Appendix

A.1 SPACE VECTOR REPRESENTATION Space vector notation is a commonly extended tool that can be applied in AC machines to represent the ux, voltage, and current magnitudes in a compact manner. By using the space vector representation, it is possible to derive models and obtain the differential equations representing their behavior, in a simpler way than using the classic three-phase representation. Space vector notation is used in many analyses in this book. A.1.1 Space Vector Notation The three phase magnitudes representing the system ideally can be written ^cosot  xa X ^cosot  2p=3 xb X ^cosot  2p=3 xc X ^, and constant phase shift . This with constant angular frequency o, amplitude X balanced three-phase system can be represented in a plane, as a space vector ~ x, that rotates at o angular speed across the origin of the three axes ~ a, ~ b, ~ c spatially shifted x on each of 120 , as shown in Figure A.1. The projection of the rotating space vector ~ the axes provides the instantaneous magnitudes xa, xb, xc. The axes are dened as follows: ~ a1 ~ b e j2p=3 ~ c e j 4p=3 A:2 A:3 A:4 A:1

Doubly Fed Induction Machine: Modeling and Control for Wind Energy Generation, pez, M. A. Rodr First Edition. By G. Abad, J. Lo guez, L. Marroyo, and G. Iwanski. 2011 the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Inc. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

603

604

APPENDIX

b xc

x xb t xa a

Figure A.1

Space vector representation of axes ~ a, ~ b, ~ c.

Thus, mathematically, the space vector can be expressed as ~ x j~ x je jot A:5

with the amplitude of the space vector equal to the amplitude of the three-phase magnitudes: ^ j~ xj X A:6 On the basis of the space vector notation, the three phase magnitudes may be alternatively represented by the same rotating space vector, by two phase magnitudes (xa and xb) in the realimaginary complex plane, as illustrated in Figure A.2. In this case, the projections of the rotating space vector on the ab axes provide the two phase magnitudes xa and xb. This fact can be represented

b x

Im x

Re

Figure A.2

Space vector representation in stationary ab axes.

APPENDIX

605

mathematically as
2 ~ x xa jxb 2 3 xa axb a xc

A:7

where a e j 2p=3 A:8

The constant 2/3 of expression (A.7) is chosen to scale the space vectors according to the peak amplitude of the three phase magnitudes, that is, to give relation (A.6). The ab components of the space vector can be calculated from the abc magnitudes as follows: 1 1 xa Ref~ A:9 xg 2 3 xa 2 xb 2 xc 1 xb Imf~ x g p xb xc 3 These last two expressions are commonly represented in matrix form: " # 2 26 6 34 1 0 1 2 p 3 2 1 3 2x 3 a 2 7 6 7 p 7 5 4 xb 5 3 xc 2 A:10

xa xb

A:11

with the T matrix often called the Clarke direct transformation: 1 1 6 2 2 T 6 p 34 3 0 2 2 3 1 2 7 p 7 35 2

A:12

This fact can be represented schematically as in Figure A.3.

xa xa xb xc abc x xc x xb

2 xa 3

1 xb 2

1 xc 2

1 xb xc 3

Figure A.3

ab Components calculation from abc components.

606

APPENDIX

xa

x
x x x abc xa xb xc x

1 x 2

xb

3 x

1 x 2

xc

3 x

Figure A.4 abc Components calculation from ab components.

In addition, the inverse Clarke transformation gives the inverse relation: 2 6 1 xa 6 6 7 6 4 xb 5 6 2 6 4 1 xc 2 3 2 1 3 0 p 7 " # 3 7 x a 7 2 7 p 7 xb 35 2

A:13

graphically represented in Figure A.4. It is necessary to highlight the following:

. . . .

xa and xb are sinusoidal varying magnitudes. The amplitudes of xa and xb are equal to the amplitudes of xa, xb, and xc. xa and xb are 90 phase shifted. xa is equal to xa.

 is the angular position that can be calculated from the angular frequency o as  o dt ot A:14 Note that the following can be written: ~ x xa jxb j~ x j cosot  j j~ x j sinot  A:15

A.1.2 Transformations to Different Reference Frames On the other hand, as seen in Chapter 4 of this book, for developing the dynamic model of the DFIM, it is very useful to represent the space vectors in different rotatory and stationary reference frames. Hence, three phase magnitudes of the DFIM (uxes,

APPENDIX

607

current, and voltages) are represented with the space vector notation, but in different reference frames. In order to denote that one space vector is referred to one specic reference frame, the superscript notation is introduced. Three different reference frames can be distinguished: 1. The Stator Reference Frame (a-b). Aligned with the stator, the rotating speed of the frame is zero (stationary), and the space vector referred to it rotates at the synchronous speed os. ~ x s xa jxb A:16

The s superscript denotes space vectors referred to the stator reference frame. 2. The Rotor Reference Frame (D-Q). Aligned with the rotor, the rotating speed of the frame is the electric angular speed of the rotor om, and the space vector referred to it rotates at the slip speed or. ~ x r xD jxQ A:17

The r superscript denotes space vectors referred to the rotor reference frame. 3. The Synchronous Reference Frame (d-q). The rotating speed of the frame is the synchronous speed os, and the space vector referred to it does not rotate, that is, it presents constant real and imaginary parts. ~ x a xd jxq A:18

The a superscript denotes space vectors referred to the synchronous reference frame. Figure A.5 shows the three different reference frame representations. Note that the angular frequency of the reference frame can be different from the angular frequency of the magnitudes being represented in space vector notation.

q Q D
m

xq

xD xQ xd

d
m

Figure A.5 Space vector representation in different reference frames.

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APPENDIX

For referencing space vectors into different reference frames, the rotational transformation is used. So, for instance, to transform from ab coordinates to DQ coordinates, the following operation is used: " ~ x
r

xD xQ

"

cosm sinm

sinm cosm

# "

xa xb

# A:19

where m is the electric angular position of the shaft, m om dt om t we use M as the direct rotational transformation: " # cosm sinm M sinm cosm Hence, the inverse rotational transformation is dened with the matrix " M 1 cosm sinm sinm cosm #

A:20

A:21

A:22

In addition, note also that the next relation holds: ~ xs x r e j  m ~ or ~ x s e j m ~ xr A:24 A:23

Graphically, this transformation of coordinates can be represented as illustrated in Figures A.6 and A.7. Finally, the relations with the synchronous reference frame are ~ x a e j  s ~ xs or ~ x a e j  r ~ xr
x xD

A:25 A:26
xD
x cos
m

x x
DQ
m

xD xQ

x x

x sin

xQ x

xQ

x cos

x sin

Figure A.6 DQ Components calculation from ab components.

APPENDIX
xD xD DQ xQ x

609
x

xD xQ

e jm
m

xD . cosm+ xQ .sinm

xQ

x D . cosm+ xQ .sinm

Figure A.7 ab components calculation from DQ components.

with

r or dt or t;

s os dt os t

A:27

r, s, or, and os are as described in Chapter 4. A.1.3 Power Expressions When considering voltage and currents as magnitudes represented in space vector notation, the active and reactive powers can be calculated according to established expressions. Therefore, the apparent power (S) is dened as the complex power formed by the reactive power (Q) and active power (P): S P jQ A:28

Thus, by using the space vector notation, the apparent power is calculated as follows:
~~ S3 2 v i

A:29

where the superscript * represents the conjugate of a space vector found as ~ x xa jxb Consequently, the apparent power is S va jvb ia jib 3 2 va i a i b vb j vb i a va i b
3 2

A:30

A:31

Accordingly, the active and reactive powers are calculated as P3 2 va ia ib vb Q3 2 vb ia va ib A:32 A:33

Note that the term 3 2 is necessary in the power expressions in order to maintain the correspondence of powers from the abc coordinates and the ab coordinates. On the

610

APPENDIX

other hand, equivalent expressions can be derived in dq and DQ coordinates as follows: P3 2 vD i D i Q vQ Q3 2 vQ iD vD iQ P3 2 vd i d i q vq Q3 2 vq i d vd i q A:34 A:35 A:36 A:37

A.2 DYNAMIC MODELING OF THE DFIM CONSIDERING THE IRON LOSSES The dynamic models developed in Chapter 4 of this book do not take into account the core loss that may be present in the DFIM. In this section, the ab and the dq model differential equations of the DFIM are developed considering the iron losses. Traditionally, most of the models have ignored this phenomenon causing in certain cases inaccuracies in the control strategies based on these models. Consequently, in order to develop a model as close as possible to the real machine, the iron loss will be introduced in the machines model equations. In general, this analysis is oriented to low power machines, since they present more signicant power loss than higher power machines. In general, when a DFIM presents signicant iron losses and the control strategy that is driving the machine does not consider these losses, the following errors are committed:
.

There is an error in the estimated ux (rotor or stator), since part of the stator and rotor currents are delivered through the iron losses but do not create ux, while the estimator used by the control considers that all the current is creating the ux. This error is revealed as phase shift and amplitude variations between the real and estimated ux. If there is an error in the estimated ux, there is an error in the orientation based on this ux, necessary for vector control (dq reference frame alignment) or direct control strategies (sector calculation for vector injection in DTC or DPC). This orientation error provokes one more undesired effect:  In vector control based techniques, there is an additional decoupling between the d and q axes, producing an accuracy error in the controlled torque.

APPENDIX

611

 In direct control techniques, in addition to the problems affecting vector control techniques, it can provoke time intervals where the injected vectors are not appropriate, because the ux is supposed to be in the wrong sector. This normally leads to torque and ux oscillations. Note that this effect only would occur in the neighborhood of a sector change.
. .

These facts can be more signicantly felt under certain operating conditions of the machine, especially at torques/powers far from the rated (low) ones. Finally, it can be concluded that the iron losses present in the machine but not considered in control can lead to slight deteriorations and inaccuracies that in general do not produce instability, but they are responsible for control performance degradations.

Therefore, this section gives the basis for considering the losses of the DFIM at the modeling stage. In that way, based on this DFIM model and testing it with the studied control strategies by means of a simulation based evaluation, it could be possible to assess if there are going to be problematic situations due to the iron losses. This gives the designer the opportunity to provide corrective actions. However, at this stage, no solutions of control considering iron losses are provided. A.2.1 ab Model In this section, the model of the DFIM is developed using the space vector representation in the stator reference frame and considering the iron loss. The voltage equations of the typical DFIM model are still valid: ~ v ss Rs~ is
s s

d~ cs dt

A:38

~ ~ vs r Rr i r
r

s d~ cr cr j om ~ dt

A:39

The iron loss of the machine is modeled as a resistance in parallel to the mutual magnetizing inductance of each phase, as shown in Figure A.8. This resistance Rfe provokes an active current consumption (ife) but does not create ux. The ux is created by the current ow through the mutual magnetizing and leakage inductances. Hence, the ux expressions in the stator reference frame are given by
s s s ~ c s Lss~ i s Lm~ im s s s ~ c r Lm~ i m Lsr~ ir

A:40 A:41

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APPENDIX

is

ir

ife

im

Rfe

Lm

Figure A.8 Iron loss modeling at one of the abc phases.

Additionally, from the current and voltage relations, two new expressions are added to the model:
s s s s ~ i s ~ ir ~ i fe ~ im

A:42 A:43

i fe Lm Rfe~
s

s d~ im dt

Therefore, by means of all derived equations, Figure A.9 shows the electrical model of the DFIM in stator coordinates considering the iron loss.

i
+

Rs +

Rr

ir
+

fe

i
Lm

vs

d dt

Rfe

d dt

i
+

Rs +

+ +

Rr

fe

i
Lm

d
s

Rfe

d dt

dt

Figure A.9 ab Model of the DFIM in stator coordinates considering the iron loss.

APPENDIX

613

On the other hand, the instantaneous power transmitted through the rotor and the stator is calculated as follows: ps t vas t ias t vbs t ibs t vcs t ics t 3 2 v a s i a s v bs i bs Ps pr t var tiar t vbr tibr t vcr ticr t 3 2 var iar vbr ibr Pr A:44

A:45

Therefore, the total instantaneous power of the machine, p(t), is the sum of the stator and the rotor instantaneous powers. Note that in a balanced three-phase system (with no zero sequence components), the active power (P) is equivalent to the instantaneous power (p(t)).
3 pt 3 2 vas ias vbs ibs 2 var iar vbr ibr

A:46

By substituting expressions (A.38) and (A.39) into expression (A.46) and rearranging the terms, the total power transmitted to the machine is given by  2 3  2   ~ ~ p t 3 2 Rs i s 2 Rr i r d~ c s ~ d ~ c r ~ is ir Re dt dt
3 2

n o ~ ~ c Re j o i 3 m r r 2

A:47

where, for simplicity, the superscript s of the space vectors has been omitted. Now substituting Equations (A.40) and (A.41) into expression (A.47), in order to remove the ux derivates, it is possible to obtain ~ 2 3 ~ 2 3 ~ 2 pt 3 2 Rs ji s j 2 Rr ji r j 2 Rfe ji fe j ( ) ~ ~ ~ d i d i d i s r m ~ i Ls r ~ i Lm ~ i 3 Re Lss 2 dt s dt r dt m n o ~ ~ 3 Re j o ; c i m r r 2 Hence, three different terms are distinguished:  2 3  2 3  2    ~ ~ ~ Ploss 3 2 Rs i s 2 Rr i r 2 Rfe i fe A:49

A:48

614

APPENDIX

where Ploss represents the resistive active power losses. ( Pmag

3 2 Re

d~ i s ~ d~ i r ~ d~ i m ~ i s Ls r i r Lm i Lss dt dt dt m

) A:50

Pmag is the stored magnetic power, and is equal to zero. n o ~ ~ c Re j o i Pmec 3 m r r 2

A:51

Pmec is the mechanical power produced by the DFIM, that is, the power stored in c r , that will be transmitted to the mechanical the equivalent voltage source j om ~ system by means of the electromagnetic torque. So using this last result, the torque produced by the machine can be calculated from the mechanical power as follows: Tem n o Pmec ~ ~ 3 i p Re j c r r 2 om =p n o 3 p Im ~ c r ~ ir 3 pcar ibr cbr iar 2 2

A:52

Note that the equivalent torque expressions derived in the model without considering the iron losses (Chapter 4), due to the presence of the term Rfe, in this case do not remain.

A.2.2 dq Model In this section, the model differential equations of the DFIM are developed using the space vector representation in the synchronous reference frame and considering core loss. Again, the voltage equations are equivalent to the voltage equations derived from the classic model of the DFIM (Chapter 4). ~ v sa
a a d~ cs a ~ cs j os ~ Rs i s dt

A:53

~ v ra Rr~ ir
a

a d~ cr j os om ~ cr dt a

A:54

The rest of the ux and current equations are obtained from expressions (A.40) to (A.43), transforming them to the synchronous reference frame:
a a a ~ c s Lss~ i s Lm~ im

A:55

APPENDIX

615

ids
+

Rs

qs

(
+ +
L
s

qr

+ +
d
dr

Rr

idr
+

idfe
Rfe

i dm
Lm

vds

ds

dt

dt

vdr

iqm

iqs
+

ds

(
L
s

Rs

)
+

dr

Rr

iqr
+

+
d

iqfe
Rfe

i qm
Lm +
s

+
d

vqs

qs

qr

vqr

dt

dt

idm

Figure A.10 dq Model of the DFIM in synchronous coordinates, considering the iron loss.

a a a ~ c r Lm~ i m Lsr~ ir

A:56

a a a a ~ i s ~ ir ~ i fe ~ im a d~ i a a Rfe~ i fe Lm m j os~ im dt

A:57

A:58

Figure A.10 shows the electric model of the DFIM in synchronous coordinates, considering the iron loss. Added to this, the instantaneous power transmitted through the rotor and the stator is calculated as follows, using the expression (A.46) in dq coordinates:
3 p t 3 2 vds ids vqs iqs 2 vdr idr vqr iqr

A:59

Substituting Equations (A.53) and (A.54) in the last expression: ( ) ~ ~     d c d c 2 2 s ~ r ~ 3 3   ~ ~ pt 3 is ir 2 Rs i s 2 Rr i r 2 Re dt dt n o n o 3 ~ ~ ~ ~ c 3 Re j o i Re j o o c i s s m s s r r 2 2

A:60

616

APPENDIX

For simplicity, the superscripts have been omitted in this case again. Then, as done in the ab model, by substituting in this last equation expressions (A.55) to (A.58), it leads to an equivalent expression of the power in dq coordinates (despite the fact that the original expression is slightly different):  2 3  2 3  2    ~ ~ ~ p t 3 2 Rs i s 2 Rr i r 2 Rfe i fe ( ) ~ ~ ~ d i d i d i s r m ~ i Ls r ~ i Lm ~ i 3 Re Lss 2 dt s dt r dt m n o * ~ Re j o c i 3 m r r 2 Consequently, the torque expression is calculated in the same manner: Tem n o Pmec ~ ~ 3 p Re j c i r r 2 om =p n o 3 p Im ~ c r ~ ir 3 pcdr iqr cqr idr 2 2

A:61

A:62

A.2.3 State-Space Representation of ab Model As stated in Chapter 4, a representation of the ab model in state-space equations is very useful for simulation purposes. Next, one of the different state-space representation combinations will be shown. It employs the state-space magnitudes s s s ~ is , ~ i r , and ~ i fe .
2 2 s3 6 ~ 6 i 6 s 7 6 6 d6 s7 6 6~ 6 ir 7 6 7 dt 4 5 6 6 s 6 ~ i fe 4 Rs Lss ! 0 ! ! Rr Lr j om Lsr Lsr Rr Lr j om Lsr Lsr ! ! Rfe Lss ! 3 7 2 s3 7 ~ 7 6 is 7 7 6 s7 7 6~ 7 7 6 ir 7 7 4 5 7 s !7 ~ 5 i
fe

j om

Lm Lsr

Rs Lm j om Lss Lsr 1 6 Lss 6 6 6 6 0 6 6 4 1 Lss 2

! Rfe Lm j om Lsr Lsr   1 1 1 Lm Rfe j om Lsr Lss Lsr Lm

3 0 7 7 " s# vs 1 7 7 ~ 7 s Lsr 7 ~ 7 vr 1 5 Lsr

A:63

If each space vector is replaced by its ab components, the state-space representation yields

2 0 0 om 0 0 0 Rfe Lss 0

Rs Lss

om

Lm Lsr  Rfe om Lm L sr 1 1 1 L s s Ls r Lm 

0 Rr L sr om 3 Lr Lsr Rr Lsr Lr om L sr

Rr L sr Lr om Lsr

Lr L sr Rr Lsr

Rfe Lsr Lm om L sr

Lm om Lsr

Rs 6 L ss 6 6 3 6 2 6 0 ias 6 7 6 6 6 i bs 7 6 7 6 6 7 6 0 6 7 6 6 i a r d6 7 6 76 6 Lm dt 6 ibr 7 6 7 6 om 6 7 6 6 Lsr 6 iafe 7 6 5 6 4 Rs 6 6 ibfe 6 Lss 6 6 4 Lm om Lsr 7 7 7 72 Rfe 7 ias 3 7 Lss 76 7 6 i bs 7 7 Lm 76 7 76 om 7 6 iar 7 Lsr 7 76 7 7 6 Rfe 7 6 i br 7 7 76 7 76 Lsr 74 iafe 7 5 7 Lm 7 om 7 ibfe 7 Lsr  7 7 1 1 1 5 Rfe Ls s L s r L m A:64

Rs Lss

1 Ls s

1 Ls r

1 6 L ss 6 6 6 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 0 6 6 6 6 0 6 6 6 6 1 6 6L 6 ss 6 4 0 0 7 7 7 7 0 7 7 2 3 7 v as 7 7 7 0 7 6 v bs 7 7 6 7 76 6 7 7 1 7 v 7 6 a r 7 4 5 Ls r 7 7 v br 7 0 7 7 7 7 1 5 Ls r

1 Ls r

617

1 Ls s

618

APPENDIX

REFERENCES
1. W. Leonhard, Control of Electrical Drives. Springer-Verlag, 1985. 2. E. Levi, Impact of Iron Loss on Behavior of Vector Controlled Induction Machines, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., Vol. 31, No. 6, pp. 12871296, December, 1995.