Relative-edQt Induced SIip tn Cenffigal Impellerslfor Engineering S tuden8

T.W. von Backstrdm*

The paper presents a new method

for deriving

the

induced slip, pump.

relative-eddy induced slip factor in centnfugal

impellers in an engineering teaching situation. The simple analytical method derives the slip velocity in terms of a single relative eddy (SRE) centered on the rotor axis instead of the usual multiple (one per blade passage) eddies. Features of the method are: the application of basic fluid dynamics to a consisfent control volume and logical determination of zntpirical constants, The method shows corcect limiting behaviour for zero blades and for 90" blade angle combined with unity radius ratio, and excellent agreement with the accurate analytical method of Busemann. The SRE method meets the main criteria for presenting slip factor in an engineering teaching situation. It is suggested as a replacement in the teaching situation for the commonly used methods of Stodola, Stanitz and Wiesner.

1. lntroduction
The rate at which centrifugal compressors and pumps do flow work is less than that calculated with the assumption that the relative flow at the exit of the rotor follows the blade trailing
edges. The reduction in angular momentum imparted to the

flow

is determined by the slip factor. Engineering teachers and

students need a reliable method for the calculation of slip factor

in centrifugal impellers. It should be based on sound fluid

dynamics, and be suitable for classroom derivation. The method should be widely applicable in terms of basic impeller geometry such as blade number and blade angle, and be relatively accurate for typical values of impeller radius ratio.

The main mechanism usually considered when predicting

slip factor in radial flow impellers is the so-called relative eddy. This is an inviscid flow effect. A fluid element entering a radial flow impeller does not rotate around its own axis with an angular velocity equal to that of the rotor, but moves around the machine axis while maintaining a constant orientation relative to the machine casing. Relative to the rotor, however, the fluid element rotates at an angular velocity equal but opposite to the angular velocity of the rotor. The relative vorticity of the flow in the rotor will set up a recirculating flow pattern relative to the rotor. In centrifugal impellers it results in a change in circumferential velocity component relative to the rotor at the rotor exit plane, causing the flow to deviate from the blade direction at the trailing edges. Directly or by implication, textbooks have generally treated the relative eddy as the major factor causing slip in radial flow

Nomenclature
Roman

c d e F RR r s U w Z
Greek

blade length rotor diameter eddy radius in Stodola derivation blade angle function radius ratio

rotor radius
blade spacing, distance along integration path

rotor

speed

circulation velocity number of rotor blades

B f Ic o A i lim p .r
0,
1

blade angle circulation circle circumference to diameter ratio slip factor

rotor angular velocity

b 06 u o
lfr

Subscripts
exit

CL

604

inlet

limitingvalue
pressure side of blade suction side of blade blade angle function designations

,2,3

Additional Keywords
Engineering education, slip factor, centrifugal impeller, eddy*Professor, MSA|MechE, Department of Mechanical and Mechatronic Engineering, University of Stellenbosch, South Africa E-mai: twvb@sun.ac.za

0.2 0.4 0.6

0.8

Blade radius ratio, RR

Figure 1: Busemann slip factor as dependent on RRlor 0 = 30o

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Relative-eddy Induced Slip in Centrifugal lmpellers for Engineering Students

He analytically solved the inviscid flow field through a series
1

of

0.9 0.8

t tr
o lfr o +. ()
rF
a-

ll

0.7 0.6 0.5

L l-

(E

0.4 0.3
0.2
0.1

two-dimensional impellers with logarithmic spiral blades. He generated maps of slip factor versus impeller radius ratio, with blade number as parameter, for various blade sweep angles for logarithmic spiral blades. Blade radius ratio (RR) is the radial distance of the blade leading edge from the axis divided by that of the blade trailing edge. Wislicenuso and Wiesnertn reproduced these maps (for example figure 1). The Busemann maps indicated that slip factor depends on RR, but below a critical value of RR it is relatively constant, especially for high blade numbers. Figure2 shows the Busemann slip factors forRR - 0 as dependent on blade angle, P.The Busemann values presented here have recently been recalculated by Hassenpflug2o.
1.0

CL

0.9 0.8

o
0

10

20

30 40 50 60 70 80
Blade angle

90

t t

II

0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2

0.1

o lfo u (J
lf-

Figure 2: Busemann slip factor at RR - 0 as dependent on B

(tr

turbomachines, for example Stodolat, Eckert and Schnell2, Fergusoo3, Wislicenus4, Osbornes, Ecku, Watson and JanotaT, o, I r, Cumpstys, Logarle, Dixon Johnson Wilson and Korakianiti s 2, Aungiert3, and Saravanamuttoo et al.la. At least, they generally do not attempt to model the other contributing factors. Dean and Youngtt, Whitfield and Bainesr6 and Japikse and Bainestt do however consider the effect of the wake region in the blade passage, butjet-wake models still require a slip factorcorrelation in the jet flow region where viscous effects do not dominate.
t

.g

0.0

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Blade angle

90

2. Background
B u semann
t

propo sed

remarkable s lip factor prediction method.

Figure 4: Stanitz-Stodola slip factor compared to Busemann

2m"lZ)cos

Unfortunately the Busemann methodrs is mathematically complex and not compact enough for inclusion in text books or derivation in the classroom, So various simplified approaches have been tried. The most popular of these are the equations of Stodolar and Stanitz2r and the curve fit by Wiesnertn. Stodolat presented a simplified and popular approximate derivation followed by many textbooks. He inserted a circularshaped control volume between the blades, near the outer radius of the rotor (figure 3). The circle touches the suction side trailing edge of one blade and is tangent to the pressure surface of its neighbour. For a rotor with exit radius, r" and number of blades, Z,theblade spacing tsLnr" lZand the eddy diameter is2e = (2tcr, lZ) cos B, with pthe blade exit angle measured from the radial direction. Stodola assumed the slip velocity caused by the relative eddy to be equal in magnitude to the speed of rotation of the circular eddy at its rim: Aw = Q e = {Zr"/t(cos P)lZ = U ,tT (cos P)IZ. A recent example of such an approach is the paper of
Paeng and Chung22. The present study was started because the Stodolat assumption that the eddy rim velocity Aw may be applied along the rotor perimeter (the edge of another control volume) as the so-called slip velocity was difficult to justify, especially in a teaching

Figure 3: Geometry for slip derivation of Stodola

22

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Relative-eddy Induced Slip in Centrifugal lmpellers lor Engineering Students

1.0

0.9 0.8

o
o th o +, ()
(U l|-

t tl-

lt

0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2

0.1

(* f)t...i,

.g

0.0

0 1020 3040 506070 8090

Blade angle
Figure 5: Wiesner slip factor compared to Busemann

Figure 6: Geometry for SRE slip derivation

for use when B <30o. When 60" < B < 70o the Stodolat slip factor equation is recommended:
Q

situation. The vaguely defined control volumes in the Stodolat approach leads to the unrealistic conclusions that blade length (or radius ratio) does not matter, and that in the limit of zero blades on the impeller, the slip factor is equal to minus infinity. Text books do not generally state the accuracy of the Stodolar,
Stanitz2t and Wiesnertn approaches compared to the Busemannt8 exact inviscid flow solution. As a consequence students end up

z(cos

p)lz

(2)

The two equations are equivalent when B

4 shows that using the Stanitz equation for P < 51o and the Stodola equation for B > 51o compares reasonably well with
Busemann in the recommended ranges, but only for rotors with many blades (Z> 8). Wiesnerte proposed an empirical equation, valid for RR less than a limiting value, RRri,, statit g, in our angle notation, that:

- 51o, and figure

with a rather vague understanding of what causes slip factor, which method to apply where, and how well the popular approaches agree with Busemanntt or with experimental data.

3. Definition of SIip Factor

Before defining slip factor, the normalised slip velocity should be defined. In one common definition the slip is normalised by dividing the slip velocity by the rotor rim speed, and in another by the circumferential component of the ideal (slipless), absolute velocity atthe rotor exit. The second one introduces the complication that the ideal circumferential fluid velocity component is dependent on the flow through the impeller, except in the case of radial blades (8"= 0) or zero flow through the impeller, when the two definitions are equivalent. Slip factor is one minus the normalized slip velocity. For the sake of simplicity we shall follow Wiesnertn and use the first definition of normalised slip velocity. It is known that in practice slip factors are not independent of through-flow, but the present investigation will focus on eddy-induced slip, which is independent of flow.

+,
C)

b 06
G
CL

$r

fn o-4
0.2

4. Traditional Approaches
Stanitz2t presented the slip factor equation given below, based
on inviscid flow numerical modelling:

0.2 0.4 0.6

(1)

0.9

e -- 1 - 0.63 TtlZ
Textbooks such
as

Blade radius ratio, RR

Figure 7: SRE slip factor as dependent on RR tor 0 = 30"

Dixonto recommend the Stanitzzt equation

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Helative-eddy Induced Slip in Centrifugal lmpellers for Engineering Students

1.0

None of the methods described above models the Busemann

0.9 0.8

data consistently well, and all predict the slip factor for the limiting case of zero blades to be -oo, instead of 0.

5. The Single Relative Eddy Approach

Von Backstrcim23 has recently presented a new, approximate method for the derivation of relative-eddy induced slip in centrifugal impellers. The most important assumptions are listed
below:

t, tr Lo *L o +. o (E
lar
I

lt

0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3

0.2
0.1

CL .I

U'

0.0

10 20 30 40 50 60
Blade angle
Figure 8: SRE slip factor for F1 =
Busemann

70

80

90

Logarithmic spiral rotor blades. The two-dimensional control volume consists of a curved sector bounded by five lines: two logarithmic spirals representing adjacent blades, two radial lines between the blade leading edges and the axis, and by the rotor perimeter between the trailing edges (figure 6). tr The flow induced by the relative eddy causes no throughflow. tr There is only one relative eddy in the whole rotor: it revolves around the axis and protrudes into the blade passages, and when it forms separate cells associated with each blade passage, these cells are included in the main cell centered on the rotor axis (figure
6).

tr tr

5 (cosp)o's compared

With reference to its most distinguishing feature, it was called the Single Relative Eddy (SRE) method.
to

6. Derivation of SRE Equations

B lZoT (3) The complete derivation is given by Von Backstrdm23, but its fundamental principles are : tr Each fluid particle in the rotor has a vorticity equal in magnitude to twice the rotor angular velocity, relative to the rotor. tr There is a single average circulation velocity, Aw around the edges of the relative eddy. tr The integral of the circulation velocity around the control volume divided by the control volume area is equal to the

o- 1 /*r

Figure 5 compares the Wiesner prediction (for RR ( RR,,,,) with Busemann. The agreement is seen to be excellent for 16 blades when B< 80". It is also good for p< 30" for 4or more blades, but is difficult to find a contiguous region where the agreement is very good.

vorticity.
1.0

0.9 0.8

t t

il
L-

0.7 0.6

tr The integration path follows the suction surface from leading to trailing edge, then the rotor exit rim from the blade trailing edge to the next blade pressure side trailing edge, then to its leading edge, and then around its leading edge from pressure to suction side (figure 6). The slip velocity as a fraction of the rotor rim speed is then given by:
(4)

o lfr o +,
(E tF
II

L-

0.5 0.4 0.3

0.2
0.1

CL

F is the sum of the average circulation velocities along the blade suction and pressure surfaces, divided by the average circulation velocity along the exit bounddt!, Aw,:

(s)
The function F must be found to give good agreement with

0.0

10 20 30 40 50
Figure 9: SRE slip factor for F2 =
Busemann

60

70 80

90

Busemannt8 or with experimental data. The norrnal definition of blade row solidity is the blade chord

Blade angle
5
(cosp)o a5 compared to

divided by the spacing, but to keep things simple, we shall replace the chord by the blade length (in a plane perpendicular to the rotor axis) and use the spacing at the radius, r, of the blade trailing edges (rotor rim). The solidity is then:

24

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Relative-eddy lnduced SIip in Centrifugal lmpellers lor Engineering Students

B and RR. Stodohr and Stanitz2r ignore RR as a parameter, Wiesnerle brings it in only as a correction, and Busemann showed that at high blade numbers (Z> 8) slip factor is very weakly dependent on RR, especially for RR < 0.5 (figure 1). Figure 7 shows the SRE prediction of slip factor with radius ratioRR, andF = 30'andforaprovisionalvalueofF = 4.6. The general trend of the lines of constant blade number is similar

cI

s"

(r"

,,)

cos

p
(6)

(2" ,") t z
2n
cos

_ (r -RR)z

The nonnalised slip velocity is then simply:

to that of figure 1. Both predict d =0 at RR= 1, with o

increasing as RR decreases, but the SRE prediction does not level off at low values of RR. Since most impellers have values

Ar"

(J" l+F(tlr")

(t)

of radius ratio between 0.4 and 0.6, a possible approach to fi nding a suitable expression for F would be to choose a value that would

It is instructive to point out in class that the slip is fundamentally determined by the ratio of the total blade length to the impeller circumferential length. It is also worth noting in retrospect that the derivation would have been possible without the logarithmic spiralblade assumption. This probably explains why Busemann's values have been successfully used for impeller blades with other shapes.
As defined above slip factor is one minus the normalizedslip

ensure good agreement between SRE with RR = 0.5, and Busemann with RR = 0, and then assuming that RR = 0.5 when RR < 0.5 in the SRE prediction. These assumptions enable us to
calculate values of slip factorforall combinations ofZandBand compare them, on the same basis as the Stodola, Stanitz and Wiesner methods, to the corresponding Busemann values for

RR=0.

velocity:

8. Gomparison of SRE Predictions with Busemann

By finding the values of Fthat would give good agreement with the data of Busemanntt measured from the graphs in Wiesnerre, vonBackstr0m23 showedthattheequation: F, =Fo (cos B)05, with Fo= 5.0, represented the trend well enough. Figure 8 correlates with the SRE slip factor for F, with accurate Busemann values from Hassenpflog'0. Also shown are lines of constant solidity. It is apparent that the equation correlates with the Busemann data accurately when the solidity exceeds 0.5 and the blade angle is less than 70". The agreement can be slightly improved, however if the exponent in the equation is changed from 0.5 to 0.45 (equation for Fr). The higher angle limit is then increased to

e -l -(lw, lU) - 1- vQ+ F @tr"))

-l-

(8)

Since the magnitude of the other factors affecting slip, like blade incidence angle, trailing edge pressure gradient relaxation and boundary layer blockage effect (including the existence of wakes) are also primarily dependent on solidity, solidity should correlate measured slip factors well, at worst with a different F for each family of impellers.

7. The Dependence of F on Blade Angle

The next step in finding F is to determine its dependence on
2,,

80'(figure9).
B usemann is

When the required value of F for perfect agreement with plotted against B for various blade numbers (figure

10) it appears

thatFr=)aJcos pshouldleadto good agreement

for 4 or more blades and blade angles up to 85o. The reason why F = 2 when F=90 is that blades oriented at 90o do not deflect the flow, so that the flow inside and outside the rotor remains stationary in the absolute frame. The relative velocities over the
blade suction and pressure sides are then equal, and equal to the relative velocity along the rotor rim (the slip velocity) and:
ILF
{r,

_c

o4 iE
II

o o

--a*o+aw, -aw"+aw" -n ^ Aw. Aw"

(9)

l+r

o\)

OQ

Inserting F, into the SRE then leads to figure 1 I , which shows excellent agreement (within 0.005) with Busemann for all blade angles right up to 90o, for Z > 2 and c/s" > 0.5, and good agreement (within 0.03)forZ> I andc/s">0.25.

9. Discussion
The SRE method for the prediction of relative-eddy induced slip in inviscid flow in centrifugal impellers has been derived, based
on the following:

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Blade angle

90

tr E E

Figure 10: Required values of F tor agreement with

Busemann

Simple assumptions based on sound fluid dynamics Consistent control volumes Logical determination of empirical constants O Careful check against an accurate analytical method The proposed equation for eddy-induced slip factor in

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Relative-eddy Induced Slip in Centrifugal lmpellers for Engineering Students

centrifugal impellers is then:
experimental data presented by Wiesnerre shows excellent agreement between the SRE predictions and the Busemann values plotted against the modified solidity Fr( c/s"),forblade number, Z varyingfrom3 to 44, blade angle, B from 0" to 82" and radius

o:lr+(z+3cos

p)((:-*):\ ''\,.

2ncosp )

10)

ratio,RR from0.33 to 0.60 (figure 12).

The various SRE approaches represent the analytical method of Busemann extremely well. Von Backstrtinf3 has shown that the SRE method also predicts a large range of experimental slip

where RR is taken as 0.5 when RR < 0.5. As pointed out, the SRE slip factor automatically approaches 0 as RR approaches 1 .0 (figure 7), without the need for a separate correction as in the Wiesnerre method. Application of the SRE equation above to the
1.0

factors as accurately as the method of Wiesnerre. Consequently students can use the SRE method for the prediction of relativeeddy induced slip with confidence.

10. Gonclusions
The SRE method for the prediction of relative-eddy induced slip factor in centrifugal impellers represents the mathematically complex inviscid method of Busemannrs with sufficient accuracy for class room use. It is derived by applying basic fluid dynamics to a consistent control volume. It exhibits the correct limiting behaviour for zero blades and 9O'blade angle combined with unity radius ratio, and is more accurate than the methods of Stodola, Stanitz and Wiesner. The SRE method meets the main criteria for teaching slip factor, and can replace the commonly used methods in an engineering teaching situation.

0.9 0.8

t t

ll

0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2

0.1

o rh o +,
rtr l+r

o
CL

CN

.I

References
1. Stodola A, Steam and Gas Turbines, McGraw-HiU, 1927. Reprinted by Peter Smith, New York, 1945.

0.0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Blade angle
Figure
1

2. Eckert B and Schnell4 Axial- und Radialkompressore[ Springer-Verlag, 1961, 345. 3. Ferguson IB, The Centrifugal Compressor Stage, Butterworths, Landon, 1963, 85 - 90. 4. Wislicenus G4 Fluid Mechanics of Turbomachinery, 2d ed., in two volumes, Volume One. Dover Publications, Inc.,
to

1: SRE slip factor for Fr=

2+ 3 cosp compared

Busemann

1.0

0.9 0.8 0.7

o +,
C) l|r
I

0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2

0.1

(E

CL rIl

New York, 1965,269. 5. Osbome I4lC Fans, Pergamon Press, Bell and Bain Ltd., Glasgow, 1966, 129. 6. Eck B 1973, Fans, Pergamon Press, Germany, 37. 7. Watson N and Janota MS, Turbocharging the Internal Combustion Enging MacMillan Education Ltd. London, 1986, 89. 8. Cumpsty NA, Compressor Aerodynamics, Longman Scientific & Technical, England, 1989, 245 - 249. 9. Logan E Jnr, Turbomachinery Basic Theory and Applications,2nd ed. Revised and expanded, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New Yorh 1993, 167,248. 10. Dixon Sl, Fluid Mechanics, Thermodynamics of Turbomachinery. Pergamon Press, 1998, 222 - 227. I I. Johnson RlV, The Handbook of Fluid Dynamics, CRC Press, Springer, U.S.A., 1998, 41-12 - 41-14. I 2. Wils on DG and Ko rakianitis f,, The Design of High-Effi ciency Turbomachinery and Gas Turbines,2d ed., Prentice HaIl, New Jersey, 1998,240. 13. Aungier RH, Centrifugal Compressors - A Strategy for Aerodynamic Design and Analysis, ASME Press, New Yorh

2000, 55.
0.0 0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

14. Saravanamuttoo HIH, Rogers GFC and Cohen II, Gas Turbine Theory, 5'h ed. Prentice Hall, Cornwall,2001, 153,

Solidity, modified for blade angle

Figure 12: Busemann slip factors for Wiesner's test cases against Fr(c/s")

I 55. I5. Dean RC and Young IR, The fluid dynamic design of
advanced centrifugal compressors, Creare TN-244, 1976,

5-27.

26

R & D Journal, 2007, 23 (1) of the South African Institution of Mechanical Engineering

Relative-eddy lnduced Slip in Centrifugal lmpellers for Engineering Studenfs

16. Whiffield A and Baines NC, Design of radial turbo-machines, I-ongman Singapore Publishers (Pty) Ltd., Avon, uK, 1990,220 - 231. 17. Japikse D and Baines NC, Introduction to Turbo-machinery, Concepts ETI and Oxford University Press, 1997, 4-6 4-7. 18. Busemann A, Das Fdrderhdhenverh[ltniss radialer Kreiselpumpen mit logarithi sch- spiraligen S chaufeln, Ze it schrift fur Angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik, 1928, E

371

19. Wiesner FJ, Areview of slip factors for centrifugal impellers, Trans. ASME Journal of Engineering for Power 1967,

84.

89, 558

72.

20. Hassenpflug WC, Personal communication, 2004. 21. Stanitz JD, Some Theoretical Aerodynamic Investigations of Impellers in Radial and Mixed-Flow Centrifugal Compressors, Cleveland, Ohio, Transactions of the ASME, 1952, 74, 473 - 476. 22. Paeng KS and Chung MK, A new slip factor for centrifugal impellers, Proc. Instn. Mech. Engrs.,200l,2l5, Part A,

64s - 649. 23. Von Backstrdm TW, A unified correlation for slip factor in centrifugal impellers, ASME Journal of Turbomachinery, January 2006, 128, I - 10.

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