18.

100A PS5
Author: Eric Emer February 25, 2013

Collaborators: Callie McRee

Exercise 4.3 #2

Graph showing f (x) = x3 x (above) and f (x) = x3 x 1 (below). Using intuitive geometric reasoning based on the graph of f (x), we see that x = 1/ 3 is located at the local minima of f (x). This means that for x > 1/ 3 we will have that f (x) > 0 and for x < 1/ 3 we will have that f (x) < 0. We notice: f (x) = d 3 (x x 1) = 3x2 1 dx

If we were to use Newtons Method, we would get that: an+1 = an 2a3 f (an ) a3 an 1 n+1 = an n 2 = 2 f (an ) 3an 1 3an 1

Notably, for an > 1/ 3 we get that an+1 > 0, and an+1 < 0 for an < 1/ 3. Suppose that f (K ) = 0, where K is a unique positive integer. en = an K

If we can show that en 0, then we have shown that the sequence converges to K . We intuitively see that on the interval (1/ 3, K ) an is increasing. On the interval (K, ), an is decreasing. Using just geometric intuition, we see that since this a continuous function, by the IVP there will be a value for which f (x) = 0. Because K > a0 , as an approaches K , as will the error an K decrease.

2
2.1

Exercise 4.3 #3
i
an+1 = an f (an ) a2 + an 1 a2 + 1 = an n = n f (an ) 2an + 1 2an + 1

2.2
Proof.

ii
en = an M, an = en + M en+1 = an+1 M = a2 (en + M )2 + 1 M 2 + M + e2 n+1 n1 M = M = 2an + 1 2(en + M ) + 1 2M + 2en + 1

We simplify further: en+1 = e2 n 2(M + en + 1/2)

To show that en+1 gets small, we must show that the denominator is not small. We get a lower estimate for the denominator. |M + en + 1/2| M |en | + 1/2 |M + en + 1/2| > M M + 1/2 = 0.5 This estimation shows that as soon as |en | < M , the denominator of en+1 is greater than 1. This also tells us that:
2n |en+1 | < | e2 n |, |en | < |e0 |

This indicates that en 0, thereby showing that an M .

2.3

iii

In the sequence from Section 4.4, we are given, |en+1 | < Suppose we have two functions, f1 (x) = e0 2n en e0 , |en | < n 2 2

n f2 (x) = e2 0

f1 (x) = e0 2n ln 2 2

n 2 f2 (x) = e2 0 ln e0

We examine which one goes to zero more quickly. lim ( e0 2n ln 2 n 2 )=0 e2 0 ln e0

the So clearly, f2 goes to zero more quickly, and the sequence from Section 4.4 converges more slowly to M than the sequence we found in this problem.

3
3.1

Problem 4-2
a

L = 0.73908513 L is a root of the function f (x) = x cos x.

3.2

Proof. We examine the error term. en = an L We observe: |an L| = | cos an1 L| = | cos an1 cos L| The mean value theorem states that f (b) f (a) = f (t)(b a) for t [a, b]. By the mean value theorem, we have that: | cos an1 cos L| = | sin t||an1 L| Because this is sequentially takings cosines, all the terms after a0 will be on the interval [1, 1]. L and t will also be on this interval. We know that sin t is a strictly increasing function on [1, 1]. Therefore, we know that | sin t| < | sin 1|. |an L| < | sin 1||an1 L| |an L| < | sin 1|n |a0 L| We observe that | sin 1| < 1, so
n

lim | sin 1|n |a0 L| = 0

n

lim |an L| 0

Since it is an absolute value, it must be that as n , an L.

4
4.1

Problem 4-3
a

Proof. We examine the two bounds limits for a > 0. A = B 1/3

aA

lim B/a2 = B 1/3

aA

lim a = B 1/3

We also examine how they change as a increases. We dene two functions to represent the bounds: f1 (a) = a, f1 (a) = 1 f2 (a) = B/a2 , f2 (a) = 2Ba3 We notice that as a increases, a strictly increases, this is trivial. We also notice that as a increases, B/a2 strictly decreases. Given that we have already shown the limits of these expressions, we can conclude that: a B 1/3 B/a2

4.2
Proof.

b
an+1 = ran + sB/a2 n , r + s = 1, r > 0, s > 0 en = an A, an = en + A en+1 = an+1 A en+1 = ran + sB/a2 nA

We substitute for an and apply some algebra: en+1 = r(en + A) + sA sA3 A = r(A + en ) + A 2 (en + A) (1 + en /A)2

4.3

c
:= en /A. sA 1 en en en sA sA(1 en /A + ( )2 )2 sA(1 2 + 3( )2 ) 2 2 (1 + en /A) (1 + en /A) A A A en en + 3( )2 ) A = r(A + en ) + sA 2sen + 3se2 n /A A A A 2 = rA + ren + sA 2sen + 3se2 n /A A = ren 2sen + 3sen /A + A(1 + r + s), where r + s = 1 3s en+1 = (r 2s)en + e2 A n en+1 = r(A + en ) + sA(1 2 4

Suppose

en+1

4.4

Because we know that e2 n /A will converge faster than en , we want the squared term to be weighted more heavily. In fact, if possible wed like to remove the degree 1 term, and keep only the second degree term. Therefore, we set r = 2/3, and s = 1/3. We get en+1 = e2 n /A. Now we use Newtons Method to show that we get the same result, using f (x) = x3 B . an+1 = an f (an ) a3 B = an n 2 f (an ) 3an

1 2 an+1 = (a5 n + an b + 3an ) 3 en = an B an = B + en en+1 = an+1 B 1 2 en+1 = (a5 n + an B + 3an ) B 3 1 en+1 = ((B + en )5 + (B + en )2 B + 3(B + en )) B 3 1 en+1 = ((B + en )5 + (B + en )2 B + 3en ) 3 We see that our recurrence formula for an from Newtons Method is, an+1 = an giving us r = 2/3, s = 1/3.
3 a3 3a3 2 1 B nB n an B = = (an ) ( 2 ) 2 2 3an 3an 3 3 an

Problem 5

Improve the result of Example 5.2C by showing there is a constant K > 0 such that | ln n! n ln n| < K ln n for n 1. Why is this an improvement?

Proof. In Example 5.2C we showed that ln n! n ln n, which indicates that for n We use Stirlings Approximation, which tells us that: ln n! = n ln n n + O(ln n) It follows that: | ln n! n ln n| = | n + O(ln n)| O(ln n) is equivalent to K ln n for some positive K . Therefore: | ln n! n ln n| | n + K ln n| We from the rules of arithmetic that: 5

1, ln n! n ln n.

| n + K ln n| < |K ln n| Because K is positive and ln n is positive for suciently large n, we conrm trivially that there exists K such that | ln n! n ln n| < K ln n for n 1. | ln n! n ln n| < K ln n

This is an improvement on the result of Example 5.2C. K ln n is a tighter upper bound than n ln n.