MBA SEMESTER III MB0050 Research Methodology- 4 Credits (Book ID:B1206) Assignment Set- 1 (60 Marks) Note: Each

question carries 10 Marks. Answer all the questions

1. a. Differentiate between nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales, with an example of each. [5marks] Measurement may be classified into four different levels, based on the characteristics of order, distance and origin. 1. Nominal measurement This level of measurement consists in assigning numerals or symbols to different categories of a variable. The example of male and female applicants to an MBA program mentioned earlier is an example of nominal measurement. The numerals or symbols are just labels and have no quantitative value. The number of cases under each category are counted. Nominal measurement is therefore the simplest level of measurement. It does not have characteristics such as order, distance or arithmetic origin. 2. Ordinal measurement In this level of measurement, persons or objects are assigned numerals which indicate ranks with respect to one or more properties, either in ascending or descending order. Example Individuals may be ranked according to their socio-economic class, which is measured by a combination of income, education, occupation and wealth. The individual with the highest score might be assigned rank 1, the next highest rank 2, and so on, or vice versa. 3.Interval measurement This level of measurement is more powerful than the nominal and ordinal levels of measurement, since it has one additional characteristic equality of distance. However, it does not have an origin or a true zero. This implies that it is not possible to multiply or divide the numbers on an interval scale. Example The Centigrade or Fahrenheit temperature gauge is an example of the interval level of measurement. A temperature of 50 degrees is exactly 10 degrees hotter than 40 degrees and 10 degrees cooler than 60 degrees. 4.Ratio measurement This is the highest level of measurement and is appropriate when measuring characteristics which have an absolute zero point. This level of measurement has all the three characteristics order, distance and origin. Examples Height, weight, distance and area.

b. What are the purposes of measurement in social science research?

[ 5 marks]

According to Torgerson, Measurement is the assignment of numbers to objects to represent amounts or degrees of a property possessed by all of the objects. While physical properties may be directly observed, psychological properties such as intelligence are inferred. For example, a childs score in an IQ test indicates his or her level of intelligence. Measurement also has several purposes The researcher constructs theories to explain social and psychological phenomena (e.g. labor unrest, employee satisfaction), which in turn are used to derive hypotheses or assumptions. These hypotheses can be verified statistically only by measuring the variables in the hypotheses. Measurement makes the empirical description of social and psychological phenomena easier.

Example When conducting a study of a tribal community, measuring devices help the researcher in classifying cultural patterns and behaviors. Measurement also makes it possible to quantify variables and use statistical techniques to analyze the data gathered. Measurement enables the researcher to classify individuals or objects and to compare them in terms of specific properties or characteristics by measuring the concerned variables.

2.

a. What are the sources from which one may be able to identify research problems? [ 5 marks]

The term problem means a question or issue to be examined. The selection of a problem for research is not an easy task; it self is a problem. Vision, an imaginative insight, plays an important role in this process. The sources from which one may be able to identify research problems or develop problems awareness are: Review of literature Academic experience Daily experience Exposure to field situations Consultations Brain storming Research Intuition

b. Why literature survey is important in research?

[ 5 marks]

Frequently, an exploratory study is concerned with an area of subject matter in which explicit hypothesis have not yet been formulated. The researchers task then is to review the available material with an eye on the possibilities of developing hypothesis from it. In some areas of the subject matter, hypothesis may have been stated by previous research workers. The researcher has to take stock of these various hypotheses with a view to evaluating their usefulness for further research and to consider whether they suggest any new hypothesis. Sociological journals, economic reviews, the bulletin of abstracts of current social sciences research, directory of doctoral dissertation accepted by universities etc afford a rich store of valuable clues. In addition to these general sources, some governmental agencies and voluntary organizations publish listings of summaries of research in their special fields of service. Professional organizations, research groups and voluntary organizations are a constant source of information about unpublished works in their special fields.

3.

a. What are the characteristics of a good research design?

[ 5marks]

1. It is a series of guide posts to keep one going in the right direction. 2. It reduces wastage of time and cost. 3. It encourages co-ordination and effective organization. 4. It is a tentative plan which undergoes modifications, as circumstances demand, when the study progresses, new aspects, new conditions and new relationships come to light and insight into the study deepens. 5. It has to be geared to the availability of data and the cooperation of the informants. 6. It has also to be kept within the manageable limits

b. What are the components of a research design?

[ 5 marks]

1. Dependent and Independent variables: A magnitude that varies is known as a variable. Qualitative variables are not quantifiable in the strictest sense of objectivity. When changes in one variable depends upon the changes in one or more other variables, it is known as a dependent or endogenous variable, and the variables that cause the changes in the dependent variable are known as the independent or explanatory or exogenous variables. 2. Extraneous variable: The independent variables which are not directly related to the purpose of the study but affect the dependent variable are known as extraneous variables. 3. Control: One of the most important features of a good research design is to minimize the effect of extraneous variable. Technically, the term control is used when a researcher designs the study in such a manner that it minimizes the effects of extraneous independent variables. 4. Confounded relationship: The relationship between dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable, when the dependent variable is not free from its effects.

4.

a. Distinguish between Doubles sampling and multiphase sampling. [ 5 marks]

Double sampling refers to the subsection of the final sample form a pre-selected larger sample that provided information for improving the final selection. When the procedure is extended to more than two phases of selection, it is then, called multi-phase sampling. This is also known as sequential sampling, as sub-sampling is done from a main sample in phases. Double sampling or multiphase sampling is a compromise solution for a dilemma posed by undesirable extremes. The statistics based on the sample of n can be improved by using ancillary information from a wide base: but this is too costly to obtain from the entire population of N elements. Instead, information is obtained from a larger preliminary sample nL which includes the final sample n.

b. What is replicated or interpenetrating sampling?

[ 5 marks]

It involves selection of a certain number of sub-samples rather than one full sample from a population. All the sub-samples should be drawn using the same sampling technique and each is a self-contained and adequate sample of the population. Replicated sampling can be used with any basic sampling technique: simple or stratified, single or multi-stage or single or multiphase sampling. It provides a simple means of calculating the sampling error. It is practical. The replicated samples can throw light on variable non-sampling errors. But disadvantage is that it limits the amount of stratification that can be employed.

5.

a. How is secondary data useful to researcher?

[ 5 marks]

The secondary data is useful as 1. Secondary data, if available can be secured quickly and cheaply. Once their source of documents and reports are located, collection of data is just matter of desk work. Even the tediousness of copying the data from the source can now be avoided, thanks to Xeroxing facilities. 2. Wider geographical area and longer reference period may be covered without much cost. Thus, the use of secondary data extends the researchers space and time reach. 3. The use of secondary data broadens the data base from which scientific generalizations can be made. 4. Environmental and cultural settings are required for the study. 5. The use of secondary data enables a researcher to verify the findings bases on primary data. It readily meets the need for additional empirical support. The researcher need not wait the time when additional primary data can be collected.

b. What are the criteria used for evaluation of secondary data? [ 5 marks]

When a researcher wants to use secondary data for his research, he should evaluate them before deciding to use them. 1. Data Pertinence

The first consideration in evaluation is to examine the pertinence of the available secondary data to the research problem under study. The following questions should be considered. - What are the definitions and classifications employed? Are they consistent ? - What are the measurements of variables used? What is the degree to which they conform to the requirements of our research? - What is the coverage of the secondary data in terms of topic and time? Does this coverage fit the needs of our research? On the basis of above consideration, the pertinence of the secondary data to the research on hand should be determined, as a researcher who is imaginative and flexible may be able to redefine his research problem so as to make use of otherwise unusable available data. 2. Data Quality If the researcher is convinced about the available secondary data for his needs, the next step is to examine the quality of the data. The quality of data refers to their accuracy, reliability and completeness. The assurance and reliability of the available secondary data depends on the organization which collected them and the purpose for which they were collected. 3. Data Completeness The completeness refers to the actual coverage of the published data. This depends on the methodology and sampling design adopted by the original organization.

6. What are the differences between observation and interviewing as methods of data collection? Give two specific examples of situations where either observation or interviewing would be more appropriate. [10 marks]. Observation may be defined as a systematic viewing of a specific phenomenon in its proper setting for the specific purpose of gathering data for a particular study. Observation is classical method of scientific study. Interviewing is one of the prominent methods of data collection. It may be defined as a two way systematic conversation between an investigator and an informant, initiated for obtaining information relevant to a specific study. Observation is indirect way of gathering data. It does not include any direct interaction with the person observed. Observation is only method available for collection of data other than Human study. Observation is independent process. Interview is direct way of gathering data. Interview necessarily needs direct interaction with the person interviewed. Interview method can be used for collection of data for Human study only. Interview is dependent process. Observations may be classified in different ways. With reference to investigators role, it may be classified into (a) participant observation and (b) non-participant observation. In terms of mode of observation, it may be classified into (c) direct observation. With reference to the rigor of the system adopted. Observation is classified into (e) controlled observation, and (f) uncontrolled observation

The interview may be classified into: (a) structured or directive interview, (b) unstructured or nondirective interview, (c) focused interview, (d) clinical interview and (e) depth interview. The prerequisites of observation consist of a) Observations must be done under conditions which will permit accurate results. b) Observation must cover a sufficient number of representative samples of the cases. c) Recording should be accurate and complete. d) The accuracy and completeness of recorded results must be checked. A certain number of cases can be observed again by another observer/another set of mechanical devices, as the case may be. The requirements or conditions necessary for a successful interview are a) Data should should be available with the respondent. b) The respondent should understand his role and know what is required of him wrt knowledge of what is a relevant and how much complete it is. c) The interviewer should also know his role. d) The respondent should be willing to respond and give accurate answer. Observation has certain advantages: 1. The main virtue of observation is its directness.2. Data collected by observation may describe the observed phenomena as they occur in their natural settings.3.Observations is more suitable for studying subjects who are unable to articulate meaningfully.4.Observations improve the opportunities for analyzing the contextual back ground of behaviour.5.Observations make it possible to capture the whole event as it occurs. 6. Observation is less demanding of the subjects and has less biasing effect on their conduct than questioning. There are several real advantages to personal interviewing.1. The greatest value of this method is the depth and detail of information that can be secure.2. The interviewer can do more to improve the percentage of responses and the quality of information received than other method. 3. The interviewer can gather other supplemental information like economic level, living conditions etc. through observation of the respondents environment.4. The interviewer can use special scoring devices, visual materials and the like in order to improve the quality of interviewing.5. The accuracy and dependability of the answers given by the respondent can be checked by observation and probing.6. Interview is flexible and adaptable to individual situations. Even more, control can be exercised over the interview situation. Observation has its own limitations: 1. Observation is of no use, studying past events or activities. One has to depend upon documents or narrations people for studying such things. 2. Observation is not suitable for studying and attitudes.3. Observation poses difficulties in obtaining a representative sample. 4. Observation cannot be used as and when the researcher finds a convenient to use it.5. A major limitation of this method is that the observer normally must be at the scene of the event when it takes place.6. Observation is slow and expensive process, requiring human observers and/or costly surveillance equipments. Interviewing is not free limitations.1. Its greatest drawback is that it is costly both in money and time.2.The interview results are often adversely affected by interviewers mode of asking questions and interactions, and incorrect recording and also by the respondents faulty perception, faulty memory, inability to articulate etc.3.Certain types of personal and financial information may be refused in face-to face interviews. Such information might be supplied more willingly on mail questionnaires, especially if they are to be unsigned.4.Interview poses the problem of recording information obtained from the respondents. No full proof system is available. Note taking is invariably distracting to both the respondent and the interviewer and affects the thread of the conversation.

MBA SEMESTER III MB0050 Research Methodology- 4 Credits (Book ID: B1206) Assignment Set- 1 (60 Marks) Note: Each question carries 10 Marks. Answer all the questions
1. a. Explain the General characteristics of observation. [ 5 marks]

Observation as a method of data collection has certain characteristics. 1. It is both a physical and a mental activity: The observing eye catches many things that are present. But attention is focused on data that are pertinent to the given study. 2. Observation is selective: A researcher does not observe anything and everything, but selects the range of things to be observed on the basis of the nature, scope and objectives of his study. For example, suppose a researcher desires to study the causes of city road accidents and also formulated a tentative hypothesis that accidents are caused by violation of traffic rules and over speeding. When he observed the movements of vehicles on the road, many things are before his eyes; the type, make, size and colour of the vehicles, the persons sitting in them, their hair style, etc. All such things which are not relevant to his study are ignored and only over speeding and traffic violations are keenly observed by him. 3. Observation is purposive and not casual: It is made for the specific purpose of noting things relevant to the study. It captures the natural social context in which persons behaviour occur. It grasps the significant events and occurrences that affect social relations of the participants. 4. Observation should be exact and be based on standardized tools of research and such as observation schedule, social metric scale etc., and precision instruments, if any.

b. What is the Utility of Observation in Business Research?[ 5 marks] Observation is suitable for a variety of research purposes. It may be used for studying (a) The behaviour of human beings in purchasing goods and services.: life style, customs, and manner, interpersonal relations, group dynamics, crowd behaviour, leadership styles, managerial style, other behaviours and actions; (b) The behaviour of other living creatures like birds, animals etc. (c) Physical characteristics of inanimate things like stores, factories, residences etc. (d) Flow of traffic and parking problems (e) movement of materials and products through a plant.

2.

a. Briefly explain Interviewing techniques in Business Research?

[ 5marks]

The interview process consists of the following stages: - Preparation - The interviewing requires some preplanning and preparation. The interviewer should keep the copies of interview schedule/guide (as the case may be) ready to use. He should have the list of

names and addresses of respondents, he should regroup them into contiguous groups in terms of location in order to save time and cost in traveling. - Introduction - The investigator is a stranger to the respondents. Therefore, he should be properly introduced to each of the respondents. What is the proper mode of introduction? There is no one appropriate universal mode of introduction. Mode varies according to the type of respondents. - Developing rapport - Before starting the research interview, the interviewer should establish a friendly relationship with the respondent. This is described as rapport. It means establishing a relationship of confidence and understanding between the interviewer and the respondent. - Carrying the interview forward - After establishing rapport, the technical task of asking questions from the interview schedule starts. This task requires care, self-restraint, alertness and ability to listen with understanding, respect and curiosity. - Recording the interview - It is essential to record responses as they take place. If the note taking is done after the interview, a good deal of relevant information may be lost. Nothing should be made in the schedule under respective question. It should be complete and verbatim. The responses should not be summarized or paraphrased. Electronic transcription can be used. - Closing the interview - After the interview is over, take leave off the respondent thanking him with a friendly smile. In the case of a qualitative interview of longer duration, select the occasion for departure more carefully. Assembling the papers for putting them in the folder at the time of asking the final question sets the stage for a final handshake, a thank-you and a good-bye.

b. What are the problems encountered in Interview?

[ 5 marks]

In personal interviewing, the researcher must deal with two major problems, inadequate response, nonresponse and interviewers bias. - Inadequate response

Kahn and Cannel distinguish five principal symptoms of inadequate response. They are: o partial response, in which the respondent gives a relevant but incomplete answer o non-response, when the respondent remains silent or refuses to answer the question o irrelevant response, in which the respondents answer is not relevant to the question asked o inaccurate response, when the reply is biased or distorted and o verbalized response problem, which arises on account of respondents failure to understand a question or lack of information necessary for answering it.

- Interviewers Bias The interviewer is an important cause of response bias. He may resort to cheating by cooking up data without actually interviewing. The interviewers can influence the responses by inappropriate

suggestions, word emphasis, tone of voice and question rephrasing. His own attitudes and expectations about what a particular category of respondents may say or think may bias the data. Another source of response of the interviewers characteristics (education, apparent social status, etc) may also bias his answers. Another source of response bias arises from interviewers perception of the situation, if he regards the assignment as impossible or sees the results of the survey as possible threats to personal interests or beliefs he is likely to introduce bias. As interviewers are human beings, such biasing factors can never be overcome completely, but their effects can be reduced by careful selection and training of interviewers, proper motivation and supervision, standardization or interview procedures (use of standard wording in survey questions, standard instructions on probing procedure and so on) and standardization of interviewer behaviour. There is need for more research on ways to minimize bias in the interview.

3.

a. What are the various steps in processing of data?

[ 5 marks]

The various steps in processing of data may be stated as: o Identifying the data structures - In the data preparation step, the data are prepared in a data format, which allows the analyst to use modern analysis software such as SAS or SPSS. The major criterion in this is to define the data structure. A data structure is a dynamic collection of related variables and can be conveniently represented as a graph where nodes are labelled by variables. The data structure also defines and stages of the preliminary relationship between variables/groups that have been pre-planned by the researcher. structure could be a linear structure, in which one variable leads to the other and finally, to the resultant end variable. o Editing the data - The next step in the processing of data is editing of the data instruments. Editing is a process of checking to detect and correct errors and omissions. Data editing happens at two stages, one at the time of recording of the data and second at the time of analysis of data. o Coding and classifying the data - The edited data are then subject to codification and classification. Coding process assigns numerals or other symbols to the several responses of the data set. It is therefore a pre-requisite to prepare a coding scheme for the data set. The recording of the data is done on the basis of this coding scheme. o Transcription of data - When the observations collected by the researcher are not very large, the simple inferences, which can be drawn from the observations, can be transferred to a data sheet, which is a summary of all responses on all observations from a research instrument. The main aim of transition is to minimize the shuffling proceeds between several responses and several observations. o Tabulation of data. - The transcription of data can be used to summarize and arrange the data in compact form for further analysis. The process is called tabulation. Thus, tabulation is a process of summarizing raw data displaying them on compact statistical tables for further analysis. It involves counting the number of cases falling into each of the categories identified by the researcher.Tabulation can be done manually or through the computer.

b. How is data editing is done at the Time of Recording of Data?

[ 5 marks]

Document editing and testing of the data at the time of data recording is done considering the following questions in mind.

- Do the filters agree or are the data inconsistent? - Have missing values been set to values, which are the same for all research questions? - Have variable descriptions been specified? - Have labels for variable names and value labels been defined and written? All editing and cleaning steps are documented, so that, the redefinition of variables or later analytical modification requirements could be easily incorporated into the data sets.

4.

a. What are the fundamental of frequency Distribution?

[ 5 marks]

A systematic presentation of the values taken by variable together with corresponding frequencies is called a frequency distribution of the variable. It is presented in tabular form called as frequency table. If class intervals are not present, then it is called a discrete frequency distribution and a frequency distribution formed with class-intervals is called a continuous frequency distribution. A continuous frequency distribution is divided into mutually exclusive subranges called class-intervals. Class intervals have lower and upper limits known as lower class limits and upper class limits respectively. The differences between upper class limit and lower class limit is termed as class width. The middle value of a class interval is called mid-value of the class. It is the average of class limits. A continuous frequency distribution is divided into mutually exclusive subranges called class-intervals. Class intervals have lower and upper limits. Derived frequency distributions From a given frequency distribution, we can form five derived frequency distributions. They are: i) Relative frequency distribution ii) Percentage frequency distribution iii) Frequency density distribution iv) Less than cumulative frequency distribution v) More than cumulative frequency distribution

b. What are the types and general rules for graphical representation of data?

[ 5 marks]

The data of frequency distributions and statistical computations, it is often desirable to use appropriate forms of graphic presentations. In additions to tabular forms, graphic presentation involves use of graphics, charts and other pictorial devices such as diagrams. These forms and devices reduce large masses of statistical data to a form that can be quickly understood at the glance. The meaning of figures in tabular form may be difficult for the mind to grasp or retain. Properly constructed graphs and charts relieve the mind of burdensome details by portraying facts concisely, logically and simply. They, by emphasizing new and significant relationship, are also useful in discovering new facts and in developing hypothesis. The device of graphic presentation is particularly useful when the prospective readers are non-technical people or general public. It is useful to even technical people for dramatizing certain points about data; for important points can be more effectively captured in pictures than in tables. However, graphic forms

are not substitutes for tables, but are additional tools for the researcher to emphasize the research findings. Graphic presentation must be planned with utmost care and diligence. Graphic forms used should be simple, clear and accurate and also be appropriate to the data 5. Strictly speaking, would case studies be considered as scientific research? Why or why not? [10 marks] Case studies are a tool for discussing scientific integrity. Although one of the most frequently used tools for encouraging discussion, cases are only one of many possible tools. Many of the principles discussed below for discussing case studies can be generalized to other approaches to encouraging discussion about research ethics. Cases are designed to confront readers with specific real-life problems that do not lend themselves to easy answers. Case discussion demands critical and analytical skills and, when implemented in small groups, also fosters collaboration (Pimple, 2002). By providing a focus for discussion, cases help trainees to define or refine their own standards, to appreciate alternative approaches to identifying and resolving ethical problems, and to develop skills for analyzing and dealing with hard problems on their own. The effective use of case studies is comprised of many factors, including: appropriate selection of case(s) (topic, relevance, length, complexity) method of case presentation (verbal, printed, before or during discussion) format for case discussion (Email or Internet-based, small group, large group)

- leadership of case discussion (choice of discussion leader, roles and responsibilities for discussion leader) - outcomes for case discussion (answers to specific questions, answers to general questions, written or verbal summaries) Research methods don't seem so intimidating when you're familiar with the terminology. This is important whether you're conducting evaluation or merely reading articles about other studies to incorporate in your program. To help with understanding, here are some basic definitions used. - Variable: Characteristics by which people or things can be described. Must have more than one level; in other words, to be able to change over time for the same person/object, or from person to person, or object to object. Some variables, called attributes, cannot be manipulated by the researcher (e.g., socioeconomic status, IQ score, race, gender, etc.). Some variables can be manipulated but are not in a particular study. This occurs when subjects self-select the level of the independent variable, or the level is naturally occurring (as with ex post facto research). - Manipulation: Random assignment of subjects to levels of the independent variable (treatment groups). - Independent variable: The treatment, factor, or presumed cause that will produce a change in the dependent variable. This is what the experimenter tries to manipulate. It is denoted as "X" on the horizontal axis of a graph. - Dependent variable: The presumed effect or consequence resulting from changes in the independent variable. This is the observation made and is denoted by "Y" on the vertical axis of a graph. The score of "Y" depends on the score of "X."

Population: The complete set of subjects that can be studied: people, objects, animals, plants, etc.

- Sample: A subset of subjects that can be studied to make the research project more manageable. There are a variety of ways samples can be taken. If a large enough random samples are taken, the results can be statistically similar to taking a census of an entire population--with reduced effort and cost. Case Study: A case study is conducted for similar purpose as the above but is usually done with a smaller sample size for more in-depth study. A case study often involves direct observation or interviews with single subjects or single small social units such as a family, club, school classroom, etc. This is typically considered qualitative research. Purpose: Explain or Predict Type of Research to Use: Relational Study In a relational study you start with a research hypothesis, that is, is what you're trying to "prove." Examples of research hypotheses for a relational study: The older the person, the more health problems he or she encounters. 4-H members attending 4-H summer camp stay enrolled in 4-H longer.

- The greater the number of money management classes attended, the greater the amount of annual savings achieved. Types of relational studies include correlational studies and ex post facto studies. Correlational Study: A correlational study compares two or more different characteristics from the same group of people and explains how two characteristics vary together and how well one can be predicted from knowledge of the other. A concurrent correlational study draws a relationship between characteristics at the same point in time. For example, a student's grade point average is related to his or her class rank. A predictive correlational study could predict a later set of data from an earlier set. For example, a student's grade point average might predict the same student's grade point average during senior year. A predictive correlational study could also use one characteristic to predict what another characteristic will be at another time. For example, a student's SAT score is designed to predict college freshman grade point average. Ex Post Facto (After the Fact) Study: An ex post facto study is used when experimental research is not possible, such as when people have self-selected levels of an independent variable or when a treatment is naturally occurring and the researcher could not "control" the degree of its use. The researcher starts by specifying a dependent variable and then tries to identify possible reasons for its occurrence as well as alternative (rival) explanations such confounding (intervening, contaminating, or extraneous) variables are "controlled" using statistics.

This type of study is very common and useful when using human subjects in real-world situations and the investigator comes in "after the fact." For example, it might be observed that students from one town have higher grades than students from a different town attending the same high school. Would just "being from a certain town" explain the differences? In an ex post facto study, specific reasons for the differences would be explored, such as differences in income, ethnicity, parent support, etc. It is important to recognize that, in a relational study, "cause and effect" cannot be claimed. All that can be claimed is that that there is a relationship between the variables. For that matter, variables that are completely unrelated could, in fact, vary together due to nothing more than coincidence. That is why the researcher needs to establish a plausible reason (research hypothesis) for why there might be a relationship between two variables before conducting a study. For instance, it might be found that all football teams with blue uniforms won last week. There is no likely reason why the uniform color had any relationship to the games' outcomes, and it certainly was not the cause for victory. Similarly, you must be careful about claiming that your Extension program was the "cause" of possible results.

6. a. Analyse the case study and descriptive approach to research. [5 marks]. Descriptive research, also known as statistical research, describes data and characteristics about the population or phenomenon being studied. Descriptive research answers the questions who, what, where, when and how... Although the data description is factual, accurate and systematic, the research cannot describe what caused a situation. Thus, Descriptive research cannot be used to create a causal relationship, where one variable affects another. In other words, descriptive research can be said to have a low requirement for internal validity. The description is used for frequencies, averages and other statistical calculations. Often the best approach, prior to writing descriptive research, is to conduct a survey investigation. Qualitative research often has the aim of description and researchers may follow-up with examinations of why the observations exist and what the implications of the findings are. In short descriptive research deals with everything that can be counted and studied. But there are always restrictions to that. Your research must have an impact to the lives of the people around you e.g. finding the most frequent disease that affects the children of a town. The reader of the research will know what to do to prevent that disease thus; more people will live a healthy life. Descriptive research does not fit neatly into the definition of either quantitative or qualitative research methodologies, but instead it can utilize elements of both, often within the same study. The term descriptive research refers to the type of research question, design, and data analysis that will be applied to a given topic. Descriptive statistics tell what is, while inferential statistics try to determine cause and effect. A case study is a research method common in social science. It is based on an in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, or event. Case studies may be descriptive or explanatory. The latter type is used to explore causation in order to find underlying principles. They may be prospective, in which criteria are established and cases fitting the criteria are included as they become available, or retrospective, in which criteria are established for selecting cases from historical records for inclusion in the study. Rather than using samples and following a rigid protocol (strict set of rules) to examine limited number of variables, case study methods involve an in-depth, longitudinal (over a long period of time) examination of a single instance or event: a case. They provide a systematic way of looking at

events, collecting data, analyzing information, and reporting the results. As a result the researcher may gain a sharpened understanding of why the instance happened as it did, and what might become important to look at more extensively in future research. Case studies lend themselves to both generating and testing hypotheses. Another suggestion is that case study should be defined as a research strategy, an empirical inquiry that investigates a phenomenon within its real-life context. Case study research means single and multiple case studies, can include quantitative evidence, relies on multiple sources of evidence and benefits from the prior development of theoretical propositions. Case studies should not be confused with qualitative research and they can be based on any mix of quantitative and qualitative evidence. Single-subject research provides the statistical framework for making inferences from quantitative case-study data b. Distinguish between research methods & research Methodology. Research Methods Research methods are the various procedures, schemes, algorithms, etc. used in research. All the methods used by a researcher during a research study are termed as research methods. They are essentially planned, scientic and valueneutral. They include theoretical procedures, experimental studies, numerical schemes, statistical approaches, etc. Research methods help us collect samples, data and nd a solution to a problem. Particularly, scientic research methods call for explanations based on collected facts, measurements and observations and not on reasoning alone. They ac- cept only those explanations which can be veried by experiments. [5 Marks]

Research Methodology Research methodology is a systematic way to solve a problem. It is a science of studying how research is to be carried out. Essentially, the procedures by which researchers go about their work of describing, explaining and predicting phenomena are called research methodology. It is also dened as the study of methods by which knowledge is gained. Its aim is to give the work plan of research.