Lithium-ion battery

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Not to be confused with Lithium battery or Lithium-ion polymer battery. "Lithium-ion" redirects here. For the metal element, see Lithium. Lithium-ion battery

Nokia Li-ion battery for powering a mobile phone

Specific energy

100265 Wh/kg[1][2] (0.360.95 MJ/kg)

Energy density

250730 Wh/L[2] (0.902.23 MJ/L)

Specific power Charge/discharge efficiency Energy/consumer-price Self-discharge rate

~250-~340 W/kg[1] 8090%[3] 2.5 Wh/US$ 8% at 21 C 15% at 40 C 31% at 60 C (per month)[4]

Cycle durability

4001200 cycles
[5]

Nominal cell voltage

NMC 3.6 / 3.7 V,LiFePO4 3.2 V

A lithium-ion battery (sometimes Li-ion battery or LIB) is a member of a family of rechargeable battery types in whichlithium ions move from the negative electrode to the positive electrode during discharge, and back

when charging. Li-ion batteries use an intercalated lithium compound as the electrode material, compared to the metallic lithium used in thenon-rechargeable lithium battery. Lithium-ion batteries are common in consumer electronics. They are one of the most popular types of rechargeable battery for portable electronics, with one of the best energy densities, no memory effect, and only a slow loss of chargewhen not in use. Beyond consumer electronics, LIBs are also growing in popularity for military, electric vehicle, andaerospace applications.[6] Research is yielding a stream of improvements to traditional LIB technology, focusing on energy density, durability, cost, and intrinsic safety. Chemistry, performance, cost, and safety characteristics vary across LIB types. Handheld electronics mostly use LIBs based on lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2), which offers high energy density, but have well-known safety concerns, especially when damaged. Lithium iron phosphate (LFP), lithium manganese oxide (LMO) and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) offer lower energy density, but longer lives and inherent safety. These chemistries are being widely used for electric tools, medical equipment and other roles. NMC in particular is a leading contender for automotive applications. Lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (NCA) and lithium titanate (LTO) are specialty designs aimed at particular niche roles.
Contents [hide]

1 Charge and discharge 2 Construction 3 Formats 4 History

o
5 Uses

4.1 Modern batteries

6 Electrochemistry

6.1 Electrolytes

7 Advantages and disadvantages

o o

7.1 Advantages 7.2 Disadvantages

8 Specifications and design 9 Battery charging procedure 10 Materials and construction 11 Battery pack life

11.1 Conditioning controversy

11.2 Multicell devices

12 Safety

o o

12.1 Recalls 12.2 Transport restrictions

13 Research 14 See also 15 Notes 16 References 17 External links

[edit]Charge

and discharge

During discharge, lithium ions Li+ carry the current from the negative to the positive electrode, through the nonaqueous electrolyte and separator diaphragm.[7] During charging, an external electrical power source (the charging circuit) applies an over-voltage (a higher voltage but of the same polarity) than that produced by the battery, forcing the current to pass in the reverse direction. The lithium ions then migrate from the positive to the negative electrode, where they become embedded in the porous electrode material in a process known as intercalation.
[edit]Construction

Cylindrical 18650 lithium iron phosphate cell before closing

The three primary functional components of a lithium-ion battery are the negative electrode, positive electrode, and theelectrolyte. The negative electrode of a conventional lithium-ion cell is made from carbon. The positive electrode is a metal oxide, and the electrolyte is a lithium salt in an organic solvent.[8] The electrochemical roles of the electrodes change between anode and cathode, depending on the direction of current flow through the cell.

The most commercially popular negative electrode material is graphite. The positive electrode is generally one of three materials: a layered oxide (such as lithium cobalt oxide), a polyanion (such as lithium iron phosphate), or a spinel (such as lithium manganese oxide).[9] The electrolyte is typically a mixture of organic carbonates such as ethylene carbonate or diethyl carbonate containingcomplexes of lithium ions.[10] These non-aqueous electrolytes generally use noncoordinating anion salts such as lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6), lithium hexafluoroarsenate monohydrate (LiAsF6), lithium perchlorate (LiClO4), lithium tetrafluoroborate (LiBF4), and lithium triflate (LiCF3SO3). Depending on materials choices, the voltage, capacity, life, and safety of a lithium-ion battery can change dramatically. Recently, novel architectures using nanotechnology have been employed to improve performance. Pure lithium is very reactive. It reacts vigorously with water to form lithium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. Thus, a non-aqueous electrolyte is typically used, and a sealed container rigidly excludes water from the battery pack. Lithium ion batteries are more expensive than NiCd batteries but operate over a wider temperature range with higher energy densities, while being smaller and lighter. They are fragile and so need a protective circuit to limit peak voltages.
[edit]Formats

Nissan Leaf's lithium-ion battery pack.

Li-ion cells are available in various formats, which can generally be divided into four groups: [11][12]

Small cylindrical (solid body without terminals, such as those used in laptop batteries) Large cylindrical (solid body with large threaded terminals) Pouch (soft, flat body, such as those used in cell phones) Prismatic (semi-hard plastic case with large threaded terminals, often used in vehicles' traction packs)

The lack of case gives pouch cells the highest energy density; however, pouch cells (and prismatic cells) require an external means of containment to prevent expansion when their state-of-charge (SOC) level is high.[13]
[edit]History

See also: History of the battery

Varta lithium-ion battery, Museum Autovision, Altlussheim, Germany

Lithium batteries were first proposed by M. S. Whittingham, now at Binghamton University, while working for Exxon in the 1970s.[14] Whittingham used titanium(II) sulfide and lithium metal as the electrodes. The reversible intercalation in graphite[15][16] and intercalation into cathodic oxides[17][18] was also discovered in the 1970s by J. O. Besenhard at TU Munich. Besenhard also proposed the application as high energy density lithium cells.[19][20] Electrolyte decomposition and solvent co-intercalation into graphite were severe drawbacks for long battery cycle life. Primary lithium batteries in which the negative electrode is made from metallic lithium pose safety issues. As a result, lithium-ion batteries were developed in which both electrodes are made of a material containing lithium ions. At Oxford University, England, in 1979, John Goodenough and K Mizushima demonstrated a rechargeable cell with high cell voltage in the 4V range using lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) as the positive electrode and lithium metal as the negative electrode.[21][clarification needed] This innovation provided the positive electrode material which made LIBs possible. LiCoO2 is a stable positive electrode material which acts as a donor of lithium ions, which means that it can be used with a negative electrode material other than lithium metal. By enabling the use of stable and easy-to-handle negative electrode materials, LiCoO2 opened a whole new range of possibilities for novel rechargeable battery systems. In 1977, Samar Basu demonstrated electrochemical intercalation of lithium in graphite at the University of Pennsylvania.[22][23] This led to the development of a workable lithium intercalated graphite electrode at Bell Labs (LiC6)[24] to provide an alternative to the lithium metal electrode battery. In 1980, Rachid Yazami also demonstrated the reversible electrochemical intercalation of lithium in graphite.[25][26] The organic electrolytes available at the time would decompose during charging if used with a graphite negative electrode, preventing the early development of a rechargeable battery which employed the lithium/graphite system. Yazami used a solid electrolyte to demonstrate that lithium could be reversibly

intercalated in graphite through an electrochemical mechanism. The graphite electrode discovered by Yazami is currently the most commonly used electrode in commercial lithium ion batteries. In 1983, Dr. Michael Thackeray, Goodenough, and coworkers identified manganese spinel as a cathode material.[27] Spinel showed great promise, given its low-cost, good electronic and lithium ion conductivity, and three-dimensional structure, which gives it good structural stability. Although pure manganese spinel fades with cycling, this can be overcome with chemical modification of the material.[28] Manganese spinel is currently used in commercial cells.[29] In 1985, Akira Yoshino assembled a prototype cell using carbonaceous material into which lithium ions could be inserted as one electrode, and lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2), which is stable in air, as the other.[30] By using materials without metallic lithium, safety was dramatically improved over batteries which used lithium metal. The use of lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) enabled industrial-scale production to be achieved easily. This was the birth of the current lithium-ion battery. In June 2012 John Goodenough, Rachid Yazami and Akira Yoshino received the 2012 IEEE Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies for developing the lithium ion battery.
[edit]Modern

batteries

In 1989, Goodenough and Arumugam Manthiram of the University of Texas at Austin showed that cathodes containing polyanions, e.g., sulfates, produce higher voltages than oxides due to the inductive effect of the polyanion.[31] In 1991, Sony and Asahi Kasei released the first commercial lithium-ion battery. In 1996, Goodenough, Akshaya Padhi and coworkers identified lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) and other phospho-olivines (lithium metal phosphates with the same structure as mineral olivine) as cathode materials.[32] In 2002, Yet-Ming Chiang and his group at MIT showed a substantial improvement in the performance of lithium batteries by boosting the material's conductivity bydoping it with aluminium, niobium and zirconium. The exact mechanism causing the increase became the subject of widespread debate. [33] In 2004, Chiang again increased performance by utilizing iron phosphate particles of less than 100 nanometers in diameter. This decreased particle density almost one hundredfold, increased the cathode's surface area and improved capacity and performance. Commercialization led to a rapid growth in the market for higher capacity LIBs, as well as a patent infringement battle between Chiang and Goodenough.[33] As of 2011, lithium-ion batteries account for 66% of all portable secondary (i.e., rechargeable) battery sales in Japan.[34]
[edit]Uses

Li-ion batteries provide light weight, high energy density power sources for a variety of devices, where nickelcadmium or nickel-metal hydride batteries would be too heavy or large. Such devices include:

Portable devices: these include mobile phones and smartphones, laptops and tablets, digital cameras and camcorders, handheld game consoles and torches.

Power tools: Li-ion batteries are used in tools such as cordless drills, sanders, saws and a variety of garden equipment including whipper-snippers and hedge trimmers.

Electric vehicles: Because of their light weight Li-ion batteries are used for energy storage for many electric vehicles for everything from electric cars to Pedelecs, from hybrid vehicles to advanced electric wheelchairs, from radio-controlled models and model aircraft to the Mars Curiosity rover.

[edit]Electrochemistry

The three participants in the electrochemical reactions in a lithium-ion battery are the positive and negative electrodes and the electrolyte. Both electrodes are materials into which, and from which, lithium ions can migrate. During insertion (or intercalation) lithium ions move into the electrode. During the reverse process, extraction (or deintercalation), lithium ions move back out. When a lithium-based cell is discharging, the positive lithium ion is extracted from the negative electrode (usually graphite) and inserted into the positive electrode (lithium containing compound). When the cell is charging, the reverse occurs. Useful work can only be extracted if electrons flow through a closed external circuit. The following equations show one example of the chemistry, in units of moles, making it possible to use the coefficient The positive electrode half-reaction (with charging being forwards) is:[35] .

The negative electrode half-reaction is:

The overall reaction has its limits. Overdischarge supersaturates lithium cobalt oxide, leading to the production of lithium oxide,[36] possibly by the following irreversible reaction:

Overcharge up to 5.2 volts leads to the synthesis of cobalt(IV) oxide, as evidenced by x-ray diffraction[37]

In a lithium-ion battery the lithium ions are transported to and from the cathode or anode, with the transition metal, cobalt (Co), in from Co4+ to Co3+ during discharge. being oxidized fromCo3+ to Co4+ during charging, and reduced

The energy provided by the cell is equal to the voltage times the charge. Each gram of lithium represents Faraday's constant/6.941 or 13 901 coulombs. For a voltage of 3 V, this gives 41.7 kJ per gram of lithium, or 11.6 kWh per kg. This is a bit more than the heat of combustion of gasoline, but does not take into account all the other materials that go into a lithium battery and which make lithium batteries many times heavier per unit of energy.
[edit]Electrolytes

The cell voltages given in the Electrochemistry section are larger than the potential at which aqueous solutions can electrolyze, in addition lithium is highly reactive to water, therefore, nonaqueous or aprotic solutions are used. Liquid electrolytes in lithium-ion batteries consist of lithium salts, such as LiPF6, LiBF4 or LiClO4 in an organic solvent, such as ethylene carbonate, dimethyl carbonate, and diethyl carbonate. A liquid electrolyte conducts lithium ions, acting as a carrier between the cathode and the anode when a battery passes an electric current through an external circuit. Typical conductivities of liquid electrolyte at room temperature (20 C (68 F)) are in the range of 10 mS/cm (1 S/m), increasing by approximately 3040% at 40 C (104 F) and decreasing by a slightly smaller amount at 0 C (32 F)[38] Unfortunately, organic solvents easily decompose on anodes during charging. However, when appropriate organic solvents are used as the electrolyte, the solvent decomposes on initial charging and forms a solid layer called the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI),[39] which is electrically insulating yet provides sufficient ionic conductivity. The interphase prevents decomposition of the electrolyte after the second charge. For example, ethylene carbonate is decomposed at a relatively high voltage, 0.7 V vs. lithium, and forms a dense and stable interface.[40] A good solution for the interface instability is the application of a new class of composite electrolytes based on POE (poly(oxyethylene)) developed by Syzdek et al.[41][42] It can be either solid (high molecular weight) and be applied in dry Li-polymer cells, or liquid (low molecular weight) and be applied in regular Li-ion cells. Concerning the flammability and volatility of the organic solvents present in the electrolyte, another option, how to improve the overall safety of the battery, is in using room temperature ionic liquids (RTILs) as the main component of the electrolyte.[43]
[edit]Advantages

and disadvantages
This article contains a pro and con list. Please help improve it by integrating both sides into a more neutralpresentation. (November 2012)

Note that both advantages and disadvantages depend on the materials and design that make up the battery. This summary reflects older designs that use carbonanode, metal oxide cathodes, and lithium salt in an organic solvent for the electrolyte.
[edit]Advantages

A lithium-ion battery from a laptopcomputer (176 kJ)

Wide variety of shapes and sizes efficiently fitting the devices they power. Much lighter than other energy-equivalent secondary batteries.[44] High open circuit voltage in comparison to aqueous batteries (such as lead acid, nickel-metal hydride and nickel-cadmium).[45] This is beneficial because it increases the amount of power that can be transferred at a lower current.

No memory effect. Self-discharge rate of approximately 510% per month, compared to over 30% per month in common nickel metal hydride batteries, approximately 1.25% per month for Low Self-Discharge NiMH batteries and 10% per month in nickel-cadmium batteries.[46] According to one manufacturer, lithium-ion cells (and, accordingly, "dumb" lithium-ion batteries) do not have any self-discharge in the usual meaning of this word.[35] What looks like a self-discharge in these batteries is a permanent loss of capacity (see Disadvantages). On the other hand, "smart" lithium-ion batteries do self-discharge, due to the drain of the built-in voltage monitoring circuit.

Components are environmentally safe as there is no free lithium metal.[citation needed]

[edit]Disadvantages [edit]Cell life

Charging forms deposits inside the electrolyte that inhibit ion transport. Over time, the cell's capacity diminishes. The increase in internal resistance reduces the cell's ability to deliver current. This problem is more pronounced in high-current applications. The decrease means that older batteries do not charge as much as new ones (charging time required decreases proportionally).

High charge levels and elevated temperatures (whether from charging or ambient air) hasten capacity loss.[47] Charging heat is caused by the carbon anode (typically replaced with lithium titanate which drastically reduces damage from charging, including expansion and other factors). [48]

A Standard (Cobalt) Li-ion cell that is full most of the time at 25 C (77 F) irreversibly loses approximately 20% capacity per year.[citation needed] Poor ventilation may increase temperatures, further shortening battery life. Loss rates vary by temperature: 6% loss at 0 C (32 F), 20% at 25 C (77 F), and 35% at 40 C(104 F). When stored at 40%60% charge level, the capacity loss is reduced to 2%, 4%, and 15%, respectively.[citation needed] In contrast, the calendar life ofLiFePO4 cells is not affected by being kept at a high state of charge.[49]

[edit]Internal resistance

The internal resistance of standard (Cobalt) lithium-ion batteries is high compared to both other rechargeable chemistries such as nickel-metal hydride and nickel-cadmium, and LiFePO4 and lithiumpolymer cells.[50] Internal resistance increases with both cycling and age.[51][52] Rising internal resistance causes the voltage at the terminals to drop under load, which reduces the maximum current draw. Eventually increasing resistance means that the battery can no longer operate for an adequate period.

To power larger devices, such as electric cars, connecting many small batteries in a parallel circuit is more effective[53] and more efficient than connecting a single large battery.[citation needed]

[edit]Safety requirements

If overheated or overcharged, Li-ion batteries may suffer thermal runaway and cell rupture.[54] In extreme cases this can lead to combustion. Deep discharge may short-circuit the cell, in which case recharging would be unsafe.[citation needed] To reduce these risks, Lithium-ion battery packs contain fail-safe circuitry that shuts down the battery when its voltage is outside the safe range of 34.2 V per cell.[35][46] When stored for long periods the small current draw of the protection circuitry itself may drain the battery below its shut down voltage; normal chargers are then ineffective. Many types of lithium-ion cell cannot be charged safely below 0 C.[55] Other safety features are required in each cell:[35]

Shut-down separator (for overtemperature) Tear-away tab (for internal pressure) Vent (pressure relief) Thermal interrupt (overcurrent/overcharging)

These devices occupy useful space inside the cells, add additional points of failure and irreversibly disable the cell when activated. They are required because the anode produces heat during use, while the cathode may produce oxygen. These devices and improved electrode designs reduce/eliminate the risk of fire or explosion.

Further, these features increase costs compared to nickel metal hydride batteries, which require only a hydrogen/oxygen recombination device (preventing damage due to mild overcharging) and a back-up pressure valve.[46] These safety issues present a problem for large scale application of such cells in Electric Vehicles; A dramatic decrease in the failure rate is necessary.
[edit]Market

Costs more[why?] per watt-hour than other chemistries Not suitable for AAA, AA, C or D form factors due to voltage per cell being more than 2 volts (i.e. 3.7 volts), though most devices designed for a voltage that is a multiple of 1.5 can run safely on a voltage that is 30% higher.[citation needed]

[edit]Specifications

and design

Specific energy density: 150 to 250 Wh/kg (540 to 900 kJ/kg)[1] Volumetric energy density: 250 to 620 Wh/l (900 to 1900 J/cm)[2] Specific power density: 300 to 1500 W/kg (@ 20 seconds and 285 Wh/l)[1]

Because lithium-ion batteries can have a variety of cathode and anode materials, the energy density and voltage vary accordingly. Lithium-ion batteries with a lithium iron phosphate cathode and graphite anode have a nominal open-circuit voltage of 3.2 V and a typical charging voltage of 3.6 V. Lithium nickel manganese cobalt (NMC) oxide cathode with graphite anodes have a 3.7 V nominal voltage with a 4.2 V max charge. The charging procedure is performed at constant voltage with current-limiting circuitry (i.e., charging with constant current until a voltage of 4.2 V is reached in the cell and continuing with a constant voltage applied until the current drops close to zero). Typically, the charge is terminated at 3% of the initial charge current. In the past, lithium-ion batteries could not be fast-charged and needed at least two hours to fully charge. Current-generation cells can be fully charged in 45 minutes or less. Some lithium-ion varieties can reach 90% in as little as 10 minutes.[56]
[edit]Battery

charging procedure

The charging procedures for single Li-ion cells, and complete Li-ion batteries, are slightly different.

A single Li-ion cell is charged in 2 stages:[citation needed] 1. CC 2. CV

A Li-ion battery (a set of Li-ion cells in series) is charged in 3 stages:[57] 1. CC 2. Balance (not required once a battery is balanced) 3. CV

Stage 1: CC: Apply charging current to the battery, until the voltage limit per cell is reached. Stage 2: Balance: Reduce the charging current (or cycle the charging on and off to reduce the average current) while the state of charge of individual cells is balanced by a balancing circuit, until the battery is balanced. Some fast chargers skip stage 2 and claims it's ready at 70% charge. Stage 3: CV: Apply a voltage equal to the maximum cell voltage times the number of cells in series to the battery, as the current gradually declines asymptotically towards 0, until the current is below a set threshold of about 3% of initial constant charge current. Periodic topping charge about once per 500 hours. Top charging is recommended to be initiated when voltage goes below 4.05 V/cell. Lithium-ion is charged with approximate 4.2 0.05 V/cell except for military long life that uses 3.92 V to extend battery life. Most protection circuits cuts off if either >4.3 V or 90 C is reached. Also if threshold of below 2.50 V/cell is reached the battery protection circuit may render it unchargeable with regular charging equipment. Most battery circuits stop at 2.7-3.0 V/cell.[58] Failure to follow current and voltage limitations can result in explosion.[59]
[edit]Materials

and construction

The increasing demand for batteries has led vendors and academics to focus on improving the power density, operating temperature, safety, durability, charging time, output power, and cost of LIB solutions.
LIB types

Area

Technology

Researchers

Target application

Dat e

Benefit

Cathode Manganese spinel (LMO)

Lucky Goldstar Hybrid electric Chemical,[60]NEC, Samsung,[61] Hitachi,[62]Nissan vehicle, cell /AESC[63] phone, laptop

199 durability, cost 6

Lithium iron phosphate

University of Texas/Hydro-Qubec,[64]/Phostech Lithium Inc., Valence

Segway Personal Transporter, power tools, aviation

199 moderate 6 density (2 Ah outputs 70

Technology,A123Systems/MIT[65][66]

products, automotive hybrid systems, PHEVconver sions

amperes) operating temperature >60 C (140 F)

Lithium nickel manganese cobalt (NMC)

Imara Corporation, Nissan Motor,[67][68] Microvast Inc.

200 density, output, 8 safety

LMO/NMC

Sony, Sanyo

power, safety (although limited durability)

Lithium iron fluorophosphate

University of Waterloo

[69]

durability, cost 200 (replace Li 7 with Na or Na/Li)

Lithium air

University of Dayton Research Institute[70]

automotive

200 density, 9 safety[70]

5% Vanadium-doped Lithium iron phosphate olivine

Binghamton University[71]

200 output 8

Lithium purpurin

Dr. Arava Leela Mohana Reddy Rice University[72]

Organic material, low production cost 201 90 milliamp 2 hours per gram after 50 charge/dischar ge cycles

Anode

Lithium-titanate battery (LT)

Altairnano, Microvast Inc.

automotive (Phoenix output, Motorcars), electrical charging time, grid (PJM durability (20 Interconnection years, 9,000 Regional Transmission 200 cycles), safety, Organization control 8 operating area,[73] United States temperature (Department of 5070 C (-58 Defense[74]), bus 158 F)[76][dead link] (Proterra[75])

Lithium vanadium oxide

Samsung/Subaru.[77]

automotive

200 density 7 (745Wh/l)[78]

Cobaltoxide nanowires fromgenet MIT ically modified virus

200 density, 6 thickness[79]

Three-Dimensional (3D) Porous Particles Composed of Curved TwoGeorgia Institute of Technology[80] Dimensional (2D) NanoSized Layers

high energy batteries for electronics and electrical vehicles

specific capacity > 2000 mAh/g, 201 high 1 efficiency, rapid low-cost synthesis[81]

Ironphosphate nanowiresfrom genetically modified virus

MIT

density, 200 thickness[82][83][ 9 84]

Silicon/titanium dioxide composite nanowires from genetically modified tobacco virus

University of Maryland

explosive detection sensors, biomimetic structures, waterrepellent surfaces, micro/nano scale heat pipes

201 density, low 0 charge time[85]

Silicon whisker on carbon nanofiber composite

Dr. Junqing Ma, Physical sciences, Inc.

portable electronics, electrical vehicles, electrical grid

high capacity, 200 good cycle life, 9 fast rate, low charge time[86]

nano-sized wires on stainless steel

Stanford University

wireless sensors networks,

density[87][88] (s hift from anode- to 200 cathode7 limited), durability issue remains (wire cracking)

Metal hydrides

Laboratoire de Ractivit et de Chimie des Solides, General Motors

200 density (1480 8 mAh/g)[89]

Silicon Nanotubes (or Silicon Nanospheres) Confined within Rigid Carbon Outer Shells

stable high energy batteries for cell Georgia Institute of Technology, MSE, NanoTech phones, laptops, Yushin's group[90] netbooks, radios, sensors and electrical vehicles

specific capacity 2400 mAh/g, ultra201 high 0 Coulombic Efficiency and outstanding SEI stability[91]

Silicon nano-powder in a Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory [92] conductive polymer binder

Automotive and Electronics

Compatible with commercial Si, 201 high capacity 1 anodes (1400 mAh/g) with good cycling characteristics

Silicon oxide-coated double-walled silicon nanotubes

Yi Cui/Stanford University[93][94]

Automotive and electronics

Durability 201 (6,000 charge 2 cycles)

Water

Polyplus Corporation

[95][96]

Marine

Power density: 201 1500 watt2 hours/kg. Nonrechargeable.

Air

IBM, Polyplus

[97]

Automotive

Power density: 201 up to 10,000 2 mAh/g. Rechargeable.

Electro-plated tin

Washington State University

[94]

Consumer electronics

Reduced cost. 201 3x capacity vs 2 conventional Li-ion

Solid-state plated copper antinomide nano-wire

Prieto battery[94]

Consumer electronics

Reduced charging time from reduced 201 cathode/anode 2 gap. Increased energy density. 750 charging cycles.

Boron-doped silicon nanospheres

University of Southern California Chongwu Zhou[98]

Various

Reduced 201 charging time. 2 Increased density.

Hard carbon

Energ2

[99]

Consumer electronics

30% greater 201 storage 3 capacity than graphite

Electrod LT/LMO e

Ener1/Delphi,[100][101]

durability, 200 safety (limited 6 density)

Nanostructure

Universit Paul Sabatier/Universit Picardie Jules Verne[102]

200 density 6

A123 Systems[103] Nanophosphate

[104][105]

Automotive

Operation at 201 high and low 2 ambient temperature 750 and 800 charging cycles with greater than 80% of 201 original 2 capacity. Reduced thermal expansion.

Electroly Lithium imide te

Leyden[94]

Consumer electronics

[edit]Battery

pack life

Li+ batteries last longer[106] if not deeply discharge (depleted) before recharging. The smaller the depth of discharge, the longer the battery will last.[citation needed][107] Batteries may last longer if not stored fully discharged. As the battery will self-discharge over time, its voltage will gradually reduce, and when it is depleted below the low-voltage threshold of the protection circuit (2.4 to 2.9 V/cell, depending on chemistry) it will be disabled and cannot be discharged any further until recharged.[106][clarification needed] It is frequently recommended to store batteries at 40% charge level.[106] The rate of degradation of Lithium-ion batteries is strongly temperature-dependent; they degrade much faster if stored or used at higher temperatures. They may be stored in a refrigerator.[108][109]
[edit]Conditioning

controversy

There is a belief that Li+ batteries need to be "conditioned" before first use. One is told to plug the battery/device into a charger and leave it there for seven or eight hours, even if fully charged. [110] But this may simply be a confusion of the battery software calibration instructions with the "conditioning" instructions for NiCd andNiMH batteries.[111] The software of a typical smart phone, for example, learns how to accurately gauge the battery's life by watching it discharge, and leaving it on the charger produces a series of "micro discharges" that the software can watch and learn from. Lithium ion batteries do not need the "conditioning" of being fully discharged and charged the way NiCd and NiMH batteries do.

[edit]Multicell

devices

Li-ion batteries require a battery management system to prevent operation outside each cell's safe operating area (over-charge, under-charge, safe temperature range) and to balance cells to eliminate state of charge mismatches, significantly improving battery efficiency and increasing overall capacity.[112] As the number of cells and load currents increase, the potential for mismatch increases. [113] There are two kinds of mismatch in the pack: state-of-charge (SOC) and capacity/energy ("C/E") mismatch. Though SOC is more common, each problem limits pack current capacity (mAh) to that of the weakest cell.
[edit]Safety

See also: Plug-in electric vehicle fire incidents Lithium-ion batteries can rupture, ignite, or explode when exposed to high temperature. Short-circuiting a battery will cause the cell to overheat and possibly to catch fire. Adjacent cells may then overheat and fail, possibly causing the entire battery to ignite or rupture. In the event of a fire, the device may emit dense irritating smoke.[114] The fire energy content (electrical + chemical) of cobalt-oxide cells is about 100 to 150 kJ per Ah, most of it chemical. Authorities and handlers lack knowledge on how to treat Li-Ion battery fire.[115] Replacing the lithium cobalt oxide cathode material in lithium-ion batteries with a lithium metal phosphate such as lithium iron phosphate improves cycle counts, shelf life and safety, but lowers capacity. Currently, these 'safer' lithium-ion batteries are mainly used in electric cars and other large-capacity battery applications, where safety issues are critical.[116] Lithium-ion batteries normally contain safety devices to protect the cells from disturbance. However, contaminants inside the cells can defeat these safety devices.[clarification needed]
[edit]Recalls

In March 2007, Lenovo recalled approximately 205,000 batteries at risk of explosion. In August 2007, Nokia recalled over 46 million batteries at risk of overheating and exploding.[117] One such incident occurred in the Philippines involving a Nokia N91, which uses the BL-5C battery.[118] In December 2006, Dell recalled approximately 22,000 laptop batteries from the US market.[119] Approximately 10 million Sony batteries used in Dell, Sony, Apple,Lenovo/IBM, Panasonic, Toshiba, Hitachi, Fujitsu and Sharp laptops were recalled in 2006. The batteries were found to be susceptible to internal contamination by metal particles during manufacture. Under some circumstances, these particles could pierce the separator, causing a short-circuit.[120] In October 2004, Kyocera Wireless recalled approximately 1 million mobile phone batteries to identify counterfeits.[121]
[edit]Transport

restrictions

Japan Airlines Boeing 787 lithium cobalt oxide battery that caught fire in 2013

IATA estimates that over a billion lithium cells are flown each year.[115] In January 2008, the United States Department of Transportation ruled that passengers on commercial aircraft could carry lithium batteries in their checked baggage if the batteries were installed in a device. Types of batteries covered by this rule are those containing small amounts of lithium, including Li-ion, lithium polymer, and lithium cobalt oxide chemistries. Lithium-ion batteries containing more than 25 grams (0.88 oz) equivalent lithium content (ELC) are forbidden in air travel.[122] This restriction is due to the possibility of batteries short-circuiting and causing a fire.[citation needed] Additionally, a limited number of replacement batteries may be transported in carry-on luggage. Such batteries must be sealed in their original protective packaging or in individual containers or plastic bags. [122][123] Some postal administrations restrict air shipping (including EMS) of lithium and lithium-ion batteries, either separately or installed in equipment. Such restrictions apply in Hong Kong,[124] Australia and Japan.[125] On 16 May 2012, United States Postal Service (USPS) banned shipping anything containing a lithium battery to an overseas address due to fires resulting from transport of batteries.[126] Because of this restriction, it became difficult to send anything containing lithium batteries to military personnel overseas, as the USPS was the only method of shipment to these addresses. The ban was lifted on 15 November 2012.[127] The Boeing 787 Dreamliner contains lithium cobalt oxide[128] batteries which are more reactive than newer types of batteries such as LiFePo.[129]
[edit]Research

Researchers are working to improve the power density, safety, recharge cycle, cost and other characteristics of these batteries. Solid-state designs[130] have the potential to deliver three times the energy density of typical 2011 lithium-ion batteries at less than half the cost per kilowatt-hour. This approach eliminates binders, separators, and liquid electrolytes. By eliminating these, "you can get around 95% of the theoretical energy density of the active materials."[131]

Earlier trials of this technology encountered cost barriers, because the semiconductor industry's vacuum deposition technology cost 2030 times too much. The new process deposits semiconductor-quality films from a solution. The nanostructured films grow directly on a substrate and then sequentially on top of each other. The process allows the firm to "spray-paint a cathode, then a separator/electrolyte, then the anode. It can be cut and stacked in various form factors."[131] Washington State University researchers expect to bring to market before June 2013 a tin anode technology that will triple the energy capacity of lithium ion batteries. The technology involves using standard electroplating process to create tin nanoneedles.[132] Sandia has studied ways to improve safety and robustness of lithium ion batteries by using different electrolytes and separators.[133]
[edit]See

also
Book: Lithium-ion batteries

Potassium-ion battery Nanowire battery List of battery sizes List of battery types

[edit]Notes

1. 2.

^ a b c d "Rechargeable Li-Ion OEM Battery Products". Panasonic.com. Retrieved 23 April 2010. ^ a b c "Panasonic Develops New Higher-Capacity 18650 Li-Ion Cells; Application of Silicon-based Alloy in Anode". greencarcongress.com. Retrieved 31 January 2011.

3.

^ Valen & Shoesmith (2007). The effect of PHEV and HEV duty cycles on battery and battery pack performance (PDF). 2007 Plug-in Highway Electric Vehicle Conference: Proceedings. Retrieved 11 June 2010.

4.

^ H. Abea, T. Muraia and K. Zaghibb (1999). Vapor-grown carbon fiber anode for cylindrical lithium ion rechargeable batteries. Journal of Power Sources 77:2, February 1999, pp. 110115. doi:10.1016/S0378-7753(98)00158-X. Retrieved 11 June 2010.

5. 6.

^ Battery Types and Characteristics for HEV ThermoAnalytics, Inc., 2007. Retrieved 11 June 2010. ^ Ballon, Massie Santos (14 October 2008). "Electrovaya, Tata Motors to make electric Indica". cleantech.com. Cleantech Group. Retrieved 11 June 2010.

7.

^ David Linden, Thomas B. Reddy (ed). Handbook of Batteries 3rd Edition. McGraw-Hill, New York, 2002 ISBN 0-07135978-8 chapter 35

8.

^ Silberberg, M. 2006. Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change, 4th Ed. New York (NY): McGraw-Hill Education. p 935.

9.

^ Thackeray, Thomas, and Whittingham (March 2000). Science and Applications of Mixed Conductors for Lithium Batteries. mrs.com; Materials Research Society. Retrieved 11 June 2010.

10. ^ MSDS: National Power Corp Lithium Ion Batteries (PDF). tek.com; Tektronix Inc., 7 May 2004. Retrieved 11 June 2010. 11. ^ Battery Management Systems for Large Lithium-Ion Battery Packs page 2 12. ^ "Cell boards for various cell formats". Elithion.com. Retrieved 8 October 2011. 13. ^ Battery Management Systems for Large Lithium-Ion Battery Packs page 234 14. ^ Whittingham, M. S. (1976). "Electrical Energy Storage and Intercalation Chemistry". Science 192 (4244): 1126 7. Bibcode:1976Sci...192.1126W.doi:10.1126/science.192.4244.1126. PMID 17748676. 15. ^ J.O.Besenhard and H.P. Fritz, Cathodic Reduction of Graphite in Organic Solutions of Alkali and NR 4+ Salts, J. Electroanal. Chem., 53, 329 (1974) 16. ^ J.O. Besenhard, The Electrochemical Preparation and Properties of Ionic Alkali Metal and NR 4+ Graphite Intercalation Compounds in Organic Electrolytes, Carbon, 14, 111 (1976) 17. ^ R. Schallhorn, R. Kuhlmann, and J.O. Besenhard, Topotactic Redox Reactions and Ion Exchange of Layered MoO3 Bronzes,, Mat. Res. Bull., 11, 83 (1976) 18. ^ J.O. Besenhard and R. Schallhorn, The Discharge Reaction Mechanism of the MoO3 Electrode in Organic Electrolytes" J. Power Sources, 1, 267 (1976/77) 19. ^ J.O. Besenhard and G. Eichinger, High Energy Density Lithium Cells. Part I. Electrolytes and Anodes, J. Electroanal. Chem., 68, 1 (1976); and G. Eichinger 20. ^ J.O. Besenhard, High Energy Density Lithium Cells. Part II. Cathodes and Complete Cells, J. Electroanal. Chem., 72, 1 (1976) 21. ^ "USPTO search for inventions by "Goodenough, John"". Patft.uspto.gov. Retrieved 8 October 2011. 22. ^ M. Zanini, S. Basu, J.E. Fischer Carbon, "Alternate Synthesis & Reflectivity Spectrum of Stage 1 Lithium-Graphite Intercalation Compound", vol. 16, 1978 (Elsevier), pp. 211212 23. ^ S. Basu, C. Zeller, P.J. Flanders, C.D. Fuerst, W.D. Johnson, J.E. Fischer Materials Science & Eng. "Synthesis & Prop. of Lithium-Graphite Intercalated Compounds," vol. 38, 1979 (Elsevier), pp. 275283 24. ^ US 4304825, Basu; Samar, "Rechargeable battery", issued 8 December 1981, assigned to Bell Telephone Laboratories 25. ^ International Meeting on Lithium Batteries, Rome, 2729 April 1982, C.L.U.P. Ed. Milan, Abstract #23 26. ^ Journal of Power Sources (AprilMay 1983), 9 (34), 365371

27. ^ M.M. Thackeray, W.I.F. David, P.G. Bruce, and J.B. Goodenough (4 February 1983). "Lithium insertion into manganese spinels". Materials Research Bulletin(Elsevier) 18 (4): 461472. doi:10.1016/0025-5408(83)90138-1. 28. ^ Gholamabbas Nazri, Gianfranco Pistoia (2004). Lithium batteries: science and ... Google Books. Springer. ISBN 9781-4020-7628-2. Retrieved 8 October 2009. 29. ^ Voelcker, John (September 2007). Lithium Batteries Take to the Road IEEE Spectrum. 30. ^ US 4668595, Yoshino; Akira, "Secondary Battery", issued 10 May 1985, assigned to Asahi Kasei 31. ^ A. Manthiram and J.B. Goodenough Corresponding (16 May 1989). "Lithium insertion into Fe2(SO4)3 frameworks". Journal of Power Sources (Elsevier B.V.)26 (34): 403408. doi:10.1016/0378-7753(89)80153-3. 32. ^ Padhi, A. K. (1997). "Phospho-olivines as positive-electrode materials for rechargeable lithium batteries". Electrochem. Society 144 (4): 11881194.doi:10.1149/1.1837571. 33. ^ a b Editors (6 March 2008). "In search of the perfect battery" (PDF). The Economist. Archived from the original on 25 September 2009. Retrieved 11 May 2010. 34. ^ [1] Monthly battery sales statistics MoETI March 2011 35. ^ a b c d Staff (November 2003). Lithium Ion technical handbook (PDF). Gold Peak Industries Ltd. 36. ^ H.C. Choi et al., J. Phys. Chem. B 107 p5806(2003) doi:10.1021/jp030438w 37. ^ G.G. Amatucci, J.M. Tarascon, L.C. Kein J. Electrochemical Society 143p1114 1996 doi:10.1149/1.1836594 38. ^ Wenige, Niemann, et al. (30 May 1998). Liquid Electrolyte Systems for Advanced Lithium Batteries (PDF). cheric.org; Chemical Engineering Research Information Center(KR). Retrieved 11 June 2010. 39. ^ Balbuena, P.B., Wang, Y.X., eds. Lithium Ion Batteries: Solid Electrolyte Interphase 2004 Imperial College Press, London 40. ^ R. Fong, U. von Sacken, J.R. Dahn, Journal of The Electrochemical Society, 137 2009 (1990) doi: 10.1149/1.2086855 41. ^ Syzdek, Jarosaw; Borkowska, Regina; Perzyna, Kamil; Tarascon, Jean Marie; Wieczorek, Wadysaw (2007). "Novel composite polymeric electrolytes with surface-modified inorganic fillers". Journal of Power Sources 173 (2): 712.doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2007.05.061. 42. ^ Syzdek, Jarosaw; Armand, Michel; Marcinek, Marek; Zalewska, Aldona; ukowska, Grayna; Wieczorek, Wadysaw (2010). "Detailed studies on the fillers modification and their influence on composite, poly(oxyethylene)-based polymeric electrolytes". Electrochimica Acta 55 (4): 1314.doi:10.1016/j.electacta.2009.04.025. 43. ^ J. Reiter, M. Nadherna, R. Dominko, Journal of Power Sources, 205 402 (2012) doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2012.01.003 44. ^ Winter & Brodd 2004, pp. 4256, 4258 45. ^ , Winter & Brodd 2004, p. 4254 46. ^ a b c Winter & Brodd 2004, p. 4259 47. ^ name="J. Brodd, Chem 2004">Winter & Brodd 2004, p. 4258 48. ^ Altair Nano: Power & Energy Systems[dead link] 49. ^ Battery Management Systems for Large Lithium-Ion Battery Packs page 9

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71. ^ Jian Hong, C. S. Wang, Shailesh Upreti and M. Stanley Whittinghama."Vanadium Modified LiFePO4 Cathode for Li-ion Batteries". ECS (ETS) 12 (2): A33. Retrieved 11 June 2010. 72. ^ "Plant root used to create eco-friendly lithium-ion battery". Gizmag.com. Retrieved 2012-12-12. 73. ^ "... Acceptance of the First Grid-Scale, Battery Energy Storage System"(Press release). Altair Nanotechnologies. 21 November 2008. Retrieved 8 October 2009. 74. ^ Marty Ozols (11 November 2009). Altair Nanotechnologies Power Partner The Military Systemagicmotives (personal webpage)[dubious discuss]. Retrieved 11 June 2010. 75. ^ "Proterra Corporate website". Proterra. Retrieved 8 October 2009.[dead link] 76. ^ "Microsoft PowerPoint 061125 Altair EDTA Presentation". Altairnano.com. Retrieved 8 October 2011. 77. ^ Blain, Loz (2 November 2007). "Subaru doubles the battery range on its electric car concept". gizmag. Retrieved 8 October 2009. 78. ^ "Li-Ion Rechargeable Batteries Made Safer". Nikkei Electronics Asia. 29 January 2008. Retrieved 8 October 2009. 79. ^ Nam, K. T.; Kim, DW; Yoo, PJ; Chiang, CY; Meethong, N; Hammond, PT; Chiang, YM; Belcher, AM (2006). "VirusEnabled Synthesis and Assembly of Nanowires for Lithium Ion Battery Electrodes". Science 312 (5775): 885 8.Bibcode:2006Sci...312..885N. doi:10.1126/science.1122716.PMID 16601154. (subscription required) 80. ^ "gatech.edu". 81. ^ Kara Evanoff, Alexandre Magasinskiy, Junbing Yang and Gleb Yushin (21 April 2011). "Nanosilicon-Coated Graphene Granules as Anodes for Li-Ion Batteries".Advanced Energy Materials 1 (4): 495. doi:10.1002/aenm.201100071. 82. ^ Palca, Joe (6 April 2009). Hidden Ingredient In New, Greener Battery: A Virus. npr.org; National Public Radio. Retrieved 11 June 2010. 83. ^ Zandonella, Catherine (11 April 2009). "Battery grown from "armour plated" viruses". New Scientist (Tribune media Services International) 202 (2703): 1. 84. ^ Bullis, Kevin (28 September 2006). "Powerful Batteries That Assemble Themselves". technologyreview.com. Technology Review. Retrieved 15 June 2010. 85. ^ "Bad Virus Put to Good Use". Clark School of Engineering, University of Maryland. 6 December 2010. Retrieved December 2010. 86. ^ "Silicon Whisker and Carbon Nanofiber Composite Anode". NASA BAttery Workshop 2009. 17 November 2009. Retrieved November 2009. 87. ^ "New Nanowire Battery Holds 10 Times The Charge of Existing Ones".sciencedaily.com. Science Daily. 20 December 2007. 88. ^ Dennis, Lyle (21 December 2007). "Interview with Dr. Cui, Inventor of Silicon Nanowire Lithium-ion Battery Breakthrough". GM-Volt. Retrieved 8 October 2009.

89. ^ Y. Oumellal, A. Rougier, G. A. Nazri, J-M. Tarascon & L. Aymard (12 October 2008). "Metal hydrides for lithium-ion batteries". Nature Materials 7 (11): 916921. Bibcode:2008NatMa...7..916O. doi:10.1038/nmat2288.PMID 18849978. Retrieved 8 October 2009. 90. ^ "Laboratory of the Prof. Gleb Yushin". Nano-tech.gatech.edu. 31 August 2011. Retrieved 8 October 2011. 91. ^ Benjamin Hertzberg, Alexander Alexeev and Gleb Yushin (8 June 2010)."Deformations in SiLi Anodes Upon Electrochemical Alloying in Nano-Confined Space". Journal of the American Chemical Society 132 (25): 8548 8549.doi:10.1021/ja1031997. PMID 20527882. Retrieved 8 June 2010. 92. ^ Preuss, Paul (23 September 2011). "Better Lithium-Ion Batteries Are On The Way From Berkeley Lab". Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. 93. ^ "the Foresight Institute Blog Archive Novel silicon nanostructure extends battery life". Foresight.org. 15 May 2012. Retrieved 24 May 2012. 94. ^ a b c d [2] 95. ^ "Seawater battery sparks sub dreams tech 25 April 2012". New Scientist. Retrieved 22 June 2012. 96. ^ "PolyPlus Lithium-Water". Polyplus.com. Retrieved 22 June 2012. 97. ^ Garling, Caleb (20 April 2012). "IBM Demos Uber Battery That 'Breathes' | Wired Enterprise". Wired.com. Retrieved 22 June 2012. 98. ^ [3] 99. ^ [4] 100. ^ Welcome to Ener1. Ener1 (Press release). Archived from the original 8 July 2006. Retrieved 11 June 2010. 101. ^ EnerDel Technical Presentation (PDF). EnerDel Corporation. 29 October 2007. Archived from the original. Retrieved 11 June 2010. 102. ^ Bullis, Kevin (22 June 2006). Higher-Capacity Lithium-Ion BatteriesTechnology Review. Retrieved 11 June 2010. 103. ^ Vlasic, Bill; Wald, Matthew L. (12 June 2012). "A123, U.S.-Backed Battery Maker, Claims Breakthrough". The New York Times. 104. ^ "A123 Systems introduces new Nanophosphate EXT Li-ion battery technology with optimized performance in extreme temperatures; OEM micro-hybrid program due next year". Green Car Congress. Retrieved 13 June 2012. 105. ^ "A123's new battery tech goes to extremes". Eetimes.com. Retrieved 13 June 2012. 106. ^ a b c "Five tips for extending lithium-ion battery life". TechRepublic. Retrieved 14 February 2013. 107. ^ Liu, Jie; Wang, Ma, Yang, Yang (2012). "A data-model-fusion prognostic framework for dynamic system state forecasting". Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence 25 (4): 814823. 108. ^ L.M. Cristo, T. B. Atwater. Characteristics and Behavior of 1M LiPF6 1EC:1DMC Electrolyte at Low Temperatures . Fort Monmouth, NJ: U.S. Army Research. 109. ^ "Modelling capacity fade in Lithium-ion cells, Bor Yann Liaw, Jungst, Nagasubramanian, and Doughty, Sandia National Laborator Analysis of Lithium-Ion Battery Degradation during Thermal Aging" (PDF). Retrieved 8 October 2011.

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133. ^ Christopher J. Orendorff et al (November 2012). "Advanced Inactive Materials for Improved Lithium-Ion Battery Safety". Sandia National Laboratories. Retrieved 27 January 2013.

[edit]References

Winter, M.; Brodd, J. (2004). "What Are Batteries, Fuel Cells, and Supercapacitors?" (PDF). Chemical Review 104 (104): 4245. doi:10.1021/cr020730k. Retrieved 25 July 2010.

[edit]External

links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Lithium-ion batteries

Lithium batteries at the Open Directory Project