the brain.
It has been proposed that the brain activity involved in hearing a
word, understanding it, then saying it, would follow a definite pattern.
The word is heard and comprehended via Wenickes area, then this
signal is transferred via the arcuate fasciculus to Brocas area where
preparations are made to produce it, then a signal is sent to the motor
cortex to physically articulate the word.
However, there is now lot of evidence produced by other brain
researchers that does not support the localization view of language
abilities.
(8) Other views:
1. Pathway metaphore (language processing pathways in the
brain) is similar to the now familiar process of sending signals through
electrical circuits.


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(9) Tongue tips and slips:
As language users, we all experience occasional difficulty in
getting the brain and speech production to work together smoothly.
These production difficulties may be clues to the way our linguistic
knowledge may be organized in the brain.
1. The tip-of-the tongue phenomenon:
Sometime we cannot remember (recall) a word that we know. We
feel it is on the tip of our tongue but it is not coming out.
Although we know the phonological outline of the word, can get
the initial sound, mostly know number of syllables, even stress pattern,
but cant recall the word. This usually happens with uncommon words
or names.
For example: speakers produce secant sextet, sexton for the
word sextant (a navigational instrument).
Mistakes of this type are sometimes referred to as Malapropisms.
Archie Bunkers malapropism We need a few laughs to break
up the monogamy produces comic effect since he mispronounced the
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word monotony as monogamy. Notice monogamy has same initial
sound, same number of syllables, same stress pattern.
2. Slips-of-the tongue:
The slips of the tongue are not random they never produce
phonologically unacceptable sequences they indicate different stages
of the articulation of linguistic expression.
It has been suggested that they may result from the slips of the
brain as it tries to organize linguistic message, although slips are
mostly treated as articulation errors.
A. Exchanges of phonemes:
long shory stort (long story short)
the thine sing (the sign thing)
shu flots (flu shots)
beel fetter (feel better)
loop before you leak (look before you leap)
you hissed all my mystery lectures (you missed all my
history lectures)

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B. Word exchanges:
use the door to open the key
a fifty-pound dog of bag food
C. Other phonemes exchanges:
1. Left-to-right, carry-over, perseverative
black bloxes (black boxes)
2. Right-to-left, anticipatory
noman numerals (Roman numerals)
a tup of tea (a cup of tea)
the most highly played payer the most highly paid
player.
3. Slips-of-the-ear:
May provide some clues to how the brain tries to make sense
of the auditory signal it receives. Slips of the ear are less commonly
documented.
Example: speaker said gre tape
listener heard great ape

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(10) Aphasia:
An impairment of language function due to localized cerebral (i.e.
brain) damage which leads to difficulty in understanding and/or
producing linguistic forms.
Causes: stroke, tumor, trauma, infection, lesion (injury)
1. Brocas aphasia (motor aphasia):
Lesion (injury) in Brocas area.
a. Reduced amount of speech
b. Distored articulation
c. Non-fluent speech (slow & effortful)
d. Almost only lexical morphemes (nouns and verbs)
produced
e. Functional morphemes (articles, prepositions, inflections)
frequently omitted hence called Agrammatic aphasia
f. Comprehension typically much better than production
2. Wernickes aphasia (sensory aphasia):
Lesion (injury) in Wernickes area
a. Fluent speech often difficult to make sense of
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b. Syntax relatively intact
c. Word recall difficulties sometimes referred to a Anomia
(also called Anomic aphasia or Amnesic aphasia)
d. Circumlocution - indirect way of saying things may be
used
e. Often neologism (new unrecognizable words) are used
3. Conduction aphasia:
Lesion in or around the arcuate fasciculus
a. Fluent speech, but may have disrupted rhythm because of
pauses and hesitations
b. Major difficulty in repeating what is heard what is heard
and understood cannot be transferred to the speech
production area
c. Much phonemic paraphrasia (repeating something spoken
using different words) base and wash repeated as
vaysee & fosh.
d. Relatively spared comprehension

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(11) Dichotic listening:
The dichotic listening test: the subject is given two different
sound signals simultaneously one through each earphone.
When asked to say what was heard, the subject more often
correctly identifies the sound which came via the right ear. This came to
be known as the right ear advantage for linguistic sounds.
The sounds coming via the right ear are processed by the left
hemisphere and those coming via left ear are processed by the right
hemisphere.
Linguistic sounds from right ear go directly to the left hemisphere,
whereas from the left ear they first go to the right hemisphere then to the
left hemisphere. (See figure on p. 170 of the textbook.) Thus, the left
hemisphere dominance for linguistic sounds, in other words for
language.
The left hemisphere handles language sounds (among other
things).
The right hemisphere handles non-verbal sounds e.g. music,
coughs, traffic noise, bird singing (among other things)
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Analytic / digital processing is done by the left brain (for most
right handed people)
Holistic processing is done by the right brain.
(12) The critical period:
The apparent specialization of the left hemisphere for language is
often described as lateralization (one-sidedness)
Lateralization process begins in early childhood and coincides with
the period during which language acquisition takes place.
During childhood (up until puberty) there is a period when
human brain is most receptive to language learning. This period is
called the critical period.
After the critical period the child will have great difficulty learning
language.
(13) Genie
1. Started language learning at 13 yrs of age.
2. Could speak and understand fairly large number of words.
3. Achieved simple syntax
4. Somewhat disfluent speech
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5. Dichotic listening test showed little if any left hemisphere
language function. However, it showed the left ear advantage
and the right hemisphere language function.

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FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION (Chapter 16)
(1) Innate predisposition:
FLA is remarkable for the speed with which it occurs.
FLA generally occurs without overt instruction.
FLA occurs in all societies and cultures, regardless of their great
differences.
These facts led to the belief:
that there is some innate predispositon in the human infant
to acquire language. We can think of this as the language-faculty of
the human with which each newborn child is endowed.
By itself, however, this faculty (ability to do something) is not
enough.
(2) Basic requirements:
1. The child be physically capable of sending and receiving
sound signal in language. In order to speak a language, the child must be
able to hear that language used.
All infants make cooing and babbling noises during the first
few months, but congenitally deaf infants stop after six months.
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2. Interaction with other language users is the essence of
cultural transmission. In other words, the language is acquired in a
particular language-using environment, it is not inherited genetically.
#1 The case of hearing child of deaf parents exposed to TV and
radio could not acquire ability to speak or understand English, but
learnt American sign language, the language he used to interact with his
parents.
#2 The crucial requirement the opportunity to interact with
others via language.
(3) The acquisition schedules:
All children develop language at roughly the same time, along
much the same schedule, regardless of society and culture.
The same thing can be said for sitting up, standing, walking, using
the hands and other physical activities.
#1. The language acquisition schedule has the same basis as the
biologically determined development of motor skills.
#2. This biologically determined schedule is tied to the
maturation of the infants brain and the lateralization process.
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#3. The biological capacity to cope with distinguishing certain
aspects of linguistic input requires sufficiently constant input from
which the child could work out the regularities of the language he or
she is learning. In this view the child is active learner and user of the
language.
(4) Some controversies:
I. The early environment of a child differs considerably from one
culture to another. So, the findings of research into the process of
acquisition in one culture may not be replicable in another culture.
II. Noam Chomsky (Generative grammarian) has proposed that
development should be described as language growth, because the
language organ simply grows like any other body organ. This view
seems to undermine what others consider the importance of environment
and experience.
III. Debate over how we should view the language production of
young children. The linguists view tends to concentrate on describing
childs speech in terms of known units of phonology & syntax.
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However, childs view of what is being heard and uttered at different
stages may be based on quite different units.
For example: [dukcdt] may be a single unit for the child, but
three units look at that for the investigator.
(5) Caretaker speech:
1. Simplified speech style
2. Frequent questions
3. Exaggerated intonation
4. Forms associated with baby-talk, such as tummy, nana
5. Forms with repeated simple sounds, such as choo-choo, poo-
poo, pee-pee, wawa
6. Conversational structure of speech which seems to assign an
interactive role to the young child even before he or she becomes a
speaking participant. (See example on p. 178 of the textbook.)
7. Use of simple sentence structure and a lot of repetition.
8. Speech of caretakers becomes more elaborate as the child begins
using more & more speech.
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(6) Pre-language stages:
1. Cooing: first recognizable sound, such as velar consonants [k]
and [g] as well as high vowels [i] and [u] are heard by the time the child
is 3 months old.
2. Babbling: I. By 6 months, the child is usually able to sit up and
can produce a number of vowels and consonants as fricatives and nasals,
and syllables like mu, da.
II. Around 9 months recognizable intonation patterns to the
consonant and vowel combinations used.
III. Through 10 to 11 months as children begin to pull
themselves into a standing position are capable of using their
vocalizations to express emotions and emphasis a lot of sound play
and attempted imitations.
(7) The one-word or holophrastic stage: (12-18 months)
Characterized by speech in which children use one word (single
unit or single form) for everyday objects, such as milk, cookie, eat,
and cup. It may be that children use these form as phrases or sentences.
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Thus, we could use the term holophrastic for these single forms.
Holophrastic = single form functioning as phrase or sentence.
(8) The two-word stage: (By 2 yrs of age)
A variety of combinations of two words appear in childrens
utterances, such as baby chair, cat bed, mommy eat.
Adult interpretation of these combinations depends on the context
in which they are used. baby chair may be interpreted as possession (=
this is babys chair); or as a request (= put baby in chair), or as a
statement (= baby is in chair).
# By the age of two, the child may be producing 200 to 400
distinct words, but he or she is capable of understanding five times as
many words.
(9) Telegraphic speech: (Between 2 to 3 years)
Characterized by strings of lexical morphemes in phrases, such as
Andrew want ball, cat drink milk, this shoe all wet.
# These utterances show that the child has developed some
sentence-building capacity, and can order forms correctly. Function
words are not used in telegraphic speech, however.
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# By the age of two and a half vocabulary expands rapidly the
child begins to initiate more and more talk during this period physical
activity, such as running and jumping also increases.
# By three, the childs vocabulary grows to hundreds of words
his pronunciation becomes closer to that of adults.
(10) The acquisition process:
No one teaches or can teach children how to speak the language,
they themselves figure out how to speak the language on the basis of
what they hear from language users.
Children actively construct, from what is said to them, possible
ways of using the language. Childrens language production is mostly a
matter of trying out construction and testing whether they work or not.
Children are not parrots. They dont acquire the language simply
through the process of consistently imitating (parrot-fashion) adult
speech adults simply do not produce many of the types of expressions
which turn up in childrens speech.
Example: Im going home so you wont Woodstock me.
(See page 181 of the textbook for full exchange)
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Also, adult correction does not seem to work. When the
correction is attempted, the child continues to use a personally
constructed form, despite the adults repetition of what the correct form
should be.
Child: My teacher holded the baby rabbits and we patted them.
Mother: Did you say your teacher held baby rabbits?
(See page 181 of the textbook for full exchange)
(11) Morphology: (By three years)
Inflectional morphemes which indicate grammatical function of
nouns and verbs used.
I. First -ing appear: cat sitting, mommy reading book
II. Then regular plural with -s: boys, cats
Overgeneralization with -s: foots, mans, houses (ending
-ez an alternative plural form) boyses, footses.
At the same time some children begin to use irregular plural forms
men, feet also mens, feets.
III. Possessive inflection s girls dog, boys ball, mommys
book
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IV. Different forms of the verb to be, such as are, was
At about the same time went, came appear.
V. Regular past-tense forms with -ed follow, such as, walked,
played
For a period, there is minor chaos as -ed inflection is added to
everything. For example: goed, wented, comed, walkeded
VI. Finally, the regular -s marker on third person singular present
tense verbs appears: comes, looks, has, does.
(12) Syntax:
Only two well-documented features of syntax are considered:
Questions & Negatives. In the formation of questions and the use of
negatives, there appear to be three identifiable stages:
Stage I occurs between 18 and 26 months
Stage II between 22 and 30 months
Stage III between 24 and 40 months
# No precise ages can be assigned to these developmental stages;
different children proceed at different paces must be emphasized.

107
1. Questions:
A. Stage I: (18-26 months) Add Wh-form (where, who) to the
beginning of the expression, or use rising intonation toward the end of
the expression Examples: Wh Q. Where Kitty?, Where horses go?
Yes/no Q. sit chair?, see hole?
B. Stage II: (22-30 months) More Wh forms come into use
rising intonation continues
Wh Q. What book name?, Why you smiling?
Yes/no Q. You want eat?, See my doggie?
C. Stage III: (24-40 months) Appearance of subject/verb inversion
Can I have a piece?
Will you help me?
What did you do?
Did I caught it?
How that opened?
Why kitty cant stand up?


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2. Negatives:
A. Stage I: (18-26 months) no or not added to the beginning of
the expression
Examples: no mitten, no fall, not sit there
B. Stage II: (22-30 months) negative forms dont and cant
appear no and not continue and placed before the verb
Examples: you cant dance,
I dont know
He no bite you
There no squirrels
C. Stage III: (24-40 months) other auxiliary forms such as didnt
and wont appear - Stage I forms disappear Stage II forms continue
very late acquisition of the form isnt.
Examples: I didnt caught it
She wont let go
He not taking it
This not ice cream
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No adult correction seems to work: (See pp. 184-185 of the
textbook.)
Child: Nobody dont like me
Mother: No, say nobody likes me
Child: Nobody dont like me
(Eight repetitions of this dialog)
Mother: No, now listen carefully; say nobody likes me
Child: Oh! Nobody dont likes me
(13) Semantics:
1. Overextension:
Use of limited vocabulary to refer to a large number of unrelated
objects (overextension of meaning).
Children tend to overextend the meaning of a word on the basis of
similarities of shape, sound, size, and to a lesser extent movement and
texture; shape is crucial.
A. Similarities of shape: bow-wow used for four-legged
animals, such as dog, cat, cow, horse. One child used bow-wow for
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objects with shiny bits, such as dog, a fur piece with glass eyes, cuff
links, even bath thermometer.
ball used for round objects, such as doorknob, moon, even
lampshade.
B. Similarities of size: fly used for insect, specks of dirt, bread
crumbs.
C. Similarities of texture: sizo used for scissors, all metal objects.
# The semantic development in a childs use of words: first
overextension of meaning, then gradually narrowing down of
meaning as more words are learnt.
2. Production lags behind comprehension:
Children understand (comprehend) more words than they can
produce. Example: A two year old child, in speaking, used apple for a
number of round things, such as, tomatoes, balls, but had no difficulty
picking out apples from a set of round objects.
3. Lexical relations:
Basic level of hyponymy hierarchy acquired first. In terms of
hyponymy, the child almost always uses the middle level dog in
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animal dog poodle although, it would seem more logical to learn
the most general term animal
The antonymous relations are acquired fairly late, usually after the
age of five. For example: more / less, before / after, buy / sell (See p.
186 of the textbook)
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SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION/LEARNING (Chapter 17)
(1) First language (L1) vs. Second language (L2):
1. Children whose parents (mother & father) use different
languages can acquire both languages and can become bilingual (=
Bilingualism)
2. However, vast majority of people are not exposed to a second
language until much later. For such people, the ability to use their first
language is rarely matched, even after years of study, by a comparable
ability in the second language.
(2) Acquisition barriers:
1. L2 learners already know L1 which they use for most of their
daily communication.
2. Most people attempt to learn L2 during their teens or adult years
past the Critical Period of language acquisition, that is after
puberty.
3. Moreover, they dont spend much time with L2.

113
(3) Acquisition and learning:
1. With respect to language, acquisition means the gradual
development of ability in a language by using it naturally in
communication situations.
2. Learning, however, means consciously accumulating knowledge
of the vocabulary and grammar of a language.
Mathematics is learned, not acquired.
3. Josep Conrad achieved great expertise in writing English but
his spoken English retained the strong Polish accent.
# This suggests that it is easier to acquire vocabulary and grammar
of L2 than its phonology.
4. After the Critical Period has passed (around puberty), it
becomes very difficult to acquire another language fully.
During this period lateralization of the brain occurs and
language faculty is strongly taken over by L1, with resulting loss of
flexibility to receive the features of another language.
5. Against this view, it has been demonstrated that students in
their teens are quicker and more effective L2 learners than seven year
114
olds. Optimum age for learning L2 may be 10 to 16 years of age,
because of maturation of cognitive skills and flexibility of learning the
language is not yet completely lost.
(4) The affective filter:
The term affective filter is often used to describe a kind of
barrier to acquisition that results from negative feelings or
experiences. Affect = emotional reaction.
1. Personal traits & motivation:
A. Self-consciousness (unduly conscious of oneself)
B. Fear of being embarrassed if a mistake is made in
pronouncing sounds of other language.
C. Unwillingness (lack of motivation) to produce different
sounds.
2. Dull textbooks, unpleasant classroom surroundings or an
exhausting schedule.
3. Lack of empathy (ability to share in anothers emotions,
feelings, thoughts) with the foreign culture (e.g. no identification with its
speakers or their customs) not wanting to sound like an American.
115
4. Use of alcohol to reduce self-consciousness noticeable
improvement in the pronunciation of L2 after a number of drinks rapid
deterioration in the pronunciation of L2 self-consciousness return with
sobriety affecting learning.
(5) Focus on method:
1. Grammar translation method:
A. Large number of words have to be memorized
B. Grammatical rules have to be memorized
C. Words & sentences of L2 are translated into L1 and vice-
versa.
D. The written rather than spoken language emphasized.
2. Audio-lingual method:
A. Systematic presentation of the structures of L2 from
simple to more complex, usually in the form of drills which students had
to repeat.
B. Use of language laboratories for repeating oral drills for
hours.
116
C. This approach strongly influenced by belief that fluent use
of language was essentially a set of habits which could be developed
with a lot of practice.
D. Critics of this approach pointed out that drilling
language patterns bears no resemblance to the interactional nature of
actual language use. Moreover, it can be incredibly boring.
3. Communicative approaches:
A. All communicative approaches are based on the view that
functions of language (i.e. what it is used for) should be emphasized
rather than forms of the language (i.e. correct grammatical or
phonological structure).
B. Lessons are likely to be organized around concepts, such
as asking for things in different social contexts.
C. Production and use of more appropriate materials for L2
learning which has a specific purpose (e.g. English for medical
personnel or Japanese for business people).
117
(6) Focus on the learner:
1. Shift in focus from the teacher, the textbook and the method to
the L2 learner and the acquisition process.
A. Toleration of errors produced by L2 learner.
B. Errors as clues to active learning process children make
similar errors during L1 acquisition process.
C. Creative construction errors, such as womens for women
(overgeneralization)
D. Transfer errors, resulting from the transfer of L1 expressions to
L2, such as placement of adjective after noun by the Spanish speaker
learning English side inferior for inferior side.
- Positive transfer: transferring a feature from L1 to L2, which is
similar in both languages (e.g. marking plural on the end of nouns).
- Negative transfer: transferring an L1 feature to L2, which is
truly different (e.g. placing adjective after noun by Spanish speakers
learning English). This is sometimes called interference.
118
(7) Interlanguage:
A system of language which occurs during L2 learning, containing
aspects of L1 and L2, but with rules of it s own (a stage between L1
and L2).
Example: She name is Maria a Spanish speakers production
learning English, such forms are not used by adult speaker of English,
do not occur in English L1 acquisition by children, and are not found in
Spanish.
Fossilized L2 stage:
L2 learner learns to a point develops unmatching fixed repertoire
of L2 forms then progress stops the process of fossilization in L2
cause of foreign accent.
(8) Motivation:
For successful L2 learning, the motivation to learn is important. It
has been noted that who experience some success are among the most
motivated to learn. Thus, motivation may be as much a result of success
as a cause of success.
119
(9) Input and output:
1. Input: The language that L2 learner is exposed to.
2. Foreigner talk: a variety of speech used with foreigners easy to
understand simpler in structure and vocabulary as English class,
you like it?
3. Negotiated input: L2 learner can acquire much of the foreign
language in interaction through requests or clarifications active
attention has to be focused upon what is said. (See example on p. 196 of
the textbook.)
4. Output: Opportunity to produce comprehensible foreign
language (L2) in a meaningful interaction.
5. For better and more L2 output, L2 learning should be task
based (i.e. different types of tasks and activities in which learners have
to interact).
(10) Communication competence: (defined in terms of three
components: accuracy, appropriateness, and flexibility)
1. Grammatical competence: Use of accurate words and structures
and pronunciation in L2 (accuracy). Bookish knowledge of grammar
120
will not provide the learner with the ability to interpret or produce L2
appropriately.
2. Sociolinguistic competence: When to say Can I have some
water? versus Give me some water! according to the social context
(appropriateness).
3. Strategic competence: The ability to organize a message
effectively and to compensate, via strategies, for any difficulties stop
talking is a bad idea find a way to continue (flexibility).
4. Communicative strategy: When you cannot find (remember or
dont know) a word for something do not stop talking define, that is
use other word such as that thing that girls wear around their neck (If
you cannot remember the word necklace).
(11) Applied linguistics: It deals with practical issues involving
languages, thus it has to appeal to ideas not only from linguistic analysis
but also from other fields, such as communication studies, education,
psychology and sociology.
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LANGUAGE HISTORY AND CHANGE (Chapter 19)
(1) Sir William Jones a British Government official in India (1786),
observed strong relation between Sanskrit (ancient language of India),
Greek and Latin.
He suggested that these (Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin) and a
number of other languages from very different geographical areas
must have some common ancestor.
(2) Family trees:
During the 19
th
century, when most linguists (then called
philologists) were occupied in the historical study of languages, the term
Proto-Indo-European (PIE) came into use to describe that common
ancestor. It was hypothesized that PIE was the original language which
was the source of modern languages of India and Europe.
Scholars then constructed the family tree of PIE, showing the
lineage of many modern Indo-European languages. (See PIE family tree
on p. 214 of the textbook.)

122
(3) Family relationships:
Established on the basis of phonological similarities among the
words from different languages, which had the same meaning.
Sanskrit Latin Greek
pitar pater pater (father)
bhratar frater phrater (brother)
(4) Cognates:
Words from different languages, which have similar forms and
meanings, are called cognates. Words from Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek
given above are cognates.
Examples from modern languages:
English: mother father friend Germanic branch
German: Mutter Vater Freund
Spanish: madre padre amigo Italic branch
Italian: madre padre amico


123
(5) Comparative reconstruction:
The aim of the process of comparative reconstruction is to
reconstruct what must have been the original (proto) form of the
common ancestral language, using information from cognate forms.
Two of the general principles used in comparative reconstruction
procedure are presented in what follows:
A. The majority principle: if in a set of four cognate forms
(words), three begin with a [p] sound and one begins with a [b] sound,
then the best guess is that the majority have retained the original sound,
and the minority has changed through time.
B. The most natural development principle:
1. Final vowels often disappear (drop off)
2. Voiceless sounds become voiced between vowels
3. Stops become fricatives (under certain conditions)
4. Consonants become voiceless at the end of words
Examples:
Italian (A) Spanish (B) French (C)
cavallo caballo cheval (horse)
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cantare cantar chanter (sing)
catena cadena chaine (chain)
caro caro cher (dear)
Initial sounds in Italian and Spanish are [k], while in French
the initial sounds are []. Conclusions: in original language words
began with [k] sound (the majority principle).
In Italian and Spanish the initial sound is stop [k], while in
French the initial sound is fricative [] (the most natural development
principle).
The common origin of Italian, Spanish and French is Latin.
The initial sound in Latin words: caballus, cantare, catena, and carus is
[k]. Thus, our initial consonant reconstruction is accurate.
# For Amazon jungle language family reconstruction (See p. 217 of
the textbook.)
(6) Language change:
1. History of English
A. Old English: From Beowulf (7
th
) to 11
th
century
125
In the 5
th
century AD a group of three tribes: Angles,
Saxons and Jutes invaded British Isles from northern Europe. They
spoke Germanic languages source of the English language.
The term Anglo-Saxons comes from the name of the first two tribes
Angles and Saxons, and from the name of the first tribe Angles, we get
the name for their language Englisc and their new home Engla-land
From this early variety of Englisc we have: mann (man), wif (woman),
cild (child), hus (house), mete (food), etan (eat), drincan (drink) and
feohtan (fight).
The 8
th
through 9
th
& 10
th
centuries Vikings plundered Britain then
settled down in parts of coastal regions. From their language Old Norse
we derived the forms which gave us: give, law, leg, skin, sky, take and
they.
B. Middle English (From 11
th
to 15
th
century) 1066 AD Norman
French under William the Conqueror invaded England. Following their
victory at Hastings, they became the ruling class of the whole of
England. Their language is the source of such modern terms as army,
court, defense, faith, prison and tax.
126
Chaucers Canterbury Tales gives an example of the type of
English used in 14
th
century England (See p. 219 of the textbook).
From 1400 to 1600, which separated Chaucer and Shakespeare, the
sounds of English underwent a substantial change which formed the
basis of Modern English pronunciation. Most significantly, the vowel
sounds of Chaucers time were very different than we hear in similar
words today.
C. Modern English (From 1500 to present)
2. Sound change:
Old English Modern English (vowel sounds)
hu:s haws (house)
wi:f wayf (wife)
brc:k bre:k (break)
spo:n spu:n (spoon)
h:m hom (home)
Metathesis: involves a reversal in position of two adjoining
sounds:
127
Examples are (from O.E. period)
acsian ask, bridd bird
frist first, hros horse
waeps wasp, brinnon beornan (burn)
Metathesis in non-adjoining sounds:
Latin Spanish
parabola palabra (word)
periculum peligro (danger)
miraculum milagro (miracle)
Epenthesis: involves the addition of a sound to the middle of a
word. Examples are:
aemtig empty , spinel spindle
timr tmber, something sumpthing
Prothesis: involves the addition of a sound to the beginning of a
word:
(not found in English, but in other languages)
Latin Spanish
schola escuela (school)
128
spiritus espiritu (spirit)
English Hindi
school isku:l
station iste:scn
3. Syntactic change:
Word order change (in sentence structure)
Old English
A. Subject can follow the verb:
ferde he (he traveled)
B. Object can cocur before the verb:
he hine geseah (he saw him)
C. double negative:
and ne sealdest pu me nfre on ticcen
(and) (not) (gave) (you) (me) (never) (a) (kid)
4. Lexical change
A. Words dropped from English:
foin (the thrust of a sword)
129
were (man, except in werewolf)
B. Broadening of meaning:
holy day (religious feast) to holiday
(break from work)
docga (one particular breed of dog in O.E.) to
dog (refers to all breeds of dogs)
C. Narrowing of meaning:
O.E. hund (any dog) to hound
(a particular breed of dog)
mete (food) to meat
wi:f (woman) to wife
(married woman).
(7) The process of change:
A. Cultural transmission of language from one generation to other
child language acquisition some elements are picked up exactly and
others only approximately.
B. Social changes cause language changes
C. Dialect variation regional differences
130
D. Slips-of-the-tongue
E. Slip-of-the ear
(8) Diachronic vs. synchronic changes:
A. Diachronic changes the changes that occur over a period of
time or through time, as from O.E. through M.E. to Modern English
historical perspective.
B. Synchronic changes: the changes that occur within a language
in different places and among different groups at the same time, without
reference to its history.
131
LANGUAGE VARIETIES (Chapter 20)
(1) The Standard Language:
The variety of English used in:
A. Newspapers, magazines, books
B. Mass media (TV, Radio)
C. Reference grammar books
D. Schools by teachers and students
E. ESL classes (English as a Second Language)
# This variety of English is more easily described in terms of
the written language (i.e. vocabulary, spelling, grammar) than
the spoken language.
The form of English that some consider to be universally
correct, cultured, and purer than other forms.
(2) Accent and dialect:
A. It is a myth that some speakers have accent while others do not,
but the truth is that every language-user speaks with an accent.
132
The term accent is used to describe certain aspects of
pronunciation, such as stress and intonation patterns which identify
where the speaker is from, regionally or socially.
B. The term dialect describes features of grammar and
vocabulary, as well as aspects of pronunciation.
Despite differences in vocabulary, grammatical form and
pronunciation different dialects of the same language are generally
mutually intelligible.
# Important points to remember:
1. from a linguistic point of view no variety is better than
another.
2. From a social point of view, however, some varieties become
more prestigious the variety which develops as the Standard
Language has usually been one socially prestigious dialect, originally
connected with a political or cultural center (e.g. London for British
English, and Paris for French).
133
(3) Regional dialects:
Northern Midwestern
Midland Southern Black English Vernacular
1. Dialect surveys involve:
A. field-work with methodology
B. tape recording of NORMS: non-mobile, older, rural, male
speakers - who were less likely to have influences from outside the
region in their speech typical speakers.
C. included migratory and family histories of speakers.
D. identification of consistent features of speech in one
geographical region.
E. ignoring stereotyped (unvarying) pronunciations.
F. painstaking attention to details.
2. Linguistic atlases: The detailed information obtained in dialect
surveys has provided the basis for a number of linguistic atlases of
whole countries (e.g. England) or of regions (e.g. New England area of
the United States).
134
(4) Isoglosses and dialect boundaries:
1. An isogloss represents a boundary between the areas with regard
to one particular linguistic item.
For example: If in one area vast majority of informant say they
take their groceries home in paper bag, while the majority of
informants in another area say they use paper sack, then a line
can be drawn across the map separating the two areas. (See map
on p. 230 of the textbook.)
2. A dialect boundary is formed by a number of overlapping
isoglosses. Example:
(taught) (roof) (creek) (greasy)
Northern: [5] [o] [i] [s]
Midland: [a] [u] [i] [z]
Northern: paper bag pail kerosene slippery get sick
Midland: paper sack bucket coal oil slick take sick
# Overlapping isoglosses form dialect boundary between Northern and
Midland regions of the Upper Mid-West of the United States.
135
(5) The dialect continuum:
Isoglosses and dialect boundaries do not represent sharp breaks
between two different dialect regions, although they are quite useful in
establishing broad view of regional dialects.
In fact, at most dialect boundary area one variety merges into
another forming a dialect continuum.
Speakers who live in dialect boundary areas and can use different
varieties with some ease can be called bidialectal (speaking two
dialects).
Speakers living in language boundary area, using different
languages with ease can be described as bilingual (speaking two
languages).
(6) Bilingualism:
In a bilingual country, bilingualism tends to be a feature of the
minority group. For example: in Canada where English and French both
are official languages, English happens to be the language of the
majority group and French of the minority group. French speakers living
136
largely in Quebec have to learn English to take part in the larger,
dominant, linguistic community.
Some other examples:
1. Gaelic in Scotland: English dominant
2. English in Puerto Rico: Spanish dominant
3. Basque in Spain: Spanish dominant
4. Welsh in Wales: English dominant
(7) Language planning:
1. Government, legal and educational bodies in many countries
have to plan which varieties of the language spoken in the country are to
be used for official business.
#Note: The English only issue in the United States.
However, the question remains: Should elementary teaching
take place in the language of the minority group?
2. San Antonio (Texas): Spanish in elementary schools.
3. Guatemala: Mayan language in schools
4. In Israel (with numerous speakers of Arabic largely
Palestinians) Hebrew is the official language.
137
5. In India (with many non-Hindi speaking regions) Hindi was
chosen as the official government language.
6. In Tanzania (East Africa) Swahili was chosen as national
language, although there are many tribal languages as well as colonial
vestiges of English are spoken.
- Swahili slowly has begun to be used in social life and literature.
- Government imposed the use of Swahili and it has come to be
accepted both socially and nationally.
(8) Pidgins and Creoles:
1. Pidgin:
Tok Pisin used in Papua New Guinea (near Australia) for
most official business. It is sometimes described as Melanesian Pidgin.
It is now used by over a million people. There are several English
Pidgins still used today.
A. Pidgins develop as contact language for some practical purpose
(often trade).
B. Pidgins have no native speakers
C. Pidgins have no complex grammatical morphology.
138
D. Pidgins have only limited vocabulary.
E. Inflectional suffixes, such as -s (plural) and -s (possessive) are
rare in Pidgins.
F. Functional morphemes often take place of inflectional
morphemes.
Examples: tu buk (two books)
di gyal pleis (the girls place)
buk belong yu (your book)
G. The syntax of Pidgins can be quite different from the languages
from which terms are borrowed and modified. (See p. 234 of the
textbook)
2. Creoles:
When a Pidgin develops beyond its role as a trade language
and becomes first language of a social community, it is called a Creole
language. A Creole develops as the first language of the children of
Pidgin speakers (Creolization of Pidgin)
A. A Creole has native speakers.
139
B. French based Creoles are spoken in Haiti and in Louisiana (not
to be confused with Cajun French).
C. English based Creoles are spoken in Jamaica and Sierra Leone
(West Africa on Atlantic).
D. Creoles have much added complexity in grammar, morphology
and vocabulary.
(9) The post-Creole continuum:
1. Decreolization: The process that leads a Creole to slowly
approach the standard language through increased contact with
standard variety speakers socially, educationally, and professionally.
(e.g. British English in Jamaica).
2. Post-Creole continuum varieties:
a. Basilect: more Creole-like.
b. Acrolect: more standard-like.
c. Mesolect: between a and b.
(Examples on p. 235 of the textbook)
140
LANGUAGE, SOCIETY AND CULTURE (Chapter 21)
In many ways, speech is a form of social identity, and is used,
consciously or unconsciously, to indicate membership of a different
social group or a different speech community.
Speech community: is a group of people who share a set of
norms, rules and expectations regarding the use of language.
(1) Sociolinguistics:
1. It deals with the inter-relationship between language and
society.
2. It has strong connection to anthropology, through the
investigation of language and culture.
3. It has strong connection to sociology, through the crucial role
that language plays in the organization of social groups and institutions.
4. It is also tied to social psychology, with regard to how attitudes
and perceptions are expressed and how in-group and out-group behavior
is identified.
# Sociolinguistic investigation methods: surveys, questionnaires in the
field (fieldwork).
141
(2) Social dialects:
1. Varieties of language used by groups defined by such factors as
class, education, age, sex and a number of other social parameters.
2. The concept of prestige, about language in use, is typically
understood in terms of overt prestige and covert prestige.
3. Overt prestige: the generally recognized better or positively
valued ways of speaking in social communities.
4. Covert prestige: the hidden type of positive value attached to
non-standard forms and expressions by certain subgroups indicates
you are one of us
Example: schoolboys seem to attach covert prestige to forms of
bad language.
5. Social class and education:
A. New York City (Labovs famous 1972 study): The higher
the social class, the more post-vocalic /r/ sounds were produced, the
lower the social class, the fewer post-vocalic /r/ sounds were produced.
So the difference in a single consonant could mark higher vs. lower
social class. (See p. 241 of the textbook for details)
142
B. Reading, England (Trudgills 1974 study): Post-vocalic /r/
pronunciation had the opposite social value in Britain. Upper middle
class speakers tended to pronounce fewer /r/ sounds than lower/working
class speakers.
Dropping /h/ in house and hello which results in ouse
and ello or substituting /p/ (ng) in walking and going by /n/ which
results in walkin and goin is associated with lower social class and
less education.
Such expressions as Them boys throwed something are
more common in less educated. On the other hand, expressions of highly
educated are described as bookish.
6. Age and gender: (Social class the same)
A. Age: variation in forms and expressions is most noticeable
in the grandparent grandchildren time span.
Grandfather may still talk about the icebox and wireless,
but not know what rules, what sucks, or whats totally
stoked, and he doesnt use like to introduce reported speech: Were
143
getting ready, and hes like, Lets go, and Im like, No way Im not
ready, and he splits anyway, the creep!
B. Gender: Female speakers tend to use more
prestigious forms than male speakers.
The forms, such as I done it, it growed and he
aint can be found more often in the speech of males, and I did it, it
grew and he isnt in the speech of females.
7. Ethnic background:
Within any society, differences in speech may come
about because of different ethnic background. When a group within a
society undergoes some form of social isolation, such as the
discrimination or segregation experienced historically by African-
Americans, then social dialect differences become more marked. From
social point of view, the resulting variety of speech may be stigmatized
as bad speech. The speech of many African-Americans, technically
known as Black English Vernacular (BEV) is often stigmatized as bad
speech, because of:
144
1. Absence of copula (linking verb-forms of the verb to be), as in
expressions: They mine, you crazy.
# Arabic, Russian and some other language have similar
expressions without the copula.
2. Double negative constructions as in expressions He dont know
nothing, I aint afraid of no ghosts.
# Old English used double negatives, and French and Spanish use
double negatives also. (Examples on p. 243 of the textbook)
## Isnt it strange that the absence of copula in Arabic and Russian
is not considered bad speech, and the use of double negative in Old
English, French, and Spanish is not considered illogical.
(3) Idiolect:
The personal dialect of each individual speaker of a language is
called idiolect. Besides the elements of social and regional dialect, voice
quality and physical state of the individual also contribute to the
identifying features of an individuals speech in many respect, you are
what you say.

145
(4) Style, register and jargon:
1. Style: Situation of use determines formal or informal style of
speech speaking to the chancellor (Formal style) speaking to the
colleague (Informal style). (Examples on p. 244 of the textbook)
2. Register: Variation in use of speech according specific
situations (religious, legal, technical) expressions vary from situation
to situation. (Examples on p. 245 of the textbook)
3. Jargon: (also argot or cant) can be defined as specialized
technical vocabulary associated with different registers, such as
religious register, legal register, linguistics register. (Examples on
p. 245 of the textbook)
(5) Diglossia: This term is used to describe a situation in which two very
distinct varieties of language co-exist in a speech community, each with
distinct range of functions.
Example: In Arabic-speaking countries high or classical
variety of Arabic is used for lectures, religious speech, and formal
political dialog.

146

(6) Language and culture:
Anthropologists define culture as socially acquired knowledge,
since languages are acquired through cultural transmission, linguistic
variation seems to be tied to the existence of different cultures.
Different groups not only have different languages, they have
different world views which are reflected in their languages. There are
words and expressions in languages that reflect cultural phenomena.
Aztec has no word for Santa Clause.
1. Linguistic determinism:
A theory of language which in its strongest version holds that
language determines thought.
Your language gives you a ready-made system of categorizing
what you perceive as a consequence you perceive the world around
you in terms of those categories. That is, you can think only in the
categories which your language allows you to think in.
Example: Eskimo has many words for what in English is describes
as snow.
147
2. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis:
A. Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf produced arguments in the
1930s, that the languages of American Indians led them to view the
world differently from those who spoke European languages.
B. According to Whorf, the grammar of the language of the Hopi
Indians of America has a distinction between animate and inanimate
(a semantic feature).
C. The words cloud and stone were categorized as Animate in
Hopi language.
D. Whorf concluded, therefore, that the Hopi believe that clouds
and stones are living entities and that it is their language that leads
them to believe this.
E. In Whorfs words, We dissect nature along lines laid down by
our native language.
F. But, in Whorfs conclusion there is confusion between the
biological category of living and the linguistic category of
animate.
148
G. Stones and clouds do not live for Hope Indians anymore than
stones and doors are considered to be females in the minds of
Spanish speakers (la piedra and la puetra).
H. Whorfs strong version of linguistic determinism was
wrong.
3. A weaker form of linguistic determinism:
Our languages reflect our cultural norms and concerns, but
speakers can certainly change their language to refer to new entities or
concepts. Our minds are not totally locked by our language.
(7) Language universals:
Those properties that are common to all languages are referred to
as language universals:
1. All languages can be learned by children.
2. All languages employ arbitrary symbol system.
3. All languages can be used to send and receive messages by their
users.
149
4. All languages have noun-like and verb-like components that are
organized within a limited set of patterns (the finiteness) to produce
complex utterances
5. If a language uses fricatives, then it will also use stops (but not
vice versa).
6. If a language places objects after verbs then it will also use
prepositions.