Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Tolerances
Tolerances
Limits and fits in engineering design Linear tolerances Geometric tolerances
Tolerances are used in engineering design to make sure that the parts of an assembly go together with the correct amount of looseness or tightness. This is important because functionality of the system depends on the behaviour at the interface of the parts. Designers therefore convert the functional requirements into tolerances, which are then used in the manufacture of the part.
Dirk Pons has a PhD in mechanical engineering and several years industrial experience in design and manufacturing, with a special emphasis on new product development. He was a member of the team that designed the Fisher + Paykel DishDrawer, an innovative dishwasher. He has also taught engineering and is currently a senior lecturer at the University of Canterbury. This booklet on tolerances is an extract from his lecturing notes on engineering design. Please address correspondence to Dr Dirk Pons, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch 8020, New Zealand, Email: dirk.pons@canterbury.ac.nz. Copyright D Pons 1997-2012.
revision:
General tolerances
This paper summarises the application of general tolerances and surface texture for engineering design and production engineering.
1.1
One of the most important parts of design is the selection of tolerances. Tolerances are shown in the example of the detailed shaft drawing a few pages back, by the terms in the dimensions. The tolerance tells the fabricator what range of size is acceptable. This sounds simple, and it is, but it has profound consequences. For a start, the tolerance affects function. A shaft that is too large is going to be too tight in the bearing: it might not go in at all, or it might go in but overheat the bearing during service. Therefore the designer generally has to keep part tolerances small, so that the required function is obtained. On the other hand, generous tolerances make fabrication easier, quicker and cheaper. When tolerances are close, then the work becomes precision engineering and the costs go up. All that lies between precision and plain engineering is a few symbols from the designer.
1.2
Linear Tolerances
One way of specifying tolerances on the drawing is to show the nominal dimension followed by the permitted deviation, e.g.: The alternative is to show the limits of the dimension, e.g.:
It is necessary to provide a tolerance to every dimension on a drawing. The tediousness of this can be overcome by tolerancing only the critical dimensions and then including a note like the following on the drawing: "ALL TOLERANCES TO BE +-0.5 UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED". Alternatively the drawing can refer to general tolerances that are used throughout that company. General tolerances could be as given below. These assume that as dimensions increase, so tolerances can be relaxed. Note that for angles, the tolerance decreases as the arm lengthens, as measurement accuracy increases too. Tolerances may be selected to result in fits ranging from loose to tight. These are specified differently to normal tolerances. Fits are important in detailed design and are described later.
AND
FILLETS CHAMFERS
AND
ANGLES NOTE: L refers to shorter arm of angle. Table 1: Typical general tolerances.
DIMENSION L [mm] 0,5 < L 6,0 6,0 < L 30 30 < L 120 120 < L 400 400 < L 1000 1000 < L 2000 0,5 < L 3,0 3,0 < L 6,0 6,0 < L 30 30 < L 120 120 < L 400 0 < L 10 10 < L 50 50 < L 120 120 < L 400
TOLERANCE 0,1 [mm] 0,2 0,3 0,5 0,8 1,2 0,2 [mm] 0,5 1,0 2,0 4,0 60 [min] 30 20 10
Fits (also called limits) are a type of tolerance that is standardised for a particular function. The advantage of using them is that it is quick and reliable to get the type of fit (loose, intermediate, or press) required for the function.
Surface texture
Surface texture refers to the (microscopic) roughness of the surface. The roughness is measured with a stylus, and commonly expressed as the verage height above the centre line (centre line average, or arithmetical mean deviation), and given the symbol Ra. Surface texture will need to be specified where the normal machining processes are unlikely to give an acceptable surface. The symbol used for surface texture s the shown in the figure below.
2.1
This diagram summarises the main features of the surface texture symbol, and the accepted design practices.
Surface texture Ra [:m] Standard values 0,0125 0,025 0,05 0,1 0,2 0,4 0,8 1,6 3,2 6,3 12,5 25 50 Surface process --- removal of material allowed O no material may be removed, surface texture must be obtained by primary process (eg casting)
(2)
Use an arrow and leader to indicate which surface(s) requires the texture.
Surfaces that are vulnerable to fatigue failure will benefit from finer surface texture.
0,8
0,4
40 0,5
50 0,1
40 0,5 20 0,8
0,4
20 0,8 0,4
5 0,8
5 0,8
M20
M20 j6
Qty
ONE
Scale
AO
15-06-95
Sheet1 of 1
1:1
Projection
2.4
Abstract Tolerances are used in engineering design to make sure that the parts of an assembly go together with the correct amount of looseness or tightness. The design intent is for a certain type of fit, and tolerances provide the designer with a mechanism to ensure that is obtained, even if the parts are made in large volumes. This paper describes the application of limits and fits for engineering design and production engineering.
3.1
Introduction
Fits (also called limits) are a type of tolerance that is standardised for a particular function. The advantage of using them is that it is quick and reliable to get the type of fit (loose, intermediate, or press) required for the function. The problem with manufacturing any assembly in volumes is that of variable dimensions. The parts cannot be produced exactly identical: there will always be some dimensional variability. Consequently, when parts are mated together, e.g. a shaft is assembled into a bearing, it is possible that the dimensions clash. If the assembly was expected to be an easy mating, then it is possible that the dimensions of the parts might make this difficult: either a shaft that is too large, or a hole that is too small, or combinations thereof. If only one assembly is being made, then it is a simple matter of craftsmanship to manually sandpaper the shaft down to the right size or do whatever else is necessary to fix the problem (fixing too loose a fit is a fiddly job often involving making up sleeve inserts). Such fixes are possible but they are uneconomical in volume production. We have to find a better way.
Fits may be applied to any mating parts, including shafthole, key-keyway, and any other features that mate.
mm, in which case the dimension on the drawing would be expressed as 50+0.2 - 0.5
3.2
The choice of tolerances is the designer's decision, and usually takes into account: * the intended function of the part * the available manufacturing facilities * the cost implications Selecting the fit is easy: just find a combination from one of the knowngood fits (preferred) below, and note the two codes. Preferred fits There are some fit combinations that have been found work well, and these are called preferred fits. They are listed below.
Clearance fits Hole Shaft H11 c11
SLACK RUNNING FIT. Wide commercial tolerance, external members. Used on agricultural bearings. Shaft Alternative: C11-h11. Finer grades are also used, e.g. H7-c8. LOOSE RUNNING FIT. Suitable for large heavy journal bearing loads, high speeds, large temperature fluctuations. Axial location accuracy is poor. Also used for loose pulleys. Alternatively H7-d8, H8-d8, Shaft D9-h9. FREE RUNNING FIT. For moderate speeds and journal pressures. Provides better accuracy. Alternatively H8-f7, H7-e8, H6-e7. Finer
H9
d9
H9
e8
10
grades are used for bearings of internal combustion engine (main ~, camshaft ~, rocker arm ~). Shaft F8-h7 H8 f7 NORMAL RUNNING FIT. Commonly used fit for rotation, with good accuracy. Used on plain bearings for gear box and pump. Alternatives H8-f8, H7-f7, H6-f6 SLIDING FIT. Locates accurately, and turns freely, but not intended for continuous running (except under light loads). Used for spigots for location. Alternative fits H6-g5. Shaft G7-h6.
H7
g6
LOCATION-CLEARANCE FIT. Close fit for stationary parts, suitable for easy assembly and disassembly. Unsuited to continuous running. A small clearance will usually, but not necessarily, be present. Alternatives H8-h7, H11-h11, H7-h5. Shaft H7-h6. LOCATION-TRANSITION FIT. Provides accurate, tight, stationary location. A small clearance will usually, but not necessarily, be present. Used for spigots, ring gears in hubs. Alternatives H8-js7,H6js5, H7-k6, Shaft K7-h6. TRANSITION FIT. Accurate fit, usually with no clearance, but small interference. Used where vibration is a problem. Alternatives H6-k5, H8-k7 INTERFERENCE-TRANSITION FIT. Accurate fit, usually with some interference. Used for tight key fits. Alternatives H8-m7, H6-m5. TIGHT ASSEMBLY FIT. Accurate fit, usually with interference. Alternatives H8-n7, shaft N7-h6.
H7
js6
H7
k6
H7
m6
H7
n6
Interference fits Hole Shaft H7 p6 INTERFERENCE FIT. Provides rigid and accurate location. Small interference. Provides a press fit suitable for repeated assembly and disassembly without damage. Alternatives H6-p5, shaft P7-h6. H7 r6 MEDIUM PRESS FIT. Used for tight location of parts, such as pressed in bearings and sleeves. Dismantling is still possible. Alternatives H6r5. HEAVY PRESS FIT. For assemblies that require (and can withstand) high interface forces. Used for semi-permanent assembly, bushes in housings. Chilling or heating may be necessary to help assembly. Alternatives H6-s5, H8-s7, shaft S7-h6. PERMANENT PRESS FIT. For permanent assemblies. Generates high interface forces. Alternatives H6-t5, H8-t7, H7-u6, shaft U7-h6.
Upper and lower deviations are measured over the diameter. This makes measuring easy with a micrometer
H7
s6
H7
t6
The above fits are based on the hole system, that is the HOLE fit is kept much the same (about H7), while the shaft varies. A less common arrangement is to give the shaft preference (e.g. h6). Tables for decoding fits into tolerances are given in the Appendix.
Note: The HOLE is always in uppercase, and the shaft in lowercase. Try and keep the HOLE near H7.
11
Application
A hole of 50 mm might then be dimensioned as 50H7. Tables would need to be consulted in order to decode this into the tolerances, which are +0,025 -0,000. In other words, this hole may be 25 micrometres (microns) oversize, but may not be undersize. Tables of limits and fits are readily available for every possible combination of deviation (A-Z) and tolerance grade (typically 1-11) and dimension (0mm - +250mm). Fortunately it is often unnecessary to decode the fits when it comes to manufacture, because many tools are manufactured to cut certain fits. For example, most twist drill bits are made to cut a hole to H9. And again, standard reamers may be purchased to give a H6 hole etc.
Tolerance does not have to be distributed symmetrically about the nominal dimension: often it's better asymmetrical
3.3
Tolerance grade (or width) A typical fit for a shaft is g6. The number (6) is called the tolerance grade. It may be from 01, 0, 1, 2, ... to 16. It gives the width of the tolerance band. Bigger numbers give larger tolerance bands, and are therefore easier for fabrication. For example, a grade 9 on a 50 shaft always gives a total tolerance of 62m. Deviation The alphabetic character (g) is called the deviation. It refers to the location of the tolerance band, that is how far it deviates from the nominal dimension. The deviation is written in CAPITALS for HOLES, and lower case for shafts. Putting it together The diagram below shows a shaft with a nominal diameter of 50 mm. The circles show the tolerances for the fit (i.e. the range of acceptable diameters). Case (A) shows a situation where the dimension is allowed to be greater or less than the nominal diameter. These are called the upper and lower deviations. It might seem desirable to spread the total tolerance evenly about the nominal diameter. However this is not found to be very useful: it could result in either a tight fit or a loose fit. It is more useful to have something that varies between a tight to very tight, or else loose to very
12
loose. But not both. Therefore the total tolerance is not symmetrically arranged around the nominal diameter, it is deviated up or down, as represented by the deviation. Case (B) shows a shaft that will always be smaller than the nominal diameter. The deviation will be a....g for these cases. The dimension 50d7 (d means a shaft) will have an upper deviation of -80m and a lower deviation of -105 m. The total tolerance is 25m. The nominal diameter is just for reference, as a part with exactly the nominal diameter would be rejected as oversize!
Case (C) is a special case where the upper deviation is always zero. Thus the shaft may be less than or equal to the nominal size. This case is always shown by an h deviation, e.g. 50h7 will have an upper deviation of 0m and a lower deviation of -25 m.
Case (D) shows a shaft that will always be greater than the nominal diameter. The deviation will be js to z for these cases. A 50k7 will have an upper deviation of + 27 m and a lower deviation of +2 m. The range is 25 m.
13
Holes have a similar system, except that their deviation is always written with an UPPER CASE, e.g. 50K9. An extremely oversized hole will be A, while Z is for the extremely undersized range. The H deviation refers to a range where one end of the range is at the nominal dimension: the hole is greater or equal to the nominal dimension. In most cases holes are given one of the H fits, e.g. ... H6, H7, H8....
50
50
50
50
14
3.4
Various machining processes are shown in the table, with the typical tolerance grades that they produce. For example, any 9 tolerance grade (such as h9, d9, k9, H9 etc) may be produced by say turning. Turning is also suitable for any tolerance grade from 7 to 11. These figures are guidelines, as much depends on the state of the machine, and the skill of the operator.
PROCESS Lapping and honing Grinding Diamond machining Broaching Reaming Turning Boring Milling Shaping Drilling Punching Die cast Sintered (powder metal)
10
11
15
3.5
Interface Pressure
Heavy press fits are basically a permanent assembly. The parts are either forced together axially, or the outer part expanded by heating (or inner part shrunk by cooling). The tighter the fit, and the larger the shaft diameter, the greater the torque that can be taken. Plain press fit A common requirement is to determine the axial force required to make/loosen the press fit, and the maximum torque that may be transmitted. The following information is required: inner radius of shaft (zero for solid shaft) R1 R2 interface radius (or diameter D), eg nominal shaft diameter at hub or gear blank R3 outer radius R3. i.e. outer radius of gear hub. For solid blank use the pitch radius. Poisson's ratio for shaft (inner, i) and hub (outer, o) E modulus of elasticity for shaft (inner, i) and hub (outer, o) Select a fit based on the design intent (see standard recommendations), e.g. H7/r6 Selected fit: The inner diameter of the outer cylinder is slightly smaller than the outer diameter of the inner cylinder, the amount being the interference fit, (or shrinkage allowance):
This may be determined from the fits. In this case use the minimum interference (see tables for standard fits). After assembly the inside cylinder (subscript i) is in compression and the outside cylinder (subscript o) in tension. The interface pressure is:
16
The interface pressure will not usually be the greatest stress in the assembly, so dont use this for failure analysis. You will need to do more work if you want that information too: determine the circumferential stresses at the inside and outside of the inner and outer cylinders (four values, inside cylinder negative due to compression). Radial stresses may also be determined, and an appropriate failure mechanism used. Consult a reference in structural mechanics for the details. The axial force required for pressed assembly (both parts at the same temperature) is:
where coefficient of friction L axial length of contact surface (hub length) The torque that the joint can take before slip is:
Heated press fit For heavy fits, it is common to heat the outer part and possibly also cooling the shaft. For a uniform temperature rise (axially symmetric temperature distribution) in a thick walled elastic cylindrical part, the radial strain as a function of radius is:
where E T r R1 modulus of elasticity coefficient of thermal expansion change in temperature (relative to stress free condition) Poissons ratio radius (variable) inner radius of cylinder
The equation may be used to determine how much the inside of the hub expands. This may then be subtracted from the deviation due to the fit. In some cases there will even be a clearance fit where before there was interference. Determine the interface pressure Q with this
17
new fit (if it is still interference), and from that get the required axial assembly force.
Press fit example A hollow shaft has OD 50 mm and ID 30 mm. It is to carry a solid gear, with a pitch diameter of 100 mm and a hub length (face width) of 30 mm. Helix angle 15 deg. The shaft speed is 3000 rpm. Determine a suitable press fit to transmit 40 kW. Both gear and shaft of steel. Determine the assembly force required without heating, and heating the gear by 100oC. Determine gear loading Torque required on joint T = P/ = 40 x 103W/(3000 x2/60 rad/s) = 127.3 Nm Axial force = (2T/d) . Tan(H) Fa = (2 x 127.3/0.100) x tan(15) = 682 N Select fit H7 s6, heavy press fit. Deviations for Hole D50 H7: +25 -0 m Shaft D50 s6: +59 +43 m Heaviest fit (Max material condition MMC) 59 -0 = 59 m Lightest fit (Least material condition LMC) 43 -25 = 18 m It is highly unlikely that the assembly would be in either the MMC or LMC, rather the deviations would be closer to the mean. However, for conservative design purposes, we use the LMC for determining the permissible torque and axial force, and the MMC for determining the axial assembly force. This means that we have to determine the interface pressure for both conditions. Modulus of elasticity 209e9 Pa and Poissons ratio 0.3 for both components. Interface pressure, maximum:
18
Qmax = 65.04 MPa and similarly Qmin = 19.84 MPa. Remember to use radii where appropriate. Coefficient of friction, steel-steel with light oil (see bearings) = 0.19. Then the torque that the joint can take is Tmax = 2R22LQmin = 2 x 0,19 x x 0.0252 x 0.030 x 19.84 x 10-6 = 444 Nm which is very much greater than the required torque. The permissible axial force on the joint is Fallow = 2RLQmin = 2 x 0.19 x x 0.025 x 0.030 x 19.84 x 10-6 = 17.77 kN, which is very much greater than the required force. The maximum assembly force on the joint is Fassmb = 2RLQmax = 2 x 0.19 x x 0.025 x 0.030 x 65.04 x 10-6 = 58.2 kN. Coefficient of thermal expansion 13 m/(m.oC). If the gear is heated by 100 oC, then the radial strain due to heating is u2 = (1+).T.R2 = 13 x 10-6 .(1 + 0.3) x 100 x 0.025 = 42.25 x 10-6 m = 42.25 m. The most severe interference will occur at the MMC, and the resulting fit is 59 m - 42.25 m = 16.75 m. (At LMC there would be a clearance). The interface pressure is QT = 65.04 MPa x 16.75/59 = 18.47 MPa (This quick method works since everything except the fit is the same. Otherwise do it the long way if you dont trust it.) This permits the assembly force to be found. At 100oC the assembly force on the joint is = 2R2LQT FT = 2 x 0.19 x x 0.025 x 0.030 x 18.47 x 10-6 = 16.53 kN.
19
20
shaft c
Diameter [mm] 1 to 3
Upper and lower deviations in micrometres (m) Tolerance grade c8 -60 -74 -70 -88 -80 -102 -95 -122 -110 -143 -120 -159 -130 -169 -140 -186 -150 -196 -170 -224 c11 -60 -120 -70 -145 -80 -170 -95 -205 -110 -240 -120 -280 -130 -290 -140 -330 -150 -340 -170 -390
+3 to 6
+6 to 10
+10 to 18
+18 to 30
+30 to 40
+40 to 50
+50 to 65
+65 to 80
+80 to 100
shafts d, e
Diameter [mm] 1 to 3 d7 -20 -30 -30 -42 -40 -55 -50 -68 -65 -86 -80 -105 -100 -130 -120 -155 -145 -185 -170 -216
Upper and lower deviations in micrometres (m) shaft d d8 -20 -34 -30 -48 -40 -62 -50 -77 -65 -98 -80 -119 -100 -146 -120 -174 -145 -208 -170 -242 d9 -20 -45 -30 -60 -40 -76 -50 -93 -65 -117 -80 -142 -100 -174 -120 -207 -145 -245 -170 -285 shaft e e7 -14 -24 -20 -32 -25 -40 -32 -50 -40 -61 -50 -75 -60 -90 -72 -107 -85 -125 -100 -146 e8 -14 -28 -20 -38 -25 -47 -32 -59 -40 -73 -50 -89 -60 -106 -72 -126 -85 -148 -100 -172 e9 -14 -39 -20 -50 -25 -61 -32 -75 -40 -92 -50 -112 -60 -134 -72 -159 -85 -185 -100 -215
+3 to 6
+6 to 10
+10 to 18
+18 to 30
+30 to 50
+50 to 80
+80 to 120
+120 to 180
+180 to 250
21
shafts f, g
Diameter [mm] 1 to 3
Upper and lower deviations in micrometres (m) shaft f f6 -6 -12 -10 -18 -13 -22 -16 -27 -20 -33 -25 -41 -30 -49 -36 -58 -43 -68 -50 -79 f7 -6 -16 -10 -22 -13 -28 -16 -34 -20 -41 -25 -50 -30 -60 -36 -71 -43 -83 -50 -96 f8 -6 -20 -10 -28 -13 -35 -16 -43 -20 -53 -25 -64 -30 -76 -36 -90 -43 -106 -50 -122 shaft g g5 -2 -6 -4 -9 -5 -11 -6 -14 -7 -16 -9 -20 -10 -23 -10 -27 -14 -32 -15 -35 g6 -2 -8 -4 -12 -5 -14 -6 -17 -7 -20 -9 -25 -10 -29 -10 -34 -14 -39 -15 -44 g7 -2 -12 -4 -16 -5 -20 -6 -24 -7 -28 -9 -34 -10 -40 -10 -47 -14 -54 -15 -61
+3 to 6
+6 to 10
+10 to 18
+18 to 30
+30 to 50
+50 to 80
+80 to 120
+120 to 180
+180 to 250
shaft h
Diameter [mm] 1 to 3
Upper and lower deviations in micrometres (m) Tolerance grades h4 0 -3 0 -4 0 -4 0 -5 0 -6 0 -7 0 -8 0 -10 0 -12 0 -14 h5 0 -4 0 -5 0 -6 0 -8 0 -9 0 -11 0 -13 0 -15 0 -18 0 -20 h6 0 -6 0 -8 0 -9 0 -11 0 -13 0 -16 0 -19 0 -22 0 -25 0 -29 h7 0 -10 0 -12 0 -15 0 -18 0 -21 0 -25 0 -30 0 -35 0 -40 0 -46 h8 0 -14 0 -18 0 -22 0 -27 0 -33 0 -39 0 -46 0 -54 0 -63 0 -72 h9 0 -25 0 -30 0 -36 0 -43 0 -52 0 -62 0 -74 0 -87 0 -100 0 -115 h10 0 -40 0 -48 0 -58 0 -70 0 -84 0 -100 0 -120 0 -140 0 -160 0 -185 h11 0 -60 0 -75 0 -90 0 -110 0 -130 0 -160 0 -190 0 -220 0 -250 0 -290 h12 0 -100 0 -120 0 -150 0 -180 0 -210 0 -250 0 -300 0 -350 0 -400 0 -460
+3 to 6
+6 to 10
+10 to 18
+18 to 30
+30 to 50
+50 to 80
+80 to 120
+120 to 180
+180 to 250
22
shafts js, k, m
Diameter [mm] 1 to 3 js5 +2 -2 +2,5 -2,5 +3 -3 +4 -4 +4,5 -4,5 +5,5 -5,5 +6,5 -6,5 +7,5 -7,5 +9 -9 +10 -10
Upper and lower deviations in micrometres (m) shaft js js6 +3 -3 +4 -4 +4,5 -4,5 +5,5 -5,5 +6,5 -6,5 +8 -8 +9,5 -9,5 +11 -11 +12,5 -12,5 +14,5 -14,5 js7 +5 -5 +6 -6 +7,5 -7,5 +9 -9 +10,5 -10,5 +12,5 -12,5 +15 -15 +17,5 -17,5 +20 -20 +23 -23 k5 +4 0 +6 +1 +7 +1 +9 +1 +11 +2 +13 +2 +15 +2 +18 +3 +21 +3 +24 +4 shaft k k6 +6 0 +9 +1 +10 +1 +12 +1 +15 +2 +18 +2 +21 +2 +25 +3 +28 +3 +33 +4 k7 +10 0 +13 +1 +16 +1 +19 +1 +23 +2 +27 +2 +32 +2 +38 +3 +43 +3 +50 +4 m5 +6 +2 +9 +4 +12 +6 +15 +7 +17 +8 +20 +9 +24 +11 +28 +13 +33 +15 +37 +17 shaft m m6 +8 +2 +12 +4 +15 +6 +18 +7 +21 +8 +25 +9 +30 +11 +35 +13 +40 +15 +46 +17 m7 +16 +4 +21 +6 +25 +7 +29 +8 +34 +9 +41 +11 +48 +13 +55 +15 +63 +17
+3 to 6
+6 to 10
+10 to 18
+18 to 30
+30 to 50
+50 to 80
+80 to 120
+120 to 180
+180 to 250
+3 to 6
+6 to 10
+10 to 18
+18 to 30
+30 to 50
+50 to 80
+80 to 120
+120 to 180
+180 to 250
23
shafts r, s
Diameter [mm] 1 to 3
Upper and lower deviations in micrometres (m) shaft r r5 +14 +10 +20 +15 +25 +19 +31 +23 +37 +28 +45 +34 +54 +41 +56 +43 +66 +51 +69 +54 r6 +16 +10 +23 +15 +28 +19 +34 +23 +41 +28 +50 +34 +60 +41 +62 +43 +73 +51 +76 +54 r7 +20 +10 +27 +15 +43 +19 +41 +23 +49 +28 +59 +34 +71 +41 +73 +43 +86 +51 +89 +54 s5 +18 +14 +24 +19 +29 +23 +36 +28 +44 +35 +54 +43 +66 +53 +72 +59 +86 +71 +94 +79 shaft s s6 +20 +14 +27 +19 +32 +23 +39 +28 +48 +35 +59 +43 +72 +53 +78 +59 +93 +71 +101 +79 s7 +24 +14 +31 +19 +38 +23 +46 +28 +56 +35 +68 +43 +83 +53 +89 +59 +106 +71 +114 +79
+3 to 6
+6 to 10
+10 to 18
+18 to 30
+30 to 50
+50 to 65
+65 to 80
+80 to 100
+100 to 120
shafts t, u
Diameter [mm] 1 to 3
Upper and lower deviations in micrometres (m) shaft t t5 +22 +18 +28 +23 +34 +28 +41 +33 +50 +41 +50 +41 +59 +48 +65 +54 +79 +66 +88 +75 +106 +91 t6 +24 +18 +31 +23 +37 +28 +44 +33 +54 +44 +54 +41 +64 +48 +70 +54 +85 +66 +94 +75 +113 +91 t7 +28 +18 +35 +23 +43 +28 +51 +33 +62 +41 +62 +41 +73 +48 +79 +54 +96 +66 +105 +75 +126 +91 shaft u u6 +24 +18 +31 +23 +37 +28 +44 +33 +54 +41 +61 +48 +76 +60 +86 +70 +106 +87 +121 +102 +146 +124
+3 to 6
+6 to 10
+10 to 18
+18 to 24
+24 to 30
+30 to 40
+40 to 50
+50 to 65
+65 to 80
+80 to 100
24
HOLES C
Diameter [mm] 1 to 3
Upper and lower deviations in micrometres (m) Tolerance grade C8 +60 +74 +70 +88 +80 +102 +95 +122 +110 +143 +120 +159 +130 +169 +140 +186 +150 +196 +170 +224 C11 +60 +120 +70 +145 +80 +170 +95 +205 +110 +240 +120 +280 +130 +290 +140 +330 +150 +340 +170 +390
+3 to 6
+6 to 10
+10 to 18
+18 to 30
+30 to 40
+40 to 50
+50 to 65
+65 to 80
+80 to 100
HOLES D F G
Diameter [mm] 1 to 3 D9 +20 +45 +30 +60 +40 +76 +50 +93 +65 +117 +80 +142 +100 +174 +120 +207 +145 +245 +170 +285
Upper and lower deviations in micrometres (m) Tolerance grades F7 +6 +16 +10 +22 +13 +28 +16 +34 +20 +41 +25 +50 +30 +60 +36 +71 +43 +83 +50 +96 F8 +6 +20 +10 +28 +13 +35 +16 +43 +20 +53 +25 +64 +30 +76 +36 +90 +43 +106 +50 +122 G6 +8 +2 +12 +4 +14 +5 +17 +6 +20 +7 +25 +9 +29 +10 +34 +12 +39 +14 +44 +15 G7 +12 +2 +16 +4 +20 +5 +24 +6 +28 +7 +34 +9 +40 +10 +47 +12 +54 +14 +61 +15
+3 to 6
+6 to 10
+10 to 18
+18 to 30
+30 to 50
+50 to 80
+80 to 120
+120 to 180
+180 to 250
25
HOLE H
Diameter [mm] 1 to 3
Upper and lower deviations in micrometres (m) Tolerance grades H4 3 0 4 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 10 0 12 0 14 0 H5 4 0 5 0 6 0 8 0 9 0 11 0 13 0 15 0 18 0 20 0 H6 6 0 8 0 9 0 11 0 13 0 16 0 19 0 22 0 25 0 29 0 H7 10 0 12 0 15 0 18 0 21 0 25 0 30 0 35 0 40 0 46 0 H8 14 0 18 0 22 0 27 0 33 0 39 0 46 0 54 0 63 0 72 0 H9 25 0 30 0 36 0 43 0 52 0 62 0 74 0 87 0 100 0 115 0 H10 40 0 48 0 58 0 70 0 84 0 100 0 120 0 140 0 160 0 185 0 H11 60 0 75 0 90 0 110 0 130 0 160 0 190 0 220 0 250 0 290 0 H12 100 0 120 0 150 0 180 0 210 0 250 0 300 0 350 0 400 0 460 0
+3 to 6
+6 to 10
+10 to 18
+18 to 30
+30 to 50
+50 to 80
+80 to 120
+120 to 180
+180 to 250
HOLES Js and K
Diameter [mm] 1 to 3 Js5 +2 -2 +2,5 -2,5 +3 -3 +4 -4 +4,5 -4,5 +5,5 -5,5 +6,5 -6,5 +7,5 -7,5 +9 -9 +10 -10
Upper and lower deviations in micrometres (m) HOLE Js Js6 +3 -3 +4 -4 +4,5 -4,5 +5,5 -5,5 +6,5 -6,5 +8 -8 +9,5 -9,5 +11 -11 +12,5 -12,5 +14,5 -14,5 Js7 +5 -5 +6 -6 +7,5 -7,5 +9 -9 +10,5 -10,5 +12,5 -12,5 +15 -15 +17,5 -17,5 +20 -20 +23 -23 Js9 +12,5 -12,5 +15 -15 +18 -18 +21,5 -21,5 +26 -26 +31 -31 +37 -37 +43,5 -43,5 +50 -50 +57,5 -57,5 K5 0 -4 0 -5 +1 -5 +2 -6 +1 -8 +2 -9 +3 -10 +2 -13 +3 -15 +2 -18 HOLE K K6 0 -6 +2 -6 +2 -7 +2 -9 +2 -11 +3 -13 +4 -15 +4 -18 +4 -21 +5 -24 K7 0 -10 +3 -9 +5 -10 +6 -12 +6 -15 +7 -18 +9 -21 +10 -25 +12 -28 +13 -33
+3 to 6
+6 to 10
+10 to 18
+18 to 30
+30 to 50
+50 to 80
+80 to 120
+120 to 180
+180 to 250
26
HOLES M N P
Diameter [mm] 1 to 3 M7 -2 -12 0 -12 0 -15 0 -18 0 -21 0 -25 0 -30 0 -35 0 -40 0 -46
Tolerance grades N7 -4 -14 -4 -16 -4 -19 -5 -23 -7 -28 -8 -33 -9 -39 -10 -45 -12 -52 -14 -60 N9 -4 -29 -4 -30 -4 -36 -5 -43 -7 -52 -8 -62 -9 -74 -10 -87 -12 -100 -14 -115 P7 -6 -16 -8 -20 -9 -24 -11 -29 -14 -35 -17 -42 -21 -51 -24 -59 -28 -68 -33 -79
+3 to 6
+6 to 10
+10 to 18
+18 to 30
+30 to 50
+50 to 80
+80 to 120
+120 to 180
+180 to 250
HOLES R S U
Diameter [mm] 1 to 3 R7 -10 -20 -11 -23 -13 -28 -16 -34 -20 -41 -25 -50 -30 -60 -32 -62 -38 -73 -41 -76
Upper and lower deviations in micrometres (m) Tolerance grades S7 -14 -24 -15 -27 -17 -32 -21 -39 -27 -48 -34 -59 -42 -72 -48 -78 -58 -93 -66 -101 U7 -18 -28 -19 -31 -22 -37 -26* -44 -33* -54 -51 -76 -76 -106 -91 -121 -111 -146 -131 -166
+3 to 6
+6 to 10
+10 to 18
+18 to 30
+30 to 50
+50 to 65
+65 to 80
+80 to 100
+100 to 120
27
4
4.1
Geometric tolerances
Introduction
The geometry produced by typical machining processes may be acceptable for many purposes. However where greater accuracy of flatness, concentricity or other form is required than conventional fabrication will provide, then geometric tolerances are used by the designer to communicate the requirements. This section will provide an overview, and fuller detail may be found in national standards. Two main standards are ISO 1101 (Europe) and ANSI Y14.5 (USA). The ISO standard has been adopted in various other countries under other names (e.g. BS308 Part 3, SABS 0111 part 2, AS1100 part 101). Although there are small differences, the principles are the same. Geometric tolerances are a special type of tolerance that is used to control the accuracy of the surface shape of a part. The tolerances are used in addition to the plain linear tolerances described above. Geometric tolerances are tolerances that are applied to characteristics of: C straightness C flatness C circularity C cylindricity C line profile C surface profile C parallelism C perpendicularity C angle C position C concentricity C symmetry C circular run out C total run out Each of these characteristics has its own symbol, and this is used on the drawing, together with the tolerance that the designer permits. A rectangular control frame is used around the geometric tolerance.
28
Figure: Geometric tolerance is an engineering language that specifies the accuracy required of a part, in a compact and universal form, that can be interpreted in any language: Position this part with surface A against a flat surface, then slide the part into contact with a flat surface at B. Then measure off the exact dimensions shown as basic dimensions (in rectangles), and at the point draw a circle of diameter 0.5 mm. Extend this into a cylinder if the part has any appreciable thickness. Put into the D40 hole an expanding chuck which grips the walls of the hole. The centre of this instrument must be inside the 0.5 mm tolerance circle at all depths of the hole.
29
Geometric tolerances provide the following advantages: C Communication: provides a universal language to communicate requirements about accuracy of shape C Better function: encourages dimensioning and tolerancing according to function, so there is less chance that the design turns out wrong C Fabrication: by concentrating accuracy on the important functional features of the part, geometric tolerancing permits tolerances on other features to be relaxed, and this eases manufacture. Figure: These pipe flanges will not seal properly. Use of a geometric tolerance at the design stage would prevent this. Perpendicularity or circular run-out need to be controlled.
Datums
A datum is a reference surface. Some of the geometric tolerances need datums, others may not use them. A datum is a theoretically exact point, line or plane, which is used for reference purposes. A datum plane is typically simulated by a flat granite surface, and a datum axis is simulated by holding the part in a chuck. Real life gauging equipment is thus used to make up datums. A datum serves two purposes: C Datums locate a part in a repeatable way, so that the part may be checked for geometric tolerance. C Datums show how parts are located together when they are assembled. The designer should select datums based on the functional requirements of the assembly, that is, based on how the parts fit together. The symbol for a datum (A, B, C etc) is the letter in a block. The standards differ in some drafting details, but the principles remain the same.
Basic dimension
A basic dimension is a theoretically true dimension. It is shown enclosed in a box, although sometimes the words BASIC are written next to the dimension instead. A basic dimension does not have its own tolerance. At first this seems to contradict the rule that every dimension on a drawing needs a tolerance. However the basic dimension is only ever used together with a geometric tolerance, and it takes its tolerance from the value of the geometric tolerance. In other words, the geometric tolerance is being used to control both the accuracy of the surface, as well as the tolerance on the dimension.
30
Typical application
The figure shows an example of a geometric tolerance for Position. Underneath the N40 is the geometric tolerance in its frame. The tolerance reads like this: the centre of the N40 hole must be positioned within circle of diameter 0.5 of the true centre of the circle. The symbol of a cross and a circle is for position. The true centre of the circle is at exactly 50 and 30 mm. The datum planes are A and B, and this means that when checking this part, surface A must first be placed against a perfectly flat surface, and then surface B brought against another such surface at right angles to A. The measuring surfaces are usually granite blocks, granite being used since it distorts very little with change in temperature.
31
1
Interpret the geometry. This is a stepped block with a hole. The designer needs to control the position of this hole.
2
Identify the DATUMS. (See 7 below). Surface A of this part must first be placed on a flat surface (granite table). Then slide the part to contact another perpendicular block at B. Now it is positioned in a repeatable way and is ready to be measured.
3
Then look for any BASIC dimensions, in boxes. These never have a tolerance. Instead they take their tolerance from the value of the geometric tolerance. The (ideal) true centre of the circle is at exactly 50 and 30 mm.
80 60 30
Ignore these other dimensions for geomeric tolerancing purposes. These are interpreted in the normal way, i.e. linear tolerances may apply.
4
This is linear tolerance on the diameter of the hole.
N40 +1 .0
-0.5
N0.5
A B
7 5
The symbol of a cross and a circle is for position tolerance
6
Draw a small circle diameter 0.5 around the true centre. The hole must have its centre in this small circle. The workshop might check this by using a precise tapered pin.
This geometric tolerance is about equivalent to writing dimensions of 300.25 and 500.25. Actually that would have been easier in this case, but we are merely illustating the point.
The ordering of position of the part is the sequence shown here, which is A then B. It does not have to be alphabetical, so do not get caught out.
Figure: Position tolerance This geometric tolerance is about equivalent to writing dimensions of 300.25 and 500.25. In this simple case it might have been easier to write it just like that.
32
33
4.2
Runout controls
Runout is measured by touching a dial indicator (clock) gauge on the surface of a part, and rotating the part through one revolution. The part surface moves towards and away from the gauge during the revolution, and the gauge measures this (e.g. in microns). The total displacement range recorded is the runout. Runout cannot work if there are sharp edges, so it is only applicable to shafts, hubs and flanges. Figure: Runout is one of the most common and practical geometric tolerances for rotating parts. It only needs a dial indicator. In this case the brake rotor of a car is being checked for runout. The indicator, which has a magnetic base, has been position to lightly touch the disc. Then the disc is gently rotated. We are not interested in the absolute value on the indicator, only the range, This range is the runout. It is that simple. If the runout is excessive on the brake disc, then there will be a variable gap between the disc and brake pads, and the wheel will judder or squeal during braking. Image from http://www.aa1car.com/library/brake_rotors.htm
Figure: Runout on a circular saw blade, showing the indicator with its magnetic base, and the blade. The blade may have excessive runout if its bearings are failing, or the mounting collar is misaligned, or the blade is damaged. Do not attempt to make this measurement with the motor energised. Image from http://www.cabinetmakerfdm.c om/1578.html. As that author also wisely states, please be careful with a saw. It does not know the difference between wood and fingers. Use all safety devices. Avoid kickback hazards.
34
Figure: Another example of runout, this time for measuring a part in a lathe. Image from http://www.practicalmachinist.c om/vb/south-bendlathes/making-new-cross-slideacme-screw150571/index2.html
Runout picks up a number of errors in the part. Errors in concentricity, circularity and profile are all manifest as runout. However it is not generally possible from a given reading of runout to work back to what combination of these errors was responsible. Nonetheless runout is a valuable geometric tolerance since it is easy to measure, and gives a check on a whole group of errors even if it cant distinguish them from each other. There are two types of runout tolerance, circular and total. The runout tolerance given on the drawing is the total permissible indicator reading. Eccentricity is not the only cause of runout, but when it is, a given eccentricity causes double the displacement at the indicator. For example, an eccentricity of 0.5 mm causes a runout of 1.0 mm. This is because the part is rotated to expose the high region as well as the low region.
35
Figure: Runout needs datums. Top: Single datum if there is sufficient shaft length. Middle: Co_datums for longer shafts. Bottom: Locate on diameter and plane
0.2 A
0.2 A-B
0.2 A-B
36
Any errors in circularity or concentricity will be picked up. While each section needs to be within the tolerance, successive sections are independent and do not need to line up with each other. Therefore a limitation of circular runout is that it will not control the straightness of the surface.
Figure: Circular runout on conical surface. The tolerance zones illustrated here are by way of explanation, but would not be required on a final drawing.
0.2
0.2
0.2
37
0.2 A
0.2
0.2 A
0.2
0.2
Total runout may only be applied to surfaces generated by revolving a straight line.
38
4.3
The geometric tolerances that describe the form (shape) of a surface are flatness, straightness, circularity, and cylindricity. These geometric tolerances apply to single features, and they never use datums.
0.2
39
surface would have to be flat within 9.8 to 10.5 mm anyway, because these are the linear tolerances. When this control is insufficient, then add a straightness tolerance. This is what has been done in the example. The geometric tolerance is always smaller than the linear tolerance, so that the geometric tolerance zone floats within the linear tolerance zone. Straightness does not affect virtual condition, since the tolerance is measured into the material.
Figure: Straightness tolerance applied to a dimension. In this case the control applies to the centre line, which must be within a cylinder of diameter 0.2 mm.
40
0.2
0.2
0.2
41
The circularity tolerance controls how much a section may deviate from a perfect circle. The tolerance can be applied to discs, cylinders, spheres, cones. The important thing to note is that the circularity tolerance only controls one section at a time. Any section along the axis must be sufficiently circular, but the sections do not need to line up with each other. Therefore even a long bent piece of wire can be given a circularity tolerance. The tolerance consists of two circles, separated by the tolerance value. Figure: Circularity tolerance controls deviation from a perfect circular section. The tolerance zone applies to the radius separation as shown above. Note that the dashed circles and their spacing would not normally be shown on the drawing, as the information is contained in the geometric tolerance. The circularity tolerance may only be applied to a feature, that is a surface, and therefore it may not have any MMC modifier. It also does not have any datum plane. It will not affect virtual condition. The circularity tolerance refers to the radial spacing of perfect circles, not the difference in diameter. Therefore the circularity tolerance should be less than half the tolerance on the size of the diameter.
0.2 0.2
42
Datums
A datum is a theoretically exact point, line or plane, which is used for reference purposes. To make the concept more substantial in your mind, it can be explained that a datum plane is simulated by a flat granite surface, and a datum axis is simulated by a pin or by holding the part in a chuck. Real life gauging equipment is thus used to make up datums. A datum serves two purposes: Datums locate a part in a repeatable way, so that the part may be checked for geometric tolerance. Datums show how parts are located together when they are assembled. The symbol for a datum (A, B, C etc) is the letter in a block. The standards differ in small details about the drafting conventions, but the principles remain the same.
43
4.4
There are three orientation (or attitude) geometric tolerances: these are perpendicularity (squareness), angularity, and parallelism. They control the orientation of part features relative to other features. They are used when more control is required than can be given by the general tolerances on the dimensions of a part. All the orientation geometric tolerances must have a datum in the control frame.
Perpendicularity of a surface
The first illustration shows a perpendicularity tolerance that is applied to a surface. A datum surface has to be given as a reference for the perpendicularity. A plane is made, perpendicular to the datum, and touching the highest point on the controlled surface. A second plane is parallel to this and offset into the material by the amount of the tolerance. All points on the surface have to lie between these two planes in order to satisfy the geometric tolerance. The diagram includes the two planes and a close-up of the region, but these are only for illustrative purposes and would not be shown on a drawing. Figure: Perpendicularity tolerance, applied to surface, and using two parallel planes. The whole of the indicated surface must be within two parallel planes spaced 0.2 mm apart. These planes are at right angles to datum A, the bottom surface.
A
0.2
The perpendicularity tolerance on a surface will also automatically apply some control to the flatness of the surface. If this control is not enough, then a separate flatness tolerance may be applied. A perpendicularity tolerance on a surface may NOT have any modifiers such as MMC, RFS, LMC.
0.2
44
The centre line only has to fit in the tolerance zone where the centre line is in the part. Standard design practice shows a centre line extending outside the part, but these tips do not have to be in the tolerance zone. The perpendicularity tolerance on the centre line will automatically imply some control over the straightness of the centreline. If this is not enough, then an extra straightness tolerance may be added.
45
The gauge for this part (if MMC is used) would be a flat surface out of which protruded a pin of N39.300 mm and length 20.000 mm. If the gauge goes all the way in, then the perpendicularity tolerance is met. The gauge diameter is determined by taking the minimum size of the hole (MMC=N39.5) and subtracting the perpendicularity tolerance. (If the part had been a shaft, then the gauge would have a hole of 40.5+0.2 = 40.7mm, i.e MMC + perpendicularity tolerance). Therefore, if the fabricator makes the smallest acceptable hole (MMC=N39.5), then it has only 0.2mm tolerance on straightness. This hole will be a close fit on the gauge pin. Conversely, the largest acceptable hole (LMC=N40.5) will have an easy time of slipping over the gauge pin: it will have a tolerance of 1.2mm. It is clever use of tolerances like this that permit manufacturers like Toyota to produce parts that always fit together, and provide the required function, yet are cheap to produce. The alternative is to tighten up the tolerances and therefore throw away more defect parts, but this is more expensive.
46
The fabricator will find it MUCH easier to make this hole on the bigger side. For the largest acceptable hole (LMC=N40.5) the perpendicularity tolerance is 1.0mm. In most cases it is not practical to set production machines at the limits (too many rejects), so a more realistic example might be a hole of say N40.1 mm, in which case the tolerance would be (40.1 - 39.5) + 0.0 = 0.6. The reason for making the perpendicularity tolerance zero is to make the hole perfectly perpendicular when the hole is at maximum material condition (MMC=N39.5), while still getting the fabrication advantages of MMC.
MMC
The above comments on MMC have been illustrated by application to perpendicularity tolerance. However they apply generally to all tolerances where MMC is permissible.
47
Angularity of a surface
The first illustration shows a angularity tolerance applied to a surface. A datum surface has to be given as a reference for the angle. The angle of the surface has to be given on the drawing. This is a basic dimension and is enclosed in a box to show its status. (A basic dimension is a theoretically perfect one that is used to establish tolerances. It itself does not have a tolerance). Figure: Angularity tolerance, applied to surface. The indicated surface must be within two parallel planes spaced 0.2 mm apart. 0.2 A A plane is made at this angle to the datum, and touching the highest point on the controlled surface. A second plane is parallel to this and offset into the material by the amount of the tolerance. All points on the surface have to lie between these two planes in order to satisfy the geometric tolerance. The diagram includes the two planes and a close-up of the region, but these are only for illustrative purposes and would not be shown on a drawing.
60E A
The angularity tolerance on a surface will also automatically apply some control to the flatness of the surface. If this control is not enough, then a separate flatness tolerance may be applied. Angularity tolerance on a surface may NOT have any modifiers such as MMC, RFS, LMC.
0.2
48
N 25
45E
The centre line only has to fit in the tolerance zone where the centre line is in the part. Standard design practice shows a centre line extending outside the part, but these tips do not have to be in the tolerance zone. The perpendicularity tolerance on the centre line will automatically imply some control over the straightness of the centreline, in the viewing direction only. If this is not enough, then an extra straightness tolerance may be added. Maximum material condition and other modifiers may not be used with angularity. So there is no bonus tolerance possible.
49
Parallelism of a surface
The first illustration shows parallelism applied to a surface. A datum surface has to be given as a reference. Figure: Parallelism tolerance, applied to surface. The indicated surface must be within two parallel planes spaced 0.2 mm apart. A plane is made parallel to the datum and touching the highest point on the controlled surface. A second plane is parallel to this and offset into the material by the amount of the tolerance. All points on the surface have to lie between these two planes in order to satisfy the geometric tolerance. The diagram includes the two planes and a close-up of the region, but these are only for illustrative purposes and would not be shown on a drawing. The parallelism tolerance on a surface will also automatically apply some control to the flatness of the surface. Parallelism tolerance on a surface may NOT have any modifiers such as MMC, RFS, LMC.
0.2
50
N400.3 N0.2 A
N120.1
If a centre line has a perpendicularity tolerance without the N, then the tolerance zone will be two planes. This will give control of perpendicularity in the viewing direction only.The centre line only has to fit in the tolerance zone where the centre line is in the part. Standard design practice shows a centre line extending outside the part, but these tips do not have to be in the tolerance zone. The parallelism tolerance on the centre line will automatically control the straightness of the centreline in the viewing direction only (parallel planes) or in both directions (cylindrical zone). Maximum material condition and other modifiers may be used with angularity when a cylindrical tolerance zone is used. This gives a bonus tolerance, and also permits the use of fixed geometry gauges.
51
4.5
The geometric tolerances that control the location of a feature are position, symmetry, and concentricity. They control the location of part features relative to datums. They may be used with modifiers such as MMC, FRS, and LMC. Important points about location tolerances: M only applied to size dimensions, not to single surfaces M datums are required M as many datums are required as are necessary to get the part into a position for repeatable measurements M basic dimensions show the theoretically exact location M MMC or RFS are used, ANSI Y14.5 requires that the choice be specified, but ISO 1101 assumes RFS unless specified otherwise as MMC Position tolerance also provides control of orientation and straightness.
N40 N0.2
A B
Figure: Position tolerance, applied to an axis. The centre line must be within a cylinder of diameter 0.2 mm. It is also necessary to have at least two datum surfaces, in this case A and B. The order (precedence) is given in the control frame as A and then B. This puts the part into a certain repeatable position for measurement. Using a datum order of B and then A would result in a different position of the part. Therefore the datums are an essential component of the position tolerance. Ignorance of this leads to many drawings that are incompletely specified. The centre line of the feature (hole in this case), must be inside a cylinder of diameter 0.2 mm. The position tolerance is commonly applied to the centre line of a hole, as in this example. Remember that this centre line is based on the walls of the hole, so the tolerance is still effectively controlling the walls of the hole.
52
40
+0 .5 -0.3
0.2
30
N40 0.2 A B
53
N40
+0 .5 -0.3 M
N0.2
The geometric tolerance value also has MMC applied. This permits the gauge to be of fixed diameter here too (40.0 + 0.5 + 0.2 = 40.7). Since MMC is used for both datum and tolerance, the gauge for this part is simply a stepped hub, as shown in the figure. If the part goes in, then it meets the geometric tolerance. If it cant go in, then it fails. Therefore the use of MMC simplifies part testing. A grossly undersized part would fit into this gauge, so it is necessary to conduct a separate check with a micrometer to ensure that the diameters were not less than the plain tolerances (N39.7 and N79.7 in this example.) Figure: Gauge may be fixed geometry if MMC is used for both datum and tolerance.
N80.5
54
40 A
M
+0 .5 -0.3
0.2
0.2
ISO ME THOD
ANSI METHOD
80 A
+0 .5 -0.3
.5 80 +0 -0.3
-A-
N40
N0.2 A
N80 A
+0 .5 -0.3
55
4.6
Profile controls
Profile refers to the shape of a surface or line. Examples include the aerodynamic profile of an aeroplane wing, and the contours of a boat hull. Surfaces like these are complex, but their accuracy can still be specified by means of profile controls. There are two profile tolerances, one that controls the profile of a line (e.g. a thin cam), and the other controls the profile of a surface. In both cases it is necessary to use basic dimensions (in rectangles) to specify the true profile. In the case of regular shapes like hexagons (e.g. bolt heads) this is not difficult. However it is more difficult to specify true dimensions on complex profiles like an aero wing, and this is often done by specifying individual points.
R50 A
10 40 B C
Unilateral specified
tolerance
zone
can
be
0.5 0.5 C B A
In the example shown here, the control frame instructs that the part must first be placed with surface C against a flat plane, then slid along so that surface B contacts a perpendicular upright plane (at two points), and finally slid across to locate surface A against the last plane (one point will contact here).
10
R50 A
40 B
The surface profile tolerance applies over the whole of the indicated surface. In other words, the tolerance applies flatness control over the surface too. The balloon enlargement in the figures is for illustrative purposes and would not normally appear.
56
Profile tolerances are used on the hexagon shape of a bolt or nut. They are also used to ensure flatness of two coplanar surfaces. No modifier such as MMC or N may be used with the tolerance value, although these modifiers are permissible in the datums.
R50 A
10
4.7
Datums
40 B
A datum is a reference surface. Some of the geometric tolerances need datums, others may not use them. A datum is a theoretically exact point, line or plane, which is used for reference purposes. A datum plane is typically simulated by a flat granite surface, and a datum axis is simulated by holding the part in a chuck. Real life gauging equipment is thus used to make up datums. A datum serves two purposes: Datums locate a part in a repeatable way, so that the part may be checked for geometric tolerance. Datums show how parts are located together when they are assembled. The designer should select datums based on the functional requirements of the assembly, that is, based on how the parts fit together. The symbol for a datum (A, B, C etc) is the letter in a block. The standards differ in some drafting details, but the principles remain the same.
57
measurement. This repeatable position requires up to three datums. Remember that the data order A, B ,C will not put the part into the same position as A, C, B or B, A, C (there are six possible positions).
0.5 C B A
R50 A
An important concept is the sequence in which the part is brought into contact with the three 10 planes of the datum reference frame. Consider 40 a datum reference frame as made up by a flat granite table as the base, on which are two other blocks of granite, all at right angles to each other. When a part is brought for checking, it will most likely be put down on the table first, and therefore this becomes datum A. Next it will be slid into contact with one of the upright blocks, and this surface then becomes datum B. Finally it will be slid across to contact the last block, and this is datum C. It is generally impossible for the part to contact all three planes at three high points on each plane. The part therefore contacts datum A at three high points, datum B at two high points, and datum C at only one point. Consequently, if the part was brought into contact in a different sequence, say A-C-B, then it would end up in a slightly different position in the datum reference frame. Therefore the sequence in which the part is brought into contact with the three planes is important. The sequence is shown in the control frame. The first datum given is the primary datum, next is the secondary datum, and last is the tertiary datum. Datum planes cannot use MMC.
Datum targets
On some parts it can be difficult to establish a datum. For example castings have rough surfaces, and it would be expensive to machine off the whole surface just to get a datum. Curved parts like motor vehicle body panels are also a problem, since it would be destructive to flatten these to make a datum. The solution is to use datum targets. These are localised contact points that can be used to make up a datum. In the case of a curved part, three round nosed pins at a given spacing from each other can be used to locate the part. On the drawing will be shown the position of pins A1, A2 and A3. Together these make up datum A. The same method can be used
58
for castings. Castings are almost always machined somewhat after being cast, and the fresh machining surfaces may be used as datums for the next set of cuts. Datum targets are made up with pins (round nosed), or line contact (cylindrical pins). Small flat ended pins may also be used, but then the drawing needs to show what the end areas in contact with the part look like. For flexible parts, it is usually necessary to use datum targets, and also to specify the magnitude of the restraining force.
0.2 A
0.2 A-B
0.2 A-B
When RFS is used on a datum, then it means that the datum axis or plane has to be found on the B basis of existing geometry. This means that variable geometry devices will be necessary: for example a chuck or collet will be tightened down onto a cylindrical part in order to establish the datum centre line axis. The requirement of variable geometry inspection devices is extra effort for the fabricator compared to MMC. When MMC is used on a datum, then fixed gauges may be used to find the datum. For example, on stepped shaft, the centre line of the gauge (not the part) defines the datum centre line axis. The gauge itself will be loose fitting on the shaft, so the datum axis will not necessarily coincide with the part axis. Therefore by using MMC on the drawings, the designer sacrifices some control over the part tolerances, but still has a functional part, and the fabricator has a slightly easier time. Normally there is an order or precedence in the datums, which is shown by the order in which they appear in the control frame. In some cases two datums are of equal importance. For example the two bearing seats of a stepped shaft could be co-datums. The co-datum would be written A-B.
59
4.8
Modifiers
Basic dimension
A basic dimension is a theoretically true dimension. It is shown enclosed in a box, although sometimes the words BASIC are written next to the dimension instead. A basic dimension does not have its own tolerance. At first this seems to contradict the rule that every dimension on a drawing needs a tolerance. However the basic dimension is only ever used together with a geometric tolerance, and it takes its tolerance from the value of the geometric tolerance. In other words, the geometric tolerance is being used to control both the accuracy of the surface, as well as the tolerance on the dimension.
60
N4 A 0.5 A B A
N4 N0.5 A B
Figure: With a tolerance of 0.5 (left) the tolerance zone is a square of 0.5 mm across sides. The N modifier in front of the tolerance (right) means that the tolerance zone becomes a circle of diameter 0.5 mm.
61
Virtual condition
Virtual condition is the maximum size that a part may be, if it is in the MMC condition of the linear tolerance plus the extreme of any geometric tolerance. The virtual condition often needs to be determined when checking the worst case fit of parts. It is also used to determine the sizes of inspection gauges. The first example alongside shows the virtual condition of a part that does not have any geometric tolerance. The virtual condition is simply the MMC dimensions. Figure: Virtual condition for the N40 cylinder is 40.0 + 0.5 = 40.5 mm, and for the N80 cylinder is 80.0 + 0.5 = 80.5 mm When a geometric tolerance exists, then the virtual condition MAY be affected, depending on the type of geometric tolerance. Those geometric tolerances that are measured into a surface have no effect on virtual condition. Virtual condition IS NOT affected by geometric tolerances of straightness of surface, flatness, orientation of surface, circularity, cylindricity or any geometric tolerance applied to a surface. Figure: Virtual condition for the N40 cylinder is 40.0 + 0.5 + 0.2 = 40.7 mm Virtual condition IS affected by any geometric tolerance applied to a size dimension, such as A straightness of size dimension, orientation of axis, position or any geometric tolerance applied to a axis. If the value of geometric tolerance is permitted to have MMC, then it affects the virtual condition. The virtual condition is the MMC size of the part, plus the geometric tolerance.
N40
+0 .5 -0.3
N80
+0 .5 -0.3
N40
+0 .5 -0.3 M
N0.2
N80
+0 .5 -0.3
62
30
with
4.9
Benefits of MMC
There are two benefits of MMC, first that a bonus tolerance is available to the fabricator, and second that fixed gauges may be used.
N40
+0 .5 -0.3 M
N0.2
A B
63
Thus the amount by which the dimension departs from the MMC may be added to the geometric tolerance. This only applies when the MMC condition is allowed by the designer. In effect it gives the fabricator a larger (bonus) tolerance within to work, and this makes the job easier and cheaper. From the designers perspective, the use of MMC means that the surface will still be accurate enough when the part is at its largest, and when the part is smaller the accuracy will decrease. If this situation can be tolerated for function (and the type of geometric tolerance allows it), then it is good practice to permit the MMC bonus tolerance in the design. The MMC condition may be applied either to the tolerance, or to the datum plane, or both. M If the tolerance is MMC, then it means that a bonus tolerance is available and a fixed gauge may be used to determine the acceptability of the feature. Not all tolerances can be made MMC, please see the descriptions under each geometric tolerance. M If the datum is MMC, then it means that the datum may be found by means of a fixed instrument, rather than one with movable geometry. Consequently the bonus tolerance permits a datum shift to occur. Not all datums may be specified as MMC. Planar datums may not, only features of size.
RFS
If nothing else is stated, the situation will be RFS by default. Therefore, if the MMC had NOT been specified in the tolerance, then the meaning would be as follows: # put the part with surface A on a flat plane # slide part so that surface B touches the other plane # the theoretical centre of the hole is at 50 and 30 # the diameter of the hole may be between 40.5 and 39.7 # the actual centre of the hole must be inside a cylinder of diameter 0.2 mm at the theoretical centre, regardless of the size of the hole
64
30
N40
+0 .5 -0.3 M
N0.2
A B
This calculation does not have to be done at the time of measuring, since the gauge automatically takes it into account. The gauge for this part would have two datum surfaces, and a pin, as shown in the diagram. The centre of the pin would be positioned at the basic dimensions, and the diameter of the pin would be determined as follows: O hole is allowed to be as small as 40.0 0.3 = 39.7 O hole has a position tolerance of N 0.2 O MMC is permitted O therefore pin diameter is 39.7 - 0.2 = 39.5 Figure: Gauge for position tolerance with MMC If the part fits onto this gauge then it passes the geometric tolerance. There would need to be a separate check that the hole diameter was within its limits. The advantage of MMC is that it permits the use of fixed geometry gauges such as these. This reduces the cost of measurement. It is good design practice to use MMC where ever it is permitted and the design will tolerate it.
65
N400.3 N0.2
M
A B
N120.1 N0.0 B
M
Figure: Position tolerance with MMC applied to tolerance value. Whatever size the lower hole is, it becomes datum B. The top hole also has a geometric tolerance, this time one of position. It requires that the part be positioned up first against datum A, and then that a pin be put through the lower hole (datum B). This locates the part so that measurements of tolerance may be made in a repeatable fashion. The position tolerance permits datum B to be MMC, which means that a pin of fixed diameter may be used at the small hole. The pin diameter at B would be 12.0 - 0.1 - 0.0 = 11.9. If hole B is larger than this, say 12.0, then the extra 0.1 becomes a bonus which is added to the position tolerance of the top hole. In other words, the datum B is permitted to shift.
66
The larger hole has a position tolerance that is given as MMC, so this permits a bonus as well. Again a fixed diameter pin is therefore allowed. The pin diameter would be 40.0 - 0.3 - 0.2 = 39.5. The datum shift is not added in here. But the two pins would be mounted on a plate that kept them rigidly fixed at 60.0 apart, and the datum shift means that any bonus obtained on datum B would allow this gauge to move up or down, and this would ease the position tolerance of the upper hole.
4.10
Conclusions
Geometric tolerances achieve something important: they ensure that parts assemble together well. Consequently there are less defects at production, and the assembly process itself is easier. That makes for a less expensive product, and also one that is better quality. Also, maintenance is easier to perform, partly because parts are interchangeable, but also because things fit together easier. All of this is achieved by the special codes we call geometric tolerances. They capture the intent of the Design Engineers for product functionality, and represent it in a way that can be put into action by the Production Engineers. Specifically, the Production Engineers use the information to determine which part-features need careful attention, and how much. The tolerances quantify quality. They also describe how the part will be measured, and what will constitute a pass (defect).
67
Though the symbols and the concepts of geometric tolerances are complex, they are well-worth understanding by Design-, Production-, and Metrology-Engineers. The symbols may look like squiggles to the ignorant, but they are more important than the geometry itself: given the finished assembly a competitor can always measure the geometry by inspection, but information on how to make the parts efficiently is locked away in the geometric tolerances which can only be seen on the drawing.
68