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20

Soft Switching

In addition to the resonant c i rcu i ts introduced in Chapter 19 there has been much interest in reducing the sw i tch i ng loss of the PWM converters of the previous chapters. Several of the more popular approaches to obta i n i ng soft switching in buck boost and other converters are discussed in th i s chapter. Mechanisms that cause sw i tch i ng loss are discussed in Chapter 4 i nclud i ng diode reverse recovery semiconductor output capacitances and IGBT current ta i l i ng . Soft sw i tch i ng involves m i t i gat i on of one or more of these sw i tch i ng loss mechanisms in a PWM converter. The energy that would otherwise be lost is recovered and is transferred to the converter source or load. The operation of a semiconductor device dur i ng a g i ven turn-on or turn-off sw i tch i ng trans i t i on can be classified as hardswitched zero-current switched or zero-voltage switched. Operation of diodes and transistors w i th soft sw i tch i ng is examined in Section 20.1. In particular it is preferable to operate diodes w i th zero-voltage sw i tch i ng at the i r turn-off trans i t i ons and to operate MOSFETs w i th zero-voltage sw i tch i ng dur i ng their turn-on transitions. However zero-voltage switching comes at the expense of increased conduction loss and so the engineer must consider the effect of soft sw i tch i ng on the overall converter eff i c i ency . Resonant switch converters are a broad class of converters in wh i ch the PWM switch network of a conventional buck boost or other converter is replaced w i th a switch cell conta i n i ng resonant elements. These resonant elements are positioned such that the semiconductor devices operate w i th zerocurrent or zero-voltage switching and such that one or more of the switching loss mechanisms is reduced or eliminated. Other soft-sw i tch i ng approaches may employ resonant sw i tch i ng transitions but otherwise exh i b i t the approx i mately rectangular waveforms of hard-switched converters. In any case the result i ng hybr i d converter combines the properties of the resonant sw i tch i ng network and the parent hard-switched PWM converter. Soft-sw i tch i ng converters can exh i b i t reduced sw i tch i ng loss at the expense of increased conduct i on loss. Obta i n i ng zero-voltage or zero-current sw i tch i ng requires that the resonant elements have large r i pple ; often these elements are operated in a manner s i m i lar to the d i scont i nuous conduction

762

Soft Switching

modes of the series or parallel resonant converters. As in other resonant schemes the objectives of designing such a converter are: (1) to obtain smaller transformer and low-pass f i lter elements v i a increase of the sw i tch i ng frequency and/or (2) to reduce the sw i tch i ng loss induced by component non i deal i t i es such as diode stored charge semiconductor device capacitances and transformer leakage i nductance and w i nd i ng capacitance. The resonant switch and soft-switching ideas are qu i te general and can be applied to a variety of topologies and appl i cat i ons . A large number of resonant sw i tch networks have been documented in the literature; a few basic approaches are listed here [124]. The basic zero-current-sw i tch i ng quas i -resonant switch network is analyzed in detail in Section 20.2. Expressions for the average components of the switch network terminal waveforms are found leading to determ i nat i on of the switch conversion ratio The switch conversion rat i o performs the role of the duty cycle d of CCM PWM sw i tch networks. For example the buck converter exh i b i ts conversion ratio M equal to Both half-wave and full-wave ringi ng of the tank network is considered; these lead to d i fferent sw i tch conversi on ratio funct i ons In general given a PWM CCM converter having conversion ratio M(d) we can replace the PWM switch network w i th a resonant sw i tch network hav i ng sw i tch conversion rat i o The result i ng quas i -resonant converter w i ll then have conversion rat io So we can obta i n soft-sw i tch i ng versions of all of the basic converters (buck boost buck-boost forward flyback etc.) that exh i b i t zero-voltage or zero-current switching and other desirable properties. In Section 20.3 the characteristics of several other resonant sw i tch networks are listed: the zero-voltage-switching quas i -resonant sw i tch network the zero-current-sw i tch i ng and zero-voltagesw i tch i ng quasi-square-wave networks and the mult i resonant sw i tch network . One can obta i n zero-voltage sw i tch i ng in all transistors and diodes us i ng these networks. Several related soft-switching approaches are now popular wh i ch atta i n zero-voltage sw i tch i ng of the transistor or transistors in commonly-used converters. The zero-voltage transition approach finds application in full-br i dge buck-derived converters. Act i ve-clamp snubbers are often added to forward and flyback converters to atta i n zero-voltage sw i tch i ng and to reset the transformer. These c i rcu i ts lead to zero-voltage sw i tch i ng of the transistors but (less-than-opt i mal) zero-current sw i tch i ng of the secondary-side diodes. Nonetheless h i gh efficiency can be achieved. An aux i l i ary resonant-commutated pole can achieve zero-voltage sw i tch i ng in voltage-source inverters. These converters are br i efly discussed in Section 20.4.

20.1

SOFT-SWITCHING MECHANISMS OF SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

When loosely used the terms zero-current sw i tch i ng and zero-voltage sw i tch i ng normally refer to one or more switching trans i t i ons of the transistor in a converter. However to fully understand how a converter generates switching loss one must closely exam i ne the sw i tch i ng trans i t i ons of every semiconductor device. As described in Section 4.3 there are typ i cally several mechan i sms that are sources of sign i f i cant sw i tch i ng loss. At the turn-off trans i t i on of a diode its reverse-recovery process can i nduce loss in the transistor or other elements of the converter. The energy stored in the output capacitance of a MOSFET can be lost when the MOSFET turns on. IGBTs can lose s i gn i f i cant energy dur i ng the i r turnoff transition ow i ng to the current-ta i l i ng phenomenon . The effects of zero-current sw i tch i ng and zerovoltage sw i tch i ng on each of these devices is discussed in deta i l below.

20.1

Soft-Switching Mechanisms of Semiconductor Devices

763

20.1.1

Diode Switching

As discussed in Chapter 4 the reverse-recovery process usually leads to s i gn i f i cant sw i tch i ng loss associated with the turn-off transition of diodes. This is often the largest single source of loss in a hardswitched converter. Normally negligible loss is associated w i th the turn-on transition of power diodes. Three types of diode turn-off transition waveforms are commonly encountered in modern switching converters: hard sw i tch i ng zero-current switching and zero-voltage sw i tch i ng . Figure 20.1 illustrates a conventional hard-switched PWM buck converter. The diode voltage and current waveforms v(t) and i(t) are also illustrated with an exaggerated reverse recovery time. The output inductor current ripple is small. The diode turns off when the transistor is turned on; the reverse recovery process leads to a negative peak current of large ampl i tude . The diode must i mmed i ately support the full reverse voltage and hence both v(t) and i(t) must change with large slopes during reverse recovery. As described in Section 4.3.2 hard sw i tch i ng of the diode induces energy loss in the transistor given approximately by

where is the diode recovered charge and is the reverse recovery time both taken to be positive quantities. The recovered charge is relatively large because the slope di/dt is large dur i ng the turn-off trans i tion. The resonant circuit formed by the diode output capacitance and the diode package and other wiring inductances leads to ringing at the end of the reverse recovery time. Figure 20.2 illustrates zero-current sw i tch i ng at the turn-off trans i t i on of a diode. The converter example is a quas i -resonant zero-voltage sw i tch i ng buck converter (see Section 20.3.1). The output inductor current r i pple is again small. However tank i nductor is now connected in series w i th the diode. The resulting diode current waveform i(t) changes with a limited slope as shown. The diode reverse-recovery process commences when i(t) passes through zero and becomes negative. The negative i(t) actively removes stored charge from the diode; during this reverse recovery time the diode remains forward-biased. When the stored charge is removed then the diode voltage must rap i dly change to As described in Section 4.3.3 energy is stored in inductor at the end of the reverse recovery time given by

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Soft Switching

The resonant c i rcu i t formed by and the diode output capacitance then cause th i s energy to be c i rculated between and This energy is eventually dissipated by parasitic resistive elements in the c i rcu i t and hence is lost. Since Eqs. (20.1) and (20.2) are s i m i lar in form the sw i tch i ng losses induced by the reverse-recovery processes of diodes operating w i th hard sw i tch i ng and w i th zero-current sw i tch i ng are s i m i lar in magn i tude . Zero-current sw i tch i ng may lead to somewhat lower loss because the reduced di/dt leads to less recovered charge Zero-current sw i tch i ng of diodes also typ i cally leads to increased peak inverse diode voltage duri ng the r i ng i ng of and because of the relatively large value of When a diode operates with hard switching or zero-current switching and when substant i al inductance is present in series w i th the diode then s i gn i f i cant r i ng i ng is observed in the diode voltage waveform. A resonant circuit comprised of the series i nductance and the diode output capacitance is excited by the diode reverse recovery process and the result i ng r i ng i ng voltage can be of large enough magnitude to lead to breakdown and fa i lure of the diode. A common example is the diodes on the secondary side of a hard-switched transformer-isolated converter; the resonant c i rcu i t is then formed by the transformer leakage inductance and the diode output capacitance. Other examples are the c i rcu i ts of Figs. 20.2 and 20.36 in wh i ch the series i nductance is a discrete tank inductor. A simple snubber c i rcu i t that is often used to protect the diode from excessive reverse voltage is

20.1

Soft-Switching Mechanisms of Semiconductor Devices

765

illustrated in Fig. 20.3. Resistor R damps the ringing of the resonant circuit. Capacitor C prevents the off-state voltage of the diode from causing excessive power loss in R. Nonetheless the energy consumed by R per switching period is typ i cally greater than Eqs. (20.1) or (20.2). Figure 20.4 illustrates zero-voltage sw i tch i ng at the turn-off trans i t i on of a diode. The figure illustrates the example of a zero-voltage sw i tch i ng quasi-square wave buck converter discussed in Section 20.3.3. The output inductor of th i s converter assumes the role of the tank inductor and exh i b i ts large current ripple that causes the current to reverse polarity. Wh i le the diode conducts its current i(t) is equal to When becomes negative the diode continues to conduct unt i l its stored charge has been removed. The diode then becomes reverse-biased and flows through capacitor and the diode output capacitance The diode voltage and current both change w i th l imited slope in th i s type of switching and the loss induced by the diode reverse-recovery process is negl i g i ble because the waveforms are not s i gn i f i cantly damped by parasitic resistances in the circuit and because the peak currents dur i ng reverse recovery are relatively low. The diode stored charge and diode output capacitance both behave as an effective nonlinear capacitor that can be combined w i th (or replace) tank capacitor Snubber circuits such as Fig. 20.3 are not necessary when the diode operates w i th zero-voltage sw i tching. Thus zero-voltage switching at the turn-off trans i t i on of a diode is the preferred approach that leads to m i n i mum switching loss. Zero-current sw i tching at the turn-off trans i t i on can be problematic because of the high peak inverse voltage induced across the diode by r i ng i ng . 20.1.2 MOSFET Switching

The switching loss mechanisms typ i cally encountered by a MOSFET in a hard-switched converter are discussed in Chapter 4 and typical MOSFET voltage and current waveforms are illustrated in Fig. 20.5. The most s i gn i f i cant components of switching loss in the MOSFET of th i s circuit are: (1) the loss

766

Soft Switching

induced by the diode reverse recovery process and (2) the loss of the energy stored in the MOSFET output capacitance Both loss mechan i sms occur dur i ng the MOSFET turn-on process. In the hard-switched c i rcu i t of Fig. 20.5 there is essent i ally no sw i tch i ng loss i ncurred dur i ng the MOSFET turn-off trans i t i on . This occurs because of the substant i al output capacitance of the MOSFET. This capacitance holds the voltage v ( t ) close to zero wh i le the MOSFET turns off so that the turn-off sw i tch i ng loss is very small . After the MOSFET has turned off the output i nductor current I flows through The voltage v(t) then increases unt i l and the diode becomes forward biased. However when the MOSFET turns on a h i gh peak current flows through the MOSFET channel induced by the diode reverse recovery and by the output capacitances of the MOSFET and diode. This leads to substant i al energy loss dur i ng the hard-switched turn-on trans i t i on of the MOSFET. When a MOSFET (or other trans i stor) operates w i th hard sw i tch i ng and when substant i al inductance is present in series w i th the MOSFET then s i gn i f i cant r i ng i ng is observed in the MOSFET voltage waveform. A resonant c i rcu i t composed of the MOSFET output capacitance and the series inductance is excited when the MOSFET turns off and the result i ng r i ng i ng voltage can be of large enough magn i tude to lead to breakdown and fa i lure of the MOSFET. A common example is the MOS-

20.1

Soft-Switching Mechanisms of Semiconductor Devices

767

FET of the flyback converter in wh i ch series i nductance is i ntroduced by the transformer leakage i nductance. An RC snubber c i rcu i t s i m i lar to that used for the diode in Fig. 20.3 can be used to protect the MOSFET from damage caused by excessive applied voltage. Another common snubber c i rcu i t is i llustrated in Fig. 20.6. When the MOSFET turns off the current flowing in the transformer leakage i nductance begins to flow i nto the MOSFET capacitance These parasitic elements then r i ng and the peak transistor voltage can significantly exceed the ideal value of One simple way to design the snubber c i rcu i t of Fig. 20.6 is to choose the capacitance to be large so that conta i ns negl i g i ble sw i tch i ng ripple. The resistance is then chosen so that the power consumption of at the desired voltage is equal to the switching loss caused by

The current i is equal to the current flowing in the transformer primary just before the MOSFET is turned off. This approximate expression is useful for obtaining a first estimate of how to choose to obtain a given desired Zero-current sw i tch i ng does not affect the sw i tch i ng loss that arises from the MOSFET output capacitance and it may or may not influence the loss induced by diode reverse recovery. In consequence zero-current switching is of little or no help in improving the efficiency of converters that employ MOSFETs. Zero-voltage sw i tch i ng can prevent both diode reverse recovery and semi conductor output capacitances from i nduc i ng sw i tch i ng loss in MOSFETs. An example is i llustrated in Fig. 20.7. This circu i t is again a zero-voltage sw i tch i ng quasi-squarewave example discussed in Section 20.3.3. The converter c i rcu i t naturally discharges the energy stored in before the MOSFET is switched on. When the dra i n-to-source voltage v(t) passes through zero the MOSFET body diode becomes forward-biased. The MOSFET can then be turned on at zero voltage w i thout i ncurr i ng turn-on sw i tch i ng loss. The MOSFET turn-on trans i t i on must be completed before the tank i nductor current becomes positive. The MOSFET turn-off trans i t i on is also lossless and is s i m i lar to the hard-sw i tched case discussed above. Zero-voltage sw i tch i ng of a MOSFET also causes its body diode to operate w i th zero-voltage sw i tch i ng . This can el i m i nate the sw i tch i ng loss associated w i th reverse recovery of the slow body diode and improve the rel i ab i l i ty of c i rcu i ts that forward-b i as th i s diode.

768

Soft Switching

Zero-voltage sw i tch i ng can also el i m i nate the overvoltage problems associated w i th transformer leakage inductances removing the need for voltage-clamped snubber circuits such as in Fig. 20.6. An example is discussed in Section 20.4.2. 20.1.3 IGBT Switching

Like the MOSFET the IGBT typ i cally encounters substant i al sw i tch i ng loss dur i ng its turn-on trans i t i on induced by the reverse-recovery process of diodes w i th i n the converter. In addition the IGBT exhibits significant switching loss during its turn-off transition caused by the current tailing phenomenon (see Chapter 4). Zero-voltage sw i tch i ng has been successfully applied to IGBT c i rcu i tsan example is the auxi l i ary resonant commutation c i rcu i t discussed in Section 20.4.3. Th i s has the pr i nc i pal advantage of elimi nat i ng the sw i tch i ng loss caused by diode reverse recovery. Although zero-voltage sw i tch i ng can reduce the loss incurred dur i ng the turn-off transition it is d i ff i cult to el i m i nate the substanti al loss caused by current tailing.

20.2

THE ZERO-CURRENT SWITCHING QUASI-RESONANT SWITCH CELL

Figure 20.8(a) illustrates a generic buck converter consisting of a sw i tch cell cascaded by an LC lowpass filter. When the sw i tch cell is realized as in Fig. 20.8(b) then a conventional PWM buck converter is obtained. Figures 20.8(b) and (c) i llustrate two other possible realizations of the sw i tch cell: the halfwave and full-wave zero-current-switching quasi-resonant switches [1 2]. In these switch cells a resonant tank capacitor is placed in parallel w i th diode wh i le resonant tank capacitor is placed in series w i th the active transistor element . Both resonant switch cells requ i re a two-quadrant SPST sw i tch . In the half-wave sw i tch cell of Fig. 20.8(c) diode is added in series w i th transistor This causes the SPST sw i tch to turn off at the first zero crossing of the tank i nductor current In the full-wave switch cell of Fig. 20.8(d) antiparallel diode allows bidirectional flow of the tank i nductor current W i th this switch network the SPST switch is normally turned off at the second zero-crossing of the waveform . In either switch cell the and elements are relatively small in value such that their resonant frequency is greater than the sw i tch i ng frequency where

In the analysis wh i ch follows it is assumed that the converter filter element values L and C have negligible sw i tch i ng ripple. Hence the switch cell term i nal waveforms and are well-approx i mated by the i r average values:

w i th the average def i ned as in Eq. (7.3). In steady-state we can further approximate their dc components and

and

by

20.2

The Zero-Current Switching Quasi-Resonant Switch Cell

769

770

Soft Switching

Thus the small-r i pple approximation is employed for the converter f i lter elements as usual . To understand the operation of the half-wave ZCS quasi-resonant switch cell we can solve the s i mpl i f i ed c i rcu i t i llustrated in Fig. 20.9. In accordance w i th the averaged sw i tch model i ng approach of Sections 7.4 and 11.1 it is desired to determine the average term i nal waveforms and as funct i ons of the applied quant i t i es and The sw i tch conversion rat i o is then g i ven by

In steady state we can write

The steady-state analys i s of th i s section employs Eq. (20.8) to determ i ne 20.2.1 Waveforms of the Half-Wave ZCS Quasi-Resonant Switch Cell

Typical waveforms of the half-wave cell of Fig. 20.9 are i llustrated in Fig. 20.10. Each sw i tch i ng period consists of four sub i ntervals as shown, hav i ng angular lengths and The sw i tch i ng period begins when the controller turns on transistor The i n i t i al values of the tank i nductor current and tank capacitor voltage are zero. Dur i ng sub i nterval 1, all three semiconductor devices conduct. Diode is forward-biased because is less than In consequence, dur i ng sub i nterval 1 the sw i tch cell reduces to the c i rcu i t of Fig. 20.11. The slope of the i nductor current is given by

20.2

The Zero-Current Switching Quasi-Resonant Switch Cell

771

w i th the i n i t i al condition

The solution is

where the tank characteristic impedance

is defined as

It is convenient to express the waveforms in terms of the angle instead of t i me t. At the end of sub i nterval 1 The sub i nterval ends when diode becomes reverse-biased. Since the diode current is equal to th i s occurs when Hence we can wr i te

Solution for

yields

772

Soft Switching

During sub i nterval 2 trans i stor and diode conduct wh i le diode is reverse-biased. The switch network then becomes the circuit illustrated in Fig. 20.12. The resonant tank network is excited by the constant sources and The network equations are

w i th the i n i t i al conditions

The solution is

The tank inductor current rises to a peak value given by

The subinterval ends at the first zero crossing of as then we can write

If we denote the angular length of the sub i nterval

Solution for sin

yields

Care must be employed when solv i ng Eq. (20.19) for the angle It can be observed from Fig. 20.10 that the angle is greater than The correct branch of the arcs i ne funct i on must be selected as follows:

20.2

The Zero-Current Switching Quasi-Resonant Switch Cell

773

where

Note that the i nequal i ty

must be satisfied; otherwise, there is no solution to Eq. (20.19). At excessive load currents, where Eq. (20.21) is not satisfied, the tank inductor current never reaches zero, and the transistor does not switch off at zero current. The tank capacitor voltage at the end of subinterval 2 is found by evaluation of Eq. (20.16) at The cos term can be expressed as

Subst i tut i on of Eq. (20.22) i nto Eq. (20.16) leads to

At the end of sub i nterval 2 diode becomes reverse-biased. Transistor can then be switched off at zero current. During sub i nterval 3 all semiconductor devices are off and the switch cell reduces to the circuit of Fig. 20.13. The tank capacitor is discharged by the filter inductor current Hence the tank capacitor voltage decreases l i nearly to zero. The c ircuit equations are

The solution is

Sub i nterval 3 ends when the tank capacitor voltage reaches zero. Diode Hence we can write

then becomes forward-biased.

774

Soft Switching

where

is the angular length of sub i nterval 3. Solution for

y i elds

Sub i nterval 4 of angular length is i dent i cal to the diode conduct i on sub i nterval of the convent i onal PWM sw i tch network . Diode conducts the f i lter i nductor current and the tank capac i tor voltage is equal to zero. Transistor is off and the i nput current is equal to zero. The angular length of the sw i tch i ng period is

where

Quas i -resonant sw i tch networks are usually controlled by var i at i on of the sw i tch i ng frequency or in normalized terms by var i at i on of F. Note that the i nterval lengths and are determ i ned by the response of the tank network . Hence control of the sw i tch i ng frequency is equ i valent to control of the fourth sub i nterval length The sub i nterval length must be pos i t i ve and hence the m i n i mum sw i tchi ng period is l i m i ted as follows :

Subst i tut i on of Eqs. (20.13) (20.20) and (20.27) i nto Eq. (20.30) y i elds

This expression l i m i ts the max i mum sw i tch i ng frequency or max i mum F of the half-wave ZCS quas i resonant switch cell . 20.2.2 The Average Terminal Waveforms

It is now desired to solve for the power processing funct i on performed by the sw i tch network . The sw i tch conversion ratio is a general i zat i on of the duty cycle d. It expresses how a resonant sw i tch network controls the average voltages and currents of a converter. In our buck converter example we can def i ne as the ratio of to or equ i valently the rat i o of to In a hard-swi tched PWM network th i s ratio is equal to the duty cycle d. Hence analyt i cal results derived for hard-sw i tched PWM converters can be adapted to quas i -resonant converters s i mply by replac i ng d w i th In th i s sect i on we derive an expression for by averag i ng the term i nal waveforms of the sw i tch network . The sw i tch i nput current waveform of Fig. 20.10 is reproduced in Fig. 20.14. The average sw i tch i nput current is given by

20.2

The Zero-Current Switching Quasi-Resonant Switch Cell

775

The charge quantities and are the areas under the waveform dur i ng the first and second subintervals respectively. The charge is given by the tr i angle area formula

The time

is the length of subinterval 1 The charge

is

According to Fig. 20.12 dur i ng sub i nterval 2 the current and the switch output current by the node equation

can be related to the tank capacitor current

Substitution of Eq. (20.35) into Eq. (20.34) leads to

Both integrals in Eq. (20.36) can easily be evaluated as follows. Since the second term involves the integral of the constant current th i s term is

The first term in Eq. (20.36) involves the integral of the capacitor current over sub i nterval 2. Hence, this term is equal to the change in capacitor charge over the second sub i nterval :

776

Soft Switching

(recall that in a capacitor). Dur i ng the second sub i nterval the tank capacitor voltage is i n i t i ally zero and has a final value of Hence Eq. (20.38) reduces to

Substitution of Eqs. (20.37) and (20.39) into Eq. (20.36) leads to the following expression for

Equations (20.33) and (20.40) can now be inserted i nto Eq. (20.32) to obtain the follow i ng expression for the switch i nput current:

Substitution of Eq. (20.41) i nto (20.8) leads to the follow i ng expression for the switch conversion ratio:

Finally the quantities

and

can be el i m i nated us i ng Eqs. (20.13) (20.20) (20.23). The result is

where

Equation (20.43) is of the form

where

Thus the switch conversion rati o is directly controllable by var i at i on of the sw i tch i ng frequency through F. The switch conversion ratio is also a funct i on of the applied term i nal voltage and current , via The funct i on is sketched in Fig. 20.15. The switch conversion ratio is sketched in Fig. 20.16 for various values of F and These characteristics are s i m i lar in shape to the funct i on and are simply scaled by the factor F. It can be seen that the conversion ratio is a strong funct i on

20.2

The Zero-Current Switching Quasi-Resonant Switch Cell

777

of the current via The characteristics end at according to Eq. (20.31) the zero current switching property is lost when The characteristics also end at the maximum switching frequency limit given by Eq. (20.31). This expression can be simplified by use of Eq. (20.43) to express the limit in terms of as follows:

778

Soft Switching

The switch conversion ratio is thus l i m i ted to a value sl i ghtly less than 1. The averaged waveforms of converters conta i n i ng half-wave ZCS quas i -resonant switches can now be determined. The results of the analys i s of PWM converters operat ing in the cont i nuous conduction mode can be directly adapted to the related quasi-resonant converters s i mply by replacing the duty cycle w i th the sw i tch conversion ratio For the buck converter example the conversion ratio is

This result could also be derived by use of the pr i nc i ple of i nductor volt-second balance. The average voltage across the filter i nductor is Upon equat i ng th i s voltage to zero we obta i n Eq. (20.48). In the buck converter is equal to the load current wh i le is equal to the converter i nput voltage Hence the quant i ty is

Zero current sw i tch i ng occurs for

The output voltage can vary over the range

which nearly coincides with the PWM output voltage range A boost converter employ i ng a half-wave ZCS quas i -resonant sw i tch is i llustrated in Fig. 20.17. The conversion ratio of the boost converter is g i ven by

20.2

The Zero-Current Switching Quasi-Resonant Switch Cell

779

The half-wave switch conversion ratio is again given by Eqs. (20.44) to (20.46). For the boost converter the applied sw i tch voltage is equal to the output voltage V wh i le the appl ied sw i tch current is equal to the filter inductor current or Hence the quantity is

Also the i nput current

of the boost converter is related to the load current I according to

Equat i ons (20.52) to (20.54) in con j unct i on w i th Eqs. (20.44) to (20.46) describe the averaged waveforms of the half-wave quas i-resonant ZCS boost converter. 20.2.3 The Full-Wave ZCS Quasi-Resonant Switch Cell

The full-wave ZCS quasi-resonant switch cell is illustrated in Fig. 20.8(d). It differs from the half-wave cell in that elements and are connected in ant i parallel to form a current-b i d i rect i onal two-quadrant switch. Typical tank i nductor current and tank capacitor voltage waveforms are i llustrated in Fig. 20.18. These waveforms are s i m i lar to those of the half-wave case except that the switch i nterrupts the tank i nductor current at its second zero-crossing. Wh i le is negative diode conducts and trans i stor can be turned off at zero current . The analys i s is nearly the same as for the half-wave case w i th the exception of sub i nterval 2. The sub i nterval 2 angular length and final voltage can be shown to be

780

Soft Switching

In either case the sw i tch conversion rat i o

is g i ven by Eq. (20.42). For the full-wave sw i tch one obta i ns

where

is given by

In the full-wave case

is essent i ally i ndependent of

The worst-case dev i at i on of lies w i th i n 4% of un i ty for the sw i tch conversion ratio as

from 1 occurs as tends to 1 where tends to 0.96. So Hence for the full-wave case it is a good approx i mat i on to express

The full-wave quas i -resonant sw i tch therefore exh i b i ts voltage-source output characteristics controllable

20.3

Resonant Switch Topologies

781

by F. Equations describing the average waveforms of CCM PWM converters can be adapted to apply to full-wave ZCS quasi-resonant converters simply by replacing the duty cycle d with the normalized switching frequency F. The conversion ratios of full-wave quasi-resonant converters exhibit negligible dependence on the load current. The variation of the switch conversion ratio w i th F and is plotted in Fig. 20.19. For a typical voltage regulator application the range of switching frequency variations is much smaller in the fullwave mode than in the half-wave mode because does not depend on the load current. Variations in the load current do not induce the controller to s i gn i f i cantly change the sw i tch i ng frequency.

20.3

RESONANT SWITCH TOPOLOGIES

So far, we have considered the zero-current-switching quasi-resonant switch cell, illustrated in Fig. 20.20. The ideal SPST switch is realized using a voltage-bidirectional or current-bidirectional twoquadrant switch, to obtain half-wave or full-wave ZCS quasi-resonant switch networks, respectively. The resonant elements and can be moved to several different positions in the converter, without altering the basic switch properties. For example, Fig. 20.21 illustrates connection of the resonant tank capacitor between the cathode of diode and the converter output or i nput terminals. Although this may change the dc component of the tank capacitor voltage, the ac components of the tank capacitor voltage waveform are unchanged. Also, the terminal voltage waveform is unchanged. The voltages and v(t) contain negligible high-frequency ac components, and hence the converter i nput and output terminal potentials can be considered to be at high-frequency ac ground. A test to determine the topology of a resonant switch network is to replace all low-frequency filter inductors with open circuits, and to replace all dc sources and low-frequency filter capacitors with short circuits [13]. The elements of the resonant switch cell remain. In the case of the zero-currentswitching quasi-resonant sw i tch, the network of Fig. 20.22 is always obtained. It can be seen from Fig. 20.22 that diode switches on and off at the zero crossings of the tank capacitor voltage while the switch elements and switch at the zero crossings of the tank inductor current Zero voltage switching of diode is h i ghly advantageous, because it essentially eliminates the sw i tch i ng loss caused by the recovered charge and output capacitance of diode Zero current switching of and can be used to advantage when is realized by an SCR or IGBT. However, in high-frequency converters employing MOSFETs, zero current switching of and is generally a poor choice. S i gn i f i cant switching loss due to the output capacitances of and may be observed. In addition, in the full-wave case, the recovered charge of diode leads to significant ringing

782

Soft Switching

and sw i tch i ng loss at the end of subi nterval 2 [3]. The ZCS quasi-resonant switch exhibits increased conduct i on loss relative to an equ i valent PWM switch because the peak transistor current is increased. The peak trans i stor current is given by Eq. (20.17); since the peak current is In addition the full-wave ZCS sw i tch exh i b i ts poor efficiency at light load owing to the conduction loss caused by circulating tank currents. The half-wave ZCS switch exh i b i ts additional conduction loss due to the added forward voltage drop of diode The peak transistor voltage is wh i ch is i dent i cal to the PWM case.

20.3

Resonant Switch Topologies

783

20.3.1

The Zero-Voltage-Switching Quasi-Resonant Switch

The resonant sw i tch network i llustrated in Fig. 20.23 is the dual of the network of Fig. 20.22. This network is known as the zerovoltage-sw i tch i ng quasi-resonant switch [4]. Since the tank capacitor appears in parallel w i th the SPST switch the elements and used to realize the SPST switch turn on and off at zero voltage. The tank i nductor is effect i vely in series w i th diode and hence diode sw itches at zero current. Converters containing ZVS quasi-resonant switches can be realized in a number of ways. The only requ irement is that when the low-frequency filter inductors f i lter capacitors and sources are replaced by open- or short-circuits as described above then the h i gh-frequency sw i tch network of Fig. 20.23 should rema i n . For example a zero-voltage-switching quasi-resonant buck converter is i llustrated in Fig. 20.24(a). Typical tank capacitor voltage and tank i nductor current waveforms are given in Fig. 20.24(b). A current-bidirectional realization of the twoquadrant SPST sw i tch is shown; th i s causes the ZVS quasi-resonant switch to operate in the half-wave mode. Use of a voltage-b i d i rect i onal two-quadrant SPST sw i tch allows full-wave operation. By analys i s s i m i lar to that of Section 20.2 it can be shown that the sw i tch conversion ratio of the half-wave ZVS quasi-resonant switch is

The funct i on is again g i ven by Eq. (20.46) and the quant i ty full-wave ZVS quasi-resonant switch one obta i ns

is def i ned in Eq. (20.44). For the

where

is given by Eq. (20.58). The condition for zero voltage sw i tch i ng is

Thus the zero voltage sw i tch i ng property is lost at l i ght load. The peak transistor voltage is given by

This equation predicts that load current var i at i ons can lead to large voltage stress on transistor For example if it is desired to obtain zero voltage sw i tch i ng over a 5:1 range of load current variations then should vary between 1 and 5. According to Eq. (20.64) the peak transistor voltage then varies between two times and six times the applied voltage The max i mum transistor current is equal to the applied current Although the max i mum transistor current in the ZVS quasi-resonant switch is identical to that

784

Soft Switching

of the PWM switch the peak transistor block i ng voltage is substant i ally increased. This leads to increased conduction loss because transistor on-resistance increases rapidly with rated block i ng voltage. 20.3.2 The Zero-Voltage-Switching Multiresonant Switch

The resonant switch network of Fig. 20.25 contains tank capacitor in parallel w i th diode as in the ZCS switch network of Fig. 20.22. In addition it conta i ns tank capacitor in parallel w i th the SPST switch as in the ZVS switch network of Fig. 20.23. In consequence all semiconductor elements switch at zero voltage. This three-element resonant switch network is known as the zero-voltage-switching multiresonant switch (ZVS MRS). Since no semiconductor output capacitances or diode recovered charges lead to r i ng i ng or sw i tch i ng loss the ZVS MRS exh i b i ts very low sw i tch i ng loss. For the same reason generation of electromagnetic i nterference is reduced. A half-wave ZVS MRS realization of the buck converter is i llustrated in Fig. 20.26. In a typical design that must operate over a 5:1 load range and w i th the designer m i ght choose a max i mum F of 1.0 a max i mum J of 1.4 and where these quant i t i es are def i ned as follows:

20.3

Resonant Switch Topologies

785

As usual the conversion ratio is defined as The result i ng peak transistor voltage for th i s typical design is approx i mately 2.8 wh i le the peak transistor current is Hence conduct i on losses are h i gher than in an equ i valent PWM sw i tch . The range of sw i tch conversion ratios is a funct i on of the capacitor ratio in a good design values of rang i ng from nearly one to nearly zero can be obtained w i th a wide range of dc load currents and wh i le ma i nta i n i ng zero voltage sw i tch i ng . Analys i s and design charts for the ZVS MRS are given in [58]. Results for the typical choice are plotted in Fig. 20.27. These plots i llustrate how the switch conversion ratio varies as a funct i on of load current and sw i tch i ng frequency. Figure 20.27(a) also i llustrates the boundary of zeroto voltage sw i tch i ng : ZVS is lost for operation outside the dashed l i nes . Decreasing the ratio of reduces the area of the ZVS region. Other resonant converters in wh i ch all semiconductor devices operate w i th zero voltage switching are known . Examples i nclude some operating modes of the parallel and LCC resonant converters described in Chapter 19 as well as the classE converters described in [1012].

786

Soft Switching

20.3

Resonant Switch Topologies

787

20.3.3

Quasi-Square-Wave Resonant Switches

Another basic class of resonant switch networks is the quasi-square wave converters. Both zero-voltage sw itching and zero-current sw i tch i ng versions are known ; the resonant tank networks are i llustrated in Fig. 20.28. In the network of Fig. 20.28(a), all semiconductor devices are effect i vely in series w i th the tank inductor, and hence operate w i th zero-current sw i tch i ng . In the network of Fig. 20.28(b), all semiconductor devices are effectively in parallel w i th the tank capacitor, and hence operate w i th zero-voltage sw i tch i ng . Figure 20.29 illustrates implementation of a zero current sw i tch i ng quasi-square wave resonant sw i tch, in a buck converter w i th i nput filter. Elements and are large in value, and constitute a single-section LC i nput filter. Elements and form the series resonant tank; these elements are placed in series w i th i nput f i lter capacitor Since and are connected in series, they can be comb i ned i nto a s i ngle small-value capacitor. In th i s zero-current-switching converter, the peak transistor current is i dent i cal to the peak transistor current of an equ i valent PWM converter. However, the peak transistor block i ng voltage is increased. The ZCS QSW resonant switch exh i b i ts a sw i tch conversion rat i o that is restricted to the range Analys i s of this resonant switch is given in [1314]. A buck converter, conta i n i ng a zero-voltage-sw i tch i ng quasi-square wave (ZVS QSW) resonant sw i tch, is i llustrated in Fig. 20.30. Typical waveforms are given in Fig. 20.31. Since the tank inductor and the output filter inductor L are connected in parallel, these two elements can be combined into a single inductor hav i ng a small value nearly equal to Analyses of the ZVS QSW resonant switch are given in [14,15,18]. A related full-br i dge converter is described in [16]. The ZVS QSW resonant switch is notable because zero voltage sw i tch i ng is obtained in all semiconductor devices, yet the peak transistor voltage is i dent i cal to that of an equ i valent PWM sw i tch [13]. However, the peak trans i stor currents are increased. Characteristics of the zero-voltage-switching quasi-square wave resonant sw i tch are plotted in Fig. 20.32. The sw i tch conversion ratio is plotted as a funct i on of normal i zed sw i tch i ng fre-

788

Soft Switching

20.3

Resonant Switch Topologies

789

quency F and normalized output current J where these quantities are defined as follows:

In addition the zero-voltage-switching boundary is plotted. It can be seen that the requirement for zerovoltage switching limits the switch conversion ratio to the range In consequence the buck converter of Fig. 20.30 cannot produce output voltages less than without losing the ZVS property. A version which attains at the expense of increased transistor voltage stress is described in [17]. In addition the two-switch version of the ZVS-QSW switch can operate with ZVS for A useful var i ant of the converter of Fig. 20.30 involves replacement of the diode w i th a synchronous rectifier as illustrated in Fig. 20.33 [89]. The second transistor introduces an additional degree of freedom in control of the converter because this transistor can be allowed to conduct longer than the diode would otherwise conduct. This fact can be used to extend the region of zero-voltage switching to conversion ratios approaching zero and also to operate the converter w i th constant switching frequency. Typical tank element waveforms for the circuit of Fig. 20.33 are illustrated in Fig. 20.34. These waveforms resemble those of the single switch case Fig. 20.31 except that the tank current is negative while transistor conducts. The duty cycle D is defined w i th respect to the turn-off transitions

790

Soft Switching

of transistors and as i llustrated . Characteristics of the two-sw i tch QSW-ZVS sw i tch network are plotted in Fig. 20.35, for the case of constant sw i tch i ng frequency at F = 0.5. The boundary of zero-voltage sw i tch i ng is also i llustrated. Operation at a lower value of F causes the ZVS boundary to be extended to larger values of J, and to values of that more closely approach the extreme values and To the commutat i on i ntervals can be neglected, one would expect that the sw i tch conversion ratio is s i mply equal to the duty cycle D. It can be seen from Fig. 20.35 that th i s is indeed the case. The characteristics are approx i mately hor i zontal lines, nearly i ndependent of load current J. Zero-voltage sw i tch i ng quas i -square wave converters exh i b i t very low sw i tch i ng loss, because all semiconductor elements operate w i th zero-voltage sw i tch i ng . In the constant-frequency case conta i ni ng a synchronous rectifier, the converter behav i or is nearly the same as for the hard-switched PWM case, since The major d i sadvantage is the increased conduct i on loss, caused by the reversal of the i nductor current.

20.4

SOFT SWITCHING IN PWM CONVERTERS

The quas i -square wave approach of the prev i ous section is notable because it atta i ns zero-voltage sw i tching w i thout i ncreas i ng the peak voltage applied to the transistor. Several related soft-sw i tch i ng approaches have now become popular wh i ch also atta i n zero-voltage sw i tch i ng w i thout i ncreas i ng the transistor peak voltage stress. In th i s section popular zero-voltage sw i tch i ng versions of the full bridge forward and flyback converters as well as the voltage-source i nverter are br i efly discussed.

20.4

Soft Switching in PWM Converters

791

20.4.1

The Zero-Voltage Transition Full-Bridge Converter

It is possible to obta i n soft sw i tch i ng in other types of converters as well . An example is the zero-voltage trans i t i on (ZVT) converter based on the full-br i dge transformerisolated buck converter i llustrated in Fig. 20.36 [2528]. The transistor and diode output capacitances are represented in the figure by capacitances Commutat i ng i nductor i s placed i n series w i th the transformer ; the net i nductance i ncludes both transformer leakage i nductance and the i nductance of an add i t i onal discrete element. This inductor causes the full-bridge switch network to drive an effective inductive load and results in zerovoltage sw i tch i ng of the pr i mary-s i de semiconductor devices. Although the waveforms are not s i nuso i dal it can nonetheless be said that the sw i tch network output current lags the voltage because the zero crossings of occur after the ZVS switching transitions are completed. The output voltage is controlled v i a phase control. As i llustrated in Fig. 20.37 both halves of the bridge sw i tch network operate w i th a 50% duty cycle and the phase d i fference between the halfbridge switch networks is controlled. The idealized waveforms of Fig. 20.37 neglect the switching transitions and the sub i nterval numbers correspond to those of the more detailed Fig. 20.38. The phase sh i ft var i able lies in the range and assumes the role of the duty cycle d in th i s converter. The quantity is defined as

By volt-second balance on the secondary-side f i lter inductor the conversion rat i o

is expressed as

This expression neglects the lengths of the sw i tch i ng trans i t i ons . Although the c i rcu i t appears symmetr i cal the phase-sh i ft control scheme i ntroduces an asymmetry that causes the two half-bridge sw i tch networks to behave qu i te d i fferently dur i ng the sw i tch i ng trans i t i ons . Dur i ng sub i ntervals 4 and 10 energy is act i vely transm i tted from the source through the switches and transformer. These sub i ntervals are i n i t i ated by the sw i tch i ng of the half-br i dge network

792

Soft Switching

composed of the elements and called the passive-to-active (PA) transition [27]. Subintervals 4 and 10 are terminated by the switching of the half-bridge network comprised by the elements and called the active-to-passive (AP) transition. The turn-on and turn-off switching processes of this converter are similar to the zero-voltageswitching turn-off process described in the previous section. Detailed primary-side waveforms are illustrated in Fig. 20.38. During subinterval 0 and conduct. If the transformer magnetizing current is negligible then the commutating inductor current is given by where I is the load current. The passive-to-active transition is initiated when transistor is turned off. The negative then causes capacitors and to charge increasing During subinterval 1, and form a resonant network that rings with approximately sinusoidal waveforms. If sufficient energy was initially stored in then eventually reaches terminating subinterval 1. Diode then clamps to during subinterval 2. Transistor is turned on at zero voltage during subinterval 2; in practice this is implemented by insertion of a small delay between the switching transitions of transistors and If does not initially store sufficient energy to charge the total capacitance from to during subinterval 1 then will never reach Switching loss will then occur when transistor is turned on. This situation typically occurs at light load where I is small. Sometimes the design engineer may choose to simply accept this power loss; after all other losses such as conduction loss are small at light load. An alternative is to modify the circuit to increase the energy stored in at

20.4

Soft Switching in PWM Converters

793

under light load conditions. One way to accomplish th i s is to increase the transformer magnet i z i ng current to a significant level; at the beginning of subinterval 1 is then equal to w i th At l i ght load where I is small the magnetizing current ma i nta i ns the required level of During sub intervals 0 12 and 3 secondary-side diodes and both conduct; hence zero voltage appears across all transformer w i nd i ngs . In consequence voltage is applied to commutating inductor dur i ng sub i ntervals 2 and 3 causing to increase w i th slope Current reaches zero at the end of subinterval 2 and increases to the positive value + nI at the end of sub interval 3. The reversal of polarity of enables zero-voltage switching during the next switching transitions subinterval 5 and subintervals 79. At the end of sub i nterval 3 the current in diode has decreased to zero. then becomes reverse-biased with zero-current switching. At this instant diode must begin to block voltage

794

Soft Switching

The output capacitance of prevents the voltage from chang i ng i mmed i ately to instead the resonant circuit formed by and the output capacitance begins to r i ng in a manner s i m i lar to Fig. 4.54. Peak voltages are typ i cally observed that are considerably in excess of and it is usually necessary to add voltage-clamp snubbers that prevent the secondary-side diode voltages from exceeding a safe value. Several dissipative and non-dissipative approaches are discussed in [2628]. The active-to-passive sw i tch i ng transition occurs dur i ng sub i nterval 5. This sub i nterval is i n i t i ated when transistor is turned off. The positive current is equal to the reflected load current nI and charges capacitors and from t o Sub i nterval 5 ends when reaches Diode then becomes forward-biased. Transistor is then turned on dur i ng sub i nterval 6 w i th zerovoltage switching. This is typ i cally implemented by i nsert i on of a small delay between the sw i tch i ng of transistors and Because is constant and equal to nI dur i ng sub i nterval 5 the active-to-passive transition maintains zero-voltage sw i tch i ng at all load currents. Circuit behavior dur i ng the next half sw i tch i ng period compr i s i ng sub i ntervals 6 to 11 is symmetrical and therefore similar to the behavior observed dur i ng sub i ntervals 0 to 5. The sw i tch i ng trans i tions of transistors and are passive-to-active transitions and occur w i th zero-voltage sw i tch i ng provided that suff i c i ent energy is stored in as described above. The sw i tch i ng trans i t i ons of and are active-to-passive and occur w i th zero-voltage sw i tch i ng at all loads. The zero-voltage trans i t i on converter exh i b i ts low primary-side sw i tch i ng loss and generated EMI. Conduction loss is increased w i th respect to an ideal PWM full-br i dge topology because of the current that circulates through the primary-side sem i conductors dur i ng sub i ntervals 0 and 6. However this increase in conduction loss can be small if the range of i nput voltage var i at i ons is narrow. This softsw i tch i ng approach has now found commercial success. 20.4.2 The Auxiliary Switch Approach

A s i m i lar approach can be used in forward flyback and other transformer-isolated converters. As i llustrated in Fig. 20.39 an active-clamp snubber network cons i st i ng of a capacitor and aux i l i ary MOSFET is added that is effectively in parallel w i th the or i g i nal power trans i stor [29]. The MOSFET body diodes and output drain-to-source capacitances as well as the transformer leakage i nductance participate in the circuit operation. These elements lead to zero-voltage sw i tch i ng w i th waveforms s i m i lar to those of the ZVT full-br i dge converter of Section 20.4.1 or the two-trans i stor QSW-ZVS sw i tch of Section 20.3.3. The transistors are driven by complementary signals; for example after turn i ng off the controller waits for a short delay time and then turns on The active-clamp snubber can be viewed as a voltage-clamp snubber s i m i lar to the dissipative snubber illustrated in Fig. 20.6. However the snubber contains no resistor; instead MOSFET allows bidirectional power flow so that the energy stored in capacitor can flow back i nto the converter. The voltage can be found by volt-second inductance on the transformer magnet i z i ng i nductance. If the lengths of the commutation i ntervals are neglected and if the voltage ripple in can be neglected then one finds that

The voltage is effectively an unloaded output of the converter. With the two-quadrant sw i tch provided by this output operates in cont i nuous conduct i on mode w i th no load and hence the peak voltage of is clamped to the m i n i mum level necessary to balance the volt-seconds applied to the transformer magnetizing i nductance .

20.4

Soft Switching in PWM Converters

795

796

Soft Switching

Typical waveforms for a forward converter incorporating an act i ve-clamp snubber are i llustrated in Fig. 20.40. The current reverses direction wh i le conducts. When turns off capacitor begins to discharge. When reaches zero the body diode of becomes forward-biased. can then be turned on at zero voltage. An added benefit of the active clamp snubber when used in a forward converter is that it resets the transformer. Consequently the converter can operate at any duty cycle i nclud i ng duty cycles greater than 50%. When the converter must operate w i th a wide range of i nput voltages th i s can allow substantial improvements in transistor stresses and efficiency. The MOSFETs in Fig. 20.39 operate w i th zerovoltage switching wh i le the secondary-side diodes operate w i th zero-current sw i tch i ng . This approach is qu i te versatile and s i m i lar aux i l i ary circuits can be added to other converter circuits to obtain zero-voltage sw i tch i ng [3031]. 20.4.3 Auxiliary Resonant Commutated Pole

The aux i l i ary resonant commutated pole (ARCP) is a related c i rcu i t that uses an aux i l i ary four-quadrant sw i tch (or two equ i valent two-quadrant switches) to obta i n soft sw i tch i ng in the transistors of a bridge inverter c i rcu i t [3234]. This approach finds application in dcac inverter c i rcu i ts . Figure 20.41 i llustrates a half-br i dge circuit or one phase of a three-phase voltage-source inverter dr i v i ng an ac load. This circuit can lead to zero-voltage sw i tch i ng that mitigates the sw i tch i ng loss induced by the reverse recovery of diodes and Filter inductor is relat i vely large so that the output current is essent i ally constant dur i ng the resonant commutation i nterval . Capacitors are relat i vely small and model the output capacitances of the semiconductor devices. Inductor is also relatively small and elements and form a resonant circuit that r i ngs dur i ng part of the commutat i on process. Semiconductor switching devices and form an aux i l i ary four-quadrant switch that turns on to i n i t i ate the resonant commutation process. Typical commutation waveforms are i llustrated in Fig. 20.42(a) for the case in wh i ch the ac load current is positive. Diode is initially conducting the output current It is desired to turn off and turn on w i th zero-voltage sw i tch i ng . This is accomplished w i th the follow i ng sequence:
Interval 1. Interval 2. Interval 3. Turn on transistor Devices and conduct. When the current in reaches zero turns off . A resonant r i ng i ng interval occurs. When the voltage reaches diode begins to become forward-biased. Transistor is then i mmed i ately turned on at zero voltage.

20.5

Summary of Key Points

797

At the conclusion of interval 3 reaches zero and diode turns off. For negative current the process for commutation of diode is similar except that transistor and diode conduct the resonant current One issue related to the waveforms of Fig. 20.42(a) is that the c i rcu i t always operates at the boundary of zero-voltage sw i tch i ng . At the end of i nterval 2 diode is not actually forward-b i ased because its current never actually becomes pos itive. Instead transistor should be turned on at the beginning of i nterval 3. If transistor is gated on late then the cont i nued r i ng i ng w i ll cause voltage to decrease and zero-voltage sw i tch i ng w i ll be lost. To further assist in the zero-voltage sw i tch i ng commutat i on process trans i stor can be turned on wh i le conducts as i llustrated in Fig. 20.42(b). Transistor is used to lengthen the durat i on of i nterval 1: now when the current exceeds current by an amount then the controller turns off to end i nterval 1. This causes diode to become forward-biased dur i ng the beg i nn i ng of i nterval 3. Transistor is then turned on w i th zero-voltage sw i tch i ng wh i le is conduct i ng . Regardless of whether the c i rcu i t operates w i th the waveforms of Fig. 20.42(a) or (b) the ARCP approach el i m i nates the sw i tch i ng loss caused by the reverse recovery of diodes and Unl i ke the prev i ous c i rcu i ts of th i s chapter the ARCP has no c i rculat i ng currents that cause conduction loss because the tank inductor current is nonzero only in the v i c i n i ty of the commutat i on i nterval . The approach of Fig. 20.42(a) does not completely el i m i nate the loss caused by the device output capacitances. This loss is el i m i nated us i ng the current boost of Fig. 20.42(b) but add i t i onal conduction loss is incurred because of the increased peak The waveforms of Fig. 20.42(b) may in fact lead to reduced efficiency relative to Fig. 20.42(a)!

20.5
1.

SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS


In a resonant sw i tch converter the sw i tch network of a PWM converter is replaced by a sw i tch network conta i n i ng resonant elements. The result i ng hybr i d converter comb i nes the properties of the resonant switch network and the parent PWM converter. Analys i s of a resonant or soft-sw i tch i ng sw i tch cell i nvolves determ i nat i on of the sw i tch conversion rat i o The resonant sw i tch waveforms are determined and are then averaged. The sw i tch conversion rat i o is

2.

798

Soft Switching

a general i zat i on of the PWM CCM duty cycle d. The results of the averaged analys i s of PWM converters operat i ng in CCM can be d i rectly adapted to the related resonant sw i tch converter s i mply by replac i ng d w i th 3. In the zero-current-switching quasi-resonant switch diode operates with zero-voltage switching while trans i stor and diode operate w i th zero-current sw i tch i ng . In the zero-voltage-sw i tch i ng quasi-resonant switch the trans i stor and diode operate w i th zero-voltage sw i tch i ng wh i le d i ode operates w i th zero-current sw i tch i ng . In the zero-voltage-sw i tch i ng mult i resonant sw i tch all sem i conductor devices operate w i th zero-voltage sw i tch i ng . In consequence very low sw i tch i ng loss is observed. In the quas i -square-wave zero-voltage-sw i tch i ng resonant sw i tches all sem i conductor devices operate w i th zero-voltage sw i tch i ng and w i th peak voltages equal to those of the parent PWM converter . The switch conversion ratio is restricted to the range Versions containing synchronous rectifiers can operate w i th values of approach i ng zero. The zero-voltage trans i t i on approach as well as the act i ve-clamp snubber approach lead to zero-voltage sw i tch i ng of the transistors and zero-current sw i tch i ng of the diodes. These approaches have been successful i n substant i ally i mprov i ng the eff i c i enc i es of transformer- i solated converters. The aux i l i ary resonant commutated pole i nduces zero-voltage sw i tch i ng i n br i dge c i rcu i ts such as the voltage-source i nverter .

4.

5.

6.

REFERENCES
[1] [2]

P. VINCIARELLI Forward Converter Switching at Zero Current U.S. Patent 4415959 Nov. 1983. K. LIU R. ORUGANTI and F. C. LEE Resonant Switches: Topologies and Characteristics IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference 1985 Record pp. 106-116. M. F. SCHLECHT and L. F. CASEY Comparison of the Square-Wave and Quasi-Resonant Topologies IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conference 1987 Record pp. 124-134. K. LIU and F. C. LEE Zero Voltage Switching Technique in Dc-Dc Converters IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference 1986 Record pp. 58-70. W. A. TABISZ and F. C. LEE Zero-Voltage-Switching Multi-Resonant TechniqueA Novel Approach to Improve Performance of H i gh-Frequency Quas i -Resonant Converters IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference 1988 Record pp. 9-17. W. A. TABISZ M. M. JOVANOVIC and F. C. LEE High Frequency Multi-Resonant Converter Technology and Its Applications IEE International Conference on Power Electronics and Variable Speed Drives July 17-19 1990 p. 1-8. R. FARRINGTON M. JOVANOVIC and F. C. LEE Constant-Frequency Zero-Voltage-Switched Multi-Resonant Converters: Analys i s Design and Exper i mental Results IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference 1990 Record pp. 197-205. D. Synthes i s of PWM and Quas i -Resonant Dc-to-Dc Power Converters Ph . D . thes i s California Institute of Technology January 1989. X. ZHOU X. ZHANG J. LIU P. WONG J. CHEN H. WU L. AMOROSO F. LEE and D. CHEN Investigat i on of Cand i date VRM Topologies for Future Microprocessors IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conference 1998 Record pp. 145150.

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R. REDL B. MOLNAR and N. SOKAL Class E Resonant Regulated DcDc Power Converters: Analysis of Operation and Exper i mental Results at 1.5 MHz IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics 1986 Vol. 1 No. 2 pp. 111-120. N. SOKAL and A. SOKAL ClassE A New Class of High Efficiency Tuned Single-Ended Switching Power Amplifiers IEEE Journal of Solid State Circuits Vol. SC-10 June 1975 pp. 168-176. F. H. RAAB Idealized Operation of Class-E Tuned Power Amplifier IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems Vol. 24 No. 12 December 1977 pp. 725-735. K. D. T. NGO Generalization of Resonant Switches and Quasi-Resonant DcDc Converters IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference 1987 Record pp. 395-403. V. V ORPERIAN Quasi-Square Wave Converters: Topologies and Analysis IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics Vol. 3 No. 2 April 1988 pp. 183-191. Design of the Zero-Voltage-Switching Quasi-Square-Wave Resonant Switch IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference 1993 Record pp . 323-329. O. D. PATTERSON and D. M. DIVAN Pseudo-Resonant Full-Bridge DcDc Converter IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference 1987 Record pp . 424-430. Y. JANG and R. ERICKSON New Quasi-Square Wave and Multi-Resonant Integrated Magnetic Zero Voltage Sw i tch i ng Converters IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference 1993 Record pp. 721-727. V. VORPERIAN R. TYMERSKI and F. C. LEE Equivalent Circuit Models for Resonant and PWM Switches IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics Vol. 4 No. 2 Apr i l 1989 pp. 205-214. S. FREELAND and R. D. MIDDLEBROOK A Unified Analysis of Converters with Resonant Switches IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference 1987 Record pp . 20-30. A. WITULSKI and R. ERICKSON Extension of State-Space Averaging to Resonant Switchesand Beyond IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics Vol. 5 No. 1 pp. 98-109 January 1990. and A General Approach to Synthes i s and Analys i s of Quas i -Resonant Converters IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics Vol. 6 No. 1 January 1991 pp. 127-140. R. ERICKSON A. HERNANDEZ A. WITULSKI and R. XU A Nonlinear Resonant Switch IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics Vol. 4 No. 2 Apr i l 1989 pp. 242-252. I. BARBI D. MARTINS and R. DO PRADO Effects of Nonlinear Resonant Inductor on the Behavior of Zero-Voltage Sw i tch i ng Quas i -Resonant Converters IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference 1990 Record pp. 522-527. S. FREELAND I. A Unified Analysis of Converters with Resonant Switches II. Input-Current Shaping for Single-Phase AcDc Power Converters Ph.D. Thesis Cal i forn i a Inst i tute of Technology 1988. R. FISHER K. NGO and M. KUO A 500 kHz 250 W Dcdc Converter with Multiple Outputs Controlled by Phase-Sh i fted PWM and Magnet i c Ampl i f i ers Proceedings of High Frequency Power Conversion Conference pp. 100110 May 1988. L. MWEENE C. WRIGHT and M. SCHLECHT A 1 kW 500 kHz Front-End Converter for a Distributed

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800

Soft Switching

Power Supply System IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conference 1989 Record pp. 423432.

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R. REDL L. BELOGH and D. EDWARDS Optimum ZVS Full-Bridge DC/DC Converter with PWM Phase-Shift Control: Analysis Design Considerations and Experimental Results IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conference 1994 Record pp. 159165. J. G. CHO J. A. SABATE and F. C. LEE Novel Full Bridge Zero-Voltage-Transition PWM DC/DC Converter for High Power Applications IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conference 1994 Record pp. 143149. P. VINCIARELLI Optimal Resetting of the Transformers Core in Single-Ended Forward Converters Reissued U.S. Patent No. Re. 36098 Feb. 16 1999. C. DUARTE and I. BARBI A Family of ZVS-PWM Active-Clamping Dc-to-Dc Converters: Synthesis Analysis Design and Experimentation IEEE Transactions on Circuits and SystemsI: Fundamental Theory and Applications Vol. 44 No. 8 pp. 698704 Aug. 1997. P. HENG and R. ORUGANTI Family of Two-Switch Soft-Switched Asymmetrical PWM Dc/Dc Converters IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference 1994 Record pp. 8594. R. DEDONCKER and J. LYONS The Auxiliary Resonant Commutated Pole Converter IEEE Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting 1990 Record pp. 12281235. R. TEICHMANN and S. BERNET Investigation and Comparison of Auxiliary Resonant Commutated Pole Converter Topologies IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference 1998 Record pp. 15-23 May 1998. W. MCMURRAY Resonant Snubbers with Auxiliary Devices IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications Vol. 29 No. 2 pp. 355361 1993.

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PROBLEMS 20.1 In the forward converter of Fig. 20.43 L and C are large filter elements wh i le and have relat i vely small values. The transformer reset mechanism is not shown; for this problem you may assume that the transformer is ideal.

(a)

Classify the resonant switch.

Problems

801

(b) (c)

Which semiconductor devices operate w i th zero-voltage switching? With zero-current switching? What is the resonant frequency ?

20.2

In the high-voltage converter of Fig. 20.44 capacitor C is relatively large in value. The transformer model includes an ideal 1:n transformer in con j unct i on w i th magnetizing inductance (referred to the primary side) and winding capacitance (referred to the secondary side). Transistor and diode exhibit total output capacitance wh i le the output capacitance of diode is Other nonidealities such as transformer leakage inductance can be ignored. The resonant switch is well-designed such that all elements listed above contribute to ideal operation of the converter and resonant sw i tch .

(a)

What type of resonant switch is employed? What is the parent PWM converter? Wh i ch semiconductor devices operate w i th zero-voltage sw i tch i ng ? W i th zero-current switchi ng ? What is the tank resonant frequency ? Sketch the waveforms of the transistor drain-to-source voltage and transformer magnet i z i ng current.

(b) (c)
(d)

20.3

In the transformer-isolated dcdc converter of Fig. 20.45 capacitors and and i nductors and are relatively large in value so that they have small switching ripples. The transformer model includes an ideal 1:n transformer in con j unct i on w i th magnetizing i nductance (referred to the pr i mary side) and leakage inductances and as shown. Transistor exh ibits output capacitances wh i le the output capacitance of diode is MOSFET contains a body diode (not explicitly shown). Other nonidealities can be ignored. The resonant switch is well-designed such that all elements listed above contribute to ideal operation of the converter and resonant sw i tch . (a) What type of resonant switch is employed? What is the parent PWM converter? (b) Wh i ch semiconductor devices operate w i th zero-voltage sw i tch i ng ? W i th zero-current switching? and the converter sw i tch i ng frequency is

20.4

A buck-boost converter is realized using a half-wave ZCS quasi-resonant sw i tch . The load resistance has
value R the i nput voltage has value
(a) (b)

Sketch the c i rcu i t schematic. Write the complete system of equations that can be solved to determine the output voltage V in terms of the quant i t i es listed above and the component values. It is not necessary to actually solve your equations. You may also quote results listed in th i s textbook.

802

Soft Switching

20.5

It is desired to design a half-wave zero-current-sw i tch i ng quas i -resonant forward converter to operate w i th the follow i ng spec i f i cat i ons : = 320 V, V= 42 V, Design the converter to operate w i th a max i mum sw i tch i ng frequency of 1 MHz and a sw i tch convers i on rati o of = 0.45. Attempt to m i n i m i ze the peak trans i stor current, wh i le ma i nta i n i ng zero current sw i tch i ng at all operati ng po i nts . You may neglect the transformer magnet i z i ng current, and i gnore the transformer reset scheme.
(a) (b) (c)

Spec i fy your choices for the turns rat i o n and the tank elements former secondary side. What is the worst-case peak trans i stor current ?

and

referred to the trans-

For your design of part (a) what i s the m i n i mum sw i tch i ng frequency ?

20.6

Analys i s of the ZVS quas i -resonant switch of Fig. 20.24. (a) (b) For each sub i nterval sketch the resonant sw i tch cell c i rcu i t and der i ve expressions for the tank i nductor current and capac i tor voltage waveforms . For sub i nterval 2 in wh i ch are off and conducts wr i te the loop equat i on wh i ch relates the tank capacitor voltage tank i nductor voltage and any other network voltages as appropriate. Hence for sub i nterval 2 relate the i ntegral of the tank capacitor voltage to the change in tank i nductor current. Determine the sw i tch-network term i nal-waveform average values and hence derive an expression for the sw i tch conversion rat i o Ver i fy that your result co i nc i des w i th Eq. (20.61).

(c)

20.7

Analys i s of the full-br i dge zero-voltage trans i t i on converter of Section 20.4.1. The converter of Fig. 20.36 operates w i th the waveforms i llustrated in Fig. 20.38. Accord i ng to Eq. (20.68) the conversion ratio of th i s converter is g i ven approx i mately by Derive an exact expression for M based on the waveforms given in Fig. 20.38. Your result should be a funct i on of the length of sub i nterval 4 the load current the sw i tch i ng frequency and the values of the i nductance and capac i tances . Note: there is a reasonably s i mple answer to th i s quest i on .

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