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File>DownloadAs...NoneedtohighlightORFile>Print ConceptualLearningObjectivesforHumanBodySystemsUnit1 Skeletal,Muscle,Integumentary,&NervousSystems

Themesofunit: Recognizethatthebodyssystemsinteracttomaintainhomeostasis.Beableto distinguishdifferentformsofhomeostaticimbalanceandhowdisruptionof specificanatomicalstructureleadstothelossofspecificphysiologicalfunctions. Homeostasisisthenormalfunctioningofthehumanbody,orofanyofitssystemsororgans. Homeostaticimbalancecanoccurduetoillness,orduetophysicalailmentssuchasabroken boneoracutorbruise.Anatomyisthestructureofanorganismanditsparts,physiologyisthe studyofwhatthepartsdo,andhowtheydoit.Thisiswhydisruptionofanatomicalstructurecan leadtodisruptionofphysiologicalfunctions. Explainhowthemuscular/skeletalsystem(skeletal,smoothandcardiacmuscles, bones,cartilage,ligaments,tendons)workswithothersystemstosupportthe bodyandallowformovement.Recognizethatbonesproducebloodcells. Theskeletonisthesturdyframeofthebody,andmusclesaretheorganswhichmovethe skeletonthroughjoints,tendons,andligaments.Jointsconnectdifferentbonesandallow movementwiththehelpofmuscles(pivot,ballandsocket,gliding,hingejoints).Ligamentsarea connectivetissuethatholdbonesintothemovablejoints.Tendonsareanothertypeof connectivetissuethatconnectmusclestobones.Anexceptionistheeyeligament. Nameanddescribethe6mainfunctionsoftheskeletalsystem. Theskeletonprovidesastrongframeforthebody.Ithousesandprotectsthesoftorgansofthe body,suchastheheart,lungs,andbrain.Theskeletonalsoaidsinmovement,givingmusclesa placetoattachto.Theskeletonhelpsmaintainmineralhomeostasis,releasingcalciumand phosphorusintothebloodwhenneeded.Theskeletonproducesnewredbloodcellsthroughred bonemarrow.Yellowbonemarrowservesasstorageforfatsandlipids.So,thesixmain functionsaresupport,protection,movement,mineralhomeostasis,bloodcellproduction,and storage.Babiesaremostlymadeofcartilagethough.

Describetheanatomyofatypicallongbone(suchasafemur). Boneisasolidnetworkoflivingcellsandfibersthataresupportedbybonematrix.Bonematrix ismadeofthehardmineralmadeofcalciumphosphateandflexiblefibersoftheprotein collagen.Asheetoffibrousconnectivetissuesurroundstheboneandhelpsithealfroma fracture.Cartilagecushionsthejoints.Theshaftofthebonehasacentralcavityfilledwithyellow bonemarrow.Yellowbonemarrowstoresfat.Spongyboneislocatedattheendsofthebone andcontainsredbonemarrow,whichproducesnewbloodcells. Distinguishthedifferenttypesofbonecellsandtheirspecificfunctions. Therearefourtypesofbonecells.First,Osteocytes.Thesecellsmaintainthemineraland proteincontentoftheboneisintheinsideandcompactboneontheoutside.Thelongerpartis thePeriosteumandbonemarrowliesontheinsidesurroundingbone,theycannotdivide,and participateintherepairofdamagedbone.OsteoblastsproducemoreOsteocytesinaprocess calledOsteogenesis.OsteoprogenitorcellsarestemcellsthatdivideintoOsteoblasts.They maintainthenumberofOsteoblastsandaidintherepairofdamagedbone.Osteoclastsremove andrecyclebonematter.theydothisbysecretingacidsandenzymestodissolvethebonein orderfornewbonemattertobeproduced.ThisProcessiscalledOsteolysis.Sotorecap,the fourcellsareOsteocytes,Osteoblasts,Osteoprogenitors,andOsteoclasts. Explainhowskeletonsareheldtogetherandhowbonesconnecttomuscles. Bonesareheldtogetherwithjoints.somejointsallowfornomovementsuchasthejointsofthe ribsandspine,orthebonesintheskull.otherjointsallowforsomerangeofmotion,suchasthe jointintheknee,orthejointintheshoulderorpelvis.Inthesejointsthebonesareheldtogether byafibrousconnectivetissuecalledaligament.Boneshavebumpsonthem,whereadifferent connectivetissuecalledatendonattachesthebonetothemuscle. Distinguishbetweenthethreetypesofmuscle.

Thethreetypesofmuscleareskeletal,smooth,andcardiac.Skeletalmusclesare attachedtotheskeleton,andforthemost part,areunderconsciouscontrol(voluntarymuscles).Smoothmusclesurroundssoftorgans suchasthestomach,andtheintestines.Cardiacmuscleisthemusclethatpumpstheheart. Smoothandcardiacmusclesdonotrequireconsciouscontroltofunction(involuntarymuscles). Skeletalmusclecellsarelongandcylindershaped,withstriationsduetothesarcomeres. Smoothmuscleshavespindleshapedcells,beingtaperedattheend.Cardiacmusclecells

3 makebranchingconnectionswitheachother. Explainwhathappenswhenamusclecontracts.

Inamuscle,thefunctionalunitisthesarcomere.Thesarcomereiscomposedoftwotypesof filaments,thinandthick.thethinfilamentiscomposedoftheproteinactin,whilethethick filamentsarecomposedoftheproteinmyosin.Firstthemyosinheadsbindtothethinfilaments, thenthemyosinheadsbend,pullingthethinfilamentstowardsthecenterofthesarcomere.ATP thenbindstoeachmyosinhead,releasingitfromthethinfilament.themyosinheadcannow attachtoanewspotfurtherdownthethinfilamentandpullitfartheralong.creatingacontraction. Distinguishbetweenabductionandadduction. Abductionismusclemovementawayfromthebodyandadductionismovementtowardsthe body.Forexample,liftingyourarmisadduction,andputtingitdownisabduction. Explainhowtheskinisconstructedofmultiplelayersoftissueandfunctionsasa barrierbetweenthebodysinternalandexternalenvironment. Skinisconstructedinthreelayers.Fromoutsidetoinside:theepidermis,thedermis,andthe hypodermis.Itfunctionsasabarrierbetweentheinternalandexternalenvironmentbyactingas abarriertoinfections,aregulatorofbodytemperature,aremoverofwasteproducts(sweat), andaprotectoragainstUVradiation. describethe4majorfunctionsoftheIntegumentarysystem. Theintegumentarysystemisyourbodysoutercoveringthatphysicallyseparatesthebodyfrom theexternalenvironment.Ithelpsregulatebodytemperaturethroughsweatingandinsulating,it protectsfromUVradiation(hair),italsoactsasabarriertoinfection(physicalbarrierofskin), anditisaremoverofwasteproduct. Distinguishbetweenthe3differentlayersofskin.

EpidermisOutermostlayer,mostlydeadcellsthatflakeoffasnewcellsreplacethem DermisMiddlelayer,containshairfollicles,oilandsweatglands,muscles,nerves,andblood vessels. Hypodermisinnermostlayer,fatstoringcellsandbloodvessels. Explainhowthebodyregulatestemperature. Inordertoregulatetemperaturethebody,whenhot,thebodydilatesthebloodvesselsandthe bloodtemperaturedecreases,thebloodsignalsthebrain,whichsignalstheskinvianervesto

4 openupporesinordertoreleasesweat.Whenairblowsoverthesweat,itleavesacooling sensation.Whencold,bloodtemperatureincreases,bloodvesselsconstrictandthissignalsthe skintoclosetheporeswhicharelettingoutsweat.Alsothemusclesstartcontractingrapidly (shivering)inordertogenerateheat. Explainhowthenervoussystem(brain,spinalcord,sensoryneurons,motor neurons)mediatescommunicationamongdifferentpartsofthebodyand mediatesthebodysinteractionswiththeenvironment.Identifythebasicunitof thenervoussystem,theneuron,andexplaingenerallyhowitworks. ThisanswermayormaynotbecompleteBS...wellthatdoesntmakemeconfident...Nerve cellsarelocatedinthedermisoftheskin,aswellasinvariousothertissuetypes.Receptors sensingheat(thermoreceptors),chemicals(chemoreceptors),touch(mechanoreceptors),light (photoreceptors),pain(painreceptors)receiveenvironmentalsignals,andtransmitthese signalstothebrainthroughaseriesofactionpotentials.Thebrain,inturn,willsendsignalsto themotordivisionofthebodypartthatsentthesignaltoperformsomeactiontorespondtothe stimulus.Thebrainsresponsetothisstimulusdependsonthefrequencyofthestimulus(higher frequency=morepowerfulstimulus).Inthisway,thenervoussystemisabletocommunicate signalsthroughoutthebody. Theneuronsbasicpartsarethecellbody(withanucleus),dendrites,andanaxon.Dendrites receiveimpulsesfromotherneuronsandcarrythemtothecellbody.Axonscarryimpulsesfrom thecellbodytootherneurons.Axonsaresurroundedbymanymyelinsheathswithspacesin betweencallednodes.Actionpotentialscannottravelacrossmyelinsheaths,sotheyjump betweennodes.Thisspeedsthetransmissionofsignalsbecausetheactionpotentialdoesnt havetomoveacrossagreatdealmoreaxontogetwhereitneedstogo. Explain,ingeneralterms,thefunctionsofthemajorpartsofthebrain. Cerebrumisthemostcomplexitregulatesmemory,andlongtermstorageofinformationitis alsothebrainsmainprocessor.Itisdividedintotwohemispheres:theleftcontrolstherightside ofthebody,andviceversa.Leftsidecontrolslogicalthinking,rightsidecontrolscreative thinking. Hypothalamuscontrolsbodytemperature,thirst,hunger,waterbalance,andemotions. BrainStem(pons/medullaoblongata)thispartregulatesbodyprocessesthatareinvoluntary andarenotconsciouslycontrolled,liketheheartbeating.(smoothandcardiacmuscle) Cerebellumcontrolsallvoluntarybodymovement(skeletalmuscle)

5 Thalamussortsallinformationcomingintothebrain Diagramthemainsensoryandmotorpathwaysinvolvedinareflexarc.

Identifythepartsofaneuronandshowthedirectioninwhichanerve impulsepasses.

Thefirstpartofaneuronisthecellbodyandthenucleus.Branchingfromthecellbodyarethe dendriteswhichcarrysignalstowardthecellbody.Axonsthencarrythesesignals(action potentials)awayfromthecellbody.Theaxonsareinsulatedbymyelinsheaths,whichallowsthe signaltohopfromnodetonodespeedingthetransmissionprocessandcarryingthesignalto thenextneuronfaster(wedidntlearnthis,butthemyelinsheathscoverthingscalledSchwann cells,orneurolemmocytes).Thecellbodyisnucleated. Explainthetransmissionofnerveimpulsesalonganeuron. Therearemorepositiveionsoutsidethecellthaninside,creatingpotentialenergy.Whenthecell ishitbyastimulus,themembraneofthecellbecomesmorepermeableandmoreNA+ions diffuseintothecell,causingdepolarizationandthenmoreNA+ionsareletintothecellby channelgates,whichcausesactionpotential.Thisisabigchainreactionwhichmovesacross theaxontowardsothercells.K+arepotassiumionswhileNA+aresodiumions. Describehownerveimpulsescrossasynapse. 1.actionpotentialcausesvesiclestoreleasechemicalsignalscalledneurotransmitters. 2.neurotransmitterscrossthroughthetinyspacecalledthesynapticcleft 3.receptormoleculesonthereceivingneuronaccepttheneurotransmitterandmaycreatea newactionpotential,butthesynapsehasbeencrossed. Explainhowthehumaneyeworks. Lightenterstheeyethroughthecornea,nextthroughtheaqueoushumor,thenthroughthepupil

6 whichisahole.Thepupilgetslargerandsmallerbasedontheavailabilityoflight.Itis surroundedbytheIriswhichisthecoloredpartofaneye.Thelightnexthitsyourlens,which directsandbendsthelighttoyourretinawhichreceivesthesignalanddeliversittotheoptic nerve.Theopticnervethensendsittothebrain.Whenlightiscloserthelensismorebentand whenitsfartherawaythelensflattensout.Conesintheeyerespondtoblue,redandgreen. Rodsaremoresensitiveandhelpyouseeinthedark,howevercannotdistinguishbetween colors. Explainhowthehumanearworks. Sound,whichconsistsofsoundwaves,makesitswaytotheear,thesoundcomesinthrough theearcanaltravelsdowntotheeardrum,whichmakestheeardrumvibrate.Thisvibration passesthroughtheossicles(earbones)andintothecochlea.Inthecochlea,thevibrationspass throughthefluidandthatmakesthehaircellsmove.Thehairmovementinthecochleamakes anelectricsignalpassthroughtheauditorynerveandtothebrain.Thesemicircularcanalsaidin balancebecausethearelocatedintheX,YandZplanes,sowhentheheadtiltsacertainway, thehaircellsdetectthemovement. Integumentarysystem:coversthebodyandprotectsitfrominjury,infection,excessiveheator cold,anddryingout. Skeletalsystem:providesbodysupport,protectscertainorganssuchasthebrainandlungs, andworksw/themuscularsysteminbodymovements. Muscularsystem:enablesbodymovementandfacialexpressionsessentialtohuman communication. Nervoussystem:coordinatesbodysactivitiesbydetectingstimulianddirectingthebodys responses. Anatomy:studyofanorganism'sstructure. Physiology:studyoffunctionsorprocessesinanorganism. Tissue:cooperatingunitofmanysimilarcellsthatperformaspecificfunction.

7 Organ:unitconsistingofseveraltissuesthattogetherperformaspecifictask. Organsystem:unitofmultipleorgansthattogetherperformavitalbodyfunction. Epithelialtissue:sheetsofcloselypackedcellsthatcoverthesurfaceofthebodyandlinethe internalorgans. Connectivetissue:groupsofcellsthatholdtogetherandsupportothertissuesandcushion, insulate,andconnectorgans. Nervoustissue:tissuethattransmitssignalsinthebodyinresponsetochangesinthe environment. Neuron:nervecellbasicunitofnervoustissue. Skeletalmuscle:voluntarymuscleattachedtotheskeletonthatallowsmovementofthebody. Theyarecomposedofskeletalmuscletissue. Cardiacmuscle:involuntarymusclethatcausesthehearttopumpblood. Smoothmuscle:involuntarymusclefoundinmostorgansofthebody. Homeostasis:internalstabilityor"steadystate"maintainedbythebody. Hormone:signalmoleculereleasedintothebloodstreamthattriggersparticularresponses. Interstitialfluid:aqueoussolutionthatfillsthegapsbetweencellsinatissue. Integumentarysystem:outercoveringthatphysicallyseparatesthebodyfromtheexternal environment. Epidermis:outermostlayerofskin. Melanin:pigmentedproteinthatgivesskinitscolor. Dermis:layerofskinbeneathandsupportingtheepidermis,madeupmostlyoffibrous connectivetissuethatgivestheskinitsstrengthandelasticity. Hypodermis:tissuelayerbeneaththedermiscontainsadiposetissue,aconnectivetissuethat includesfatstoringcellsandbloodvessels. Vertebra:segmentofthebackboneenclosesandprotectsthenervecord. Cartilage:typeofconnectivetissuesofterthanbone. Marrow:specializedtissuefoundinboneyellowbonemarrowconsistsofstoredfatthatserves asanenergyreserveredbonemarrowmakescellsthatdevelopintobloodcells. Joint:areawhereonebonemeetsanother. Ligament:strongfibrousconnectivetissuethatholdstogetherthebonesinmovablejoints. Arthritis:groupofskeletaldisorderscharacterizedbyinflamedjoints. Osteoporosis:disorderinwhichbonesbecomethinner,moreporous,andmoreeasilybroken.

8 Tendon:denseconnectivetissuethatattachesamuscletoabone. Musclefiber:single,longcylindricalmusclecellcontainingmanynuclei. Myofibril:unitofmusclefibermadeupofsmallerunitsthatcontract(sarcomeres). Sarcomere:unitofcontractioninamusclefiber. Actin:twisted,thinfilamentinamusclefiber. Myosin:thickfilamentinamusclefiberhasbumplikeprojections. Centralnervoussystem(CNS):thebody'sprimaryinformationprocessingsystemincludes thebrainandspinalcord. Peripheralnervoussystem(PNS):networkofnervescarryingsignalsintoandoutofthe centralnervoussystem(nervetissueoutsidetheCNS). Nerve:bundleorbundlesofneuronfiberssurroundedbyconnectivetissue. Stimulus:environmentalchangethattriggersaresponse. Sensoryneuron:nervecellthatcarriesinformationfromtheenvironmenttothecentralnervous system. Sensoryreceptor:specializedcellthattransmitssignalstosensoryneurons. Interneuron:nervecelllocatedentirelyinthecentralnervoussystemthatintegratessensory informationandsendsmotorcommands. Motorneuron:nervecellthatcarriessignalsfromthecentralnervoussystemtomuscleor glandcells. Reflex:rapid,automaticresponsetoastimulus. Dendrite:neuronfiberthatreceivessignalsandcarriesthemtowardthecellbody. Axon:neuronfiberthatcarrieselectricimpulsesawayfromthecellbodyandtowardothercells. Myelinsheath:thickcoatofmaterialthatsurroundsandinsulatestheaxonofsomeneurons. Node:uninsulatedspacesbetweenthe"beads"ofamyelinsheathwhereanactionpotentialcan betransmitted. Restingpotential:voltageacrosstheplasmamembraneofarestingneuron. Depolarization:voltagechangethatoccurswhenthedifferenceinchargeacrossamembrane decreases. Threshold:minimumchangeinamembrane'svoltagethatmustoccurtogenerateanaction potential. Actionpotential:changeinvoltageacrosstheplasmamembraneofaneuronresultingina nervesignal.

9 Synapse:junctionbetweentwoneuronsoraneuronandanothercellwhereelectricalor chemicalsignalsarerelayed. Synapticcleft:tinyspaceseparatingaknobofatransmittingneuronfromareceivingneuronor othercell. Neurotransmitter:chemicalmessengerthatcarriesinformationfromoneneurontoanotheror toanothercell(small,nitrogencontainingorganiccompound). Somaticnervoussystem:subdivisionofthemotordivisionoftheperipheralnervoussystem thatcontrolsthevoluntarymovementofskeletalmuscles. Autonomicnervoussystem:subdivisionofthemotordivisionoftheperipheralnervoussystem thatregulatestheinternalenvironment. Sympatheticdivision:divisionoftheautonomicnervoussystemthatgenerallypreparesthe bodyforenergyconsumingactivities.Basically,ifyoufindyourselfinasituationwhichrequires quickresponsesandreactions,thesympatheticnervoussystemlowersdigestivefunctions,etc. andtheliverconvertsglycogenintoglucoseforusebythebody.Thebodyalsobeginsto producemoreadrenalinetoheightenawarenessofthesurroundings.FightorFlight Parasympatheticdivision:divisionoftheautonomicnervoussystemthatconservesenergy. ThisisasopposedtothesympatheticNS.TheparasympatheticNScalmsthebodydown, restartsbodymaintenancefunctions,andreducesadrenalinelevelsinthebloodstream. Cerebrum:largestandmostcomplexpartofthebrain,madeupoftheleftandright hemispheres. Corpuscallosum:bandofnervefibersthatsupportcommunicationbetweenthetwocerebral hemispheres. Cerebralcortex:outerregionofcerebrumcontainingintegrationcentersforhigherbrain functions. Cerebellum:partofthebrainlocatedbelowthecerebrumandabovethespinalcordplanning centerthatcoordinatesbodymovement. Brainstem:lowersectionofthebrainincludingthemedullaoblongata,pons,andmidbrainthat filtersinformationgoingtoandfromthebrain. Thalamus:brainregionthatsortsandexertssomecontroloverinformationgoingtoandfrom thecerebralcortex. Hypothalamus:regionofthebrainthatisthe"mastercontrolcenter"oftheendocrinesystem functionsinmaintaininghomeostasisbyregulatingtemperature,bloodpressure,andother

10 conditions. Limbicsystem:systemofregionsofthebrainthatinteractwiththecerebralcortexinemotion andmemory.Involvesseveraldifferentareasthatintegrateandrelayinfo,includingthe amygdala,hippocampus,andpartsofthecerebralcortex,hypothalamus,andthalamus. Sensation:awarenessofsensorystimuli. Perception:meaningfulinterpretationofsensorydatabythecentralnervoussystem. Cornea:transparentareaatthefrontoftheeyethroughwhichlightenters. Iris:coloredpartoftheeyecontrolstheamountoflightthatenterstheeyebyregulatingthesize ofthepupil. Pupil:openingintheiristhatadmitslightintotheeye. Retina:innersurfaceoftheeyethatislinedwithmillionsofphotoreceptorcells. Cone:photoreceptorcellintheretinathatisstimulatedinbrightlight,enablingcolorvision. Rod:photoreceptorintheretinathatenablesvisionindimlight. Auditorycanal:partoftheouterearthatchannelssoundsfromtheoutsidetotheeardrum. Eardrum:sheetoftissueseparatingtheouterearfromthemiddleearthatvibrateswhen stimulatedbysoundwaves. Auditorytube:airpassagebetweenthemiddleearandthroatthatequalizesairpressureon eithersideoftheeardrumalsocalledtheEustachiantube. Cochlea:coiledtubeintheinnerearcontaininghairlikeprojectionsthatfunctioninhearing. Tolerance:resistancetoadrug'seffectssuchthatmoreofthedrugisneededtoproducethe sameeffect. Addiction:uncontrollabledependenceonadrug. Withdrawal:psychologicaland/orphysicalsymptomsexperiencedwhenapersonstopstaking adrugtowhichheorsheisaddicted. Stimulant:drug,suchascaffeine,nicotine,andcocaine,whichgenerallyincreasesactivityin thecentralnervoussystem. Depressant:drugsuchasalcoholortranquilizersthat,ingeneral,slowscentralnervous systemactivity. Marijuana:drugmadefromdriedpiecesofthehempplant. Opiate:narcotic,suchasmorphineorheroin,whichisderivedfromopiumpoppies. Hallucinogen:drugthatcausesapersontosee,hear,andperceivethingsthatdonotexist. Ecstasy:syntheticdrugthatcausesstimulantlikeandhallucinogeniclikeeffectsintheuser.

11 Inhalant:substance,suchascertainaerosols,whosevaporsproducemindalteringeffects. SourcesofHomeostaticImbalance TraumaAcuteinjuries,suchasacarcrash,orrepetitiveinjuries,such astendonitis,leadtodamagedtissue. EnvironmentalInfluencesSolarRadiationorahighsugardietcan damagetissuesorstressbodysystems GeneticVariationSomegenes,suchassicklecelltrait,alteroxygen capacity,butprovideformalariaresistance.Others,likeCysticFibrosis, providenobenefit. Parasites&VirusesParasitesliketapewormsorbacterialinfections consumehumantissuesforenergy.Virusesturncellsintovirus factories.Inbothcases,tissuesaredamagedandenergyislost. DesignCompromises&EvolutionaryLegaciesHumansarebipedal whichallowsforusingtheirhandsforcarryingobjects,butpredisposesus tobackpain.Unlikemostothermammals,humansarenotableto manufactureVitaminCandthereforemustconsumeitregularly.These evolutionaryvestigesleavehumansvulnerabletohomeostaticimbalance. Joints BallandSocketJoint(shoulder)bonescanrotatebackandforthandsidetoside HingeJoint(knee)allowsmovementbackandforthinoneplane PivotJoint(topofneckandbaseofskull)onebonerotatesaroundanother ImmovableJoint(bonesofskull,ribs,pelvis)bonesarefusedtogetherandcantmove.

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AnatomyofanEar Auditorycanalthetubethroughwhichsoundtravelstotheeardrum. Eardrumathinmembranethatvibrateswhensoundwavesreachit. Hammeratinybonethatpassesvibrationsfromtheeardrumtotheanvil. Anvilatinybonethatpassesvibrationsfromthehammertothestirrup. Stirrupatiny,Ushapedbonethatpassesvibrationsfromthestirruptothecochlea.Thisisthe smallestboneinthehumanbody. Cochleaaspiralshaped,fluidfilledinnerearstructureitislinedwithcilia(tinyhairs)that movewhenvibratedandcauseanerveimpulsetoform. Auditorynervesthesecarryelectrochemicalsignalsfromtheinnerear(thecochlea)tothe brain. Auditorytubeatubethatconnectsthemiddleeartothebackofthenoseitequalizesthe pressurebetweenthemiddleearandtheairoutside.Whenyou"pop"yourearsasyouchange altitude(goingupamountainorinanairplane),youareequalizingtheairpressureinyourmiddle ear.AlsoknownastheEustachiantube Semicircularcanalsthreeloopsoffluidfilledtubesthatareattachedtothecochleainthe innerear.Theyhelpusmaintainoursenseofbalance.

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AnatomyofanEye Scleratoughlayerofconnectivetissueformingtheouterwhitecoveringoftheeye. Corneatheclear,domeshapedtissuecoveringthefrontoftheeye. Iristhecoloredpartoftheeyeitcontrolstheamountoflightthatenterstheeyebychanging thesizeofthepupil. Lensacrystallinestructurelocatedjustbehindtheirisitfocuseslightontotheretina. Opticnervethenervethattransmitselectricalimpulsesfromtheretinatothebrain. Pupiltheopeninginthecenteroftheirisitchangessizeastheamountoflightchanges(the morelight,thesmallerthehole). Retinasensorytissuethatlinesthebackoftheeye.Itcontainsmillionsofphotoreceptorsthat convertlightraysintoelectricalimpulsesthatarerelayedtothebrainviatheopticnerve. RodsPhotoreceptorsintheretinathatsensered,green,andbluelight. ConesPhotoreceptorsintheretinathatareverysensitivetolight,allowingyoutoseepretty wellinthedark,butonlyingrayscale. Ligamentsintheeyeconnectmuscletomuscle,unlikeotherligamentswhichconnectbonesto bones.