Theory of metal forming

Mechanical metallurgy is concerned with the response of metals to forces or loads. The objective may be to convert the cast ingot into a more useful shape, such as a flat plate, and hence it is necessary to know the conditions of temperature and rate of loading which minimizes the force needed to do the job. The material is considered to be homogenous whose mechanical behaviour is precisely defined on the basis of a very few material constants; otherwise understanding the response of materials to forces will involve many disciplines. 1.1Elastic and Plastic behaviour All solid materials can be deformed when subject to external load. Upto certain limiting load, a solid will recover its original dimensions when the load is removed and this is the elastic behaviour. The limiting load beyond which the material no longer behaves elastically is the elastic limit. On exceeding this limit, the solid will experience a permanent set or deformation when the load is removed and the body is said to have undergone plastic deformation. For most materials, as long as the load does not exceed the elastic limit, the deformation is proportional to the load, according to Hooks law, i.e., stress is proportional to strain. Elastic deformation in metals is quite small and requires very sensitive instruments for their measurement. 1.2Average Stress and Strain Assume two gage marks put on the surface of the bar in its unstrained condition and Lo is the gage length. A load P is applied to one end of the bar giving a slight increase in the length and decrease in diameter. The average linear strain e = /Lo = L-Lo/Lo Strain is a dimensionless quantity. In the free body diagram of the bar, the external load P is balanced by the internal resisting force dA, where is the stress normal to the plane of c/s area A. P = dA = dA = A So = P/A This equation gives average stress over the area A. The inherent anisotropy between grains of a polycrystalline material rules out uniformity of stress over a body of macroscopic size. The presence of more than one phase also gives rise to nonuniformity of stress on a microscopic scale. Below the elastic limit the Hooks law can be considered to be valid, so that the average stress is proportional to average strain, / e = E = constant The constant E is the modulus of elasticity or Youngs modulus.

1.3Tensile deformation of a ductile material The basic data on the mechanical properties of a ductile metal are obtained from a tension test, in which a suitably designed specimen is subjected to increasing axial load until it fractures. The load and elongation are measured at frequent intervals during the test and are expressed as average stress and strain, as in figure. The figure shows a typical stress-strain curve for a metal such as Al or Cu. The initial linear portion of the curve OA is the elastic region within which Hooks law is obeyed. Point A is the elastic limit, defined as the greatest stress that the metal can withstand without experiencing a permanent strain when the load is removed. The determination of elastic limit is tedious and it is often replaced by the proportional limit A the stress at which the stress-strain curve deviates from linearity. For engineering purposes the limit of usable elastic behaviour is described by the yield strength, point B. the yield strength is defines as the stress that will produce a small amount of plastic deformation( say 0.2%). In fig. permanent strain or offset is OC. Plastic deformation begins when the elastic limit is exceeded. As the plastic deformation of the specimen increases, the metal becomes stronger (strain hardening) so that the load required to further extend the specimen increases. Eventually the load reaches a maximum value, and the stress at this point is the ultimate tensile strength. For a ductile material the diameter of specimen decreases rapidly beyond the maximum load, so that the load required to continue deformation drops off until the specimen fractures. Ductile Vs Brittle behaviour depending on ability of the material to undergo plastic deformation. A brittle material fractures at the elastic limit but white C.I shows some measure of plasticity before fracture. Adequate ductility is an important engineering consideration, because it allows the material to redistribute localized stresses. With brittle materials, localized stresses continue to build up when there is no local yielding. Finally crack forms at one or more points of stress concentration and spreads rapidly over the section. Even in the absence of stress concentration, the brittle material will still fracture suddenly, because the yield stress and tensile strength are identical. Tungsten brittle at room temp., but ductile at elevated temperature Steel ductile at room temperature, but brittle due to hydrogen embrittlement

Fig. typical stress strain curve for (a) brittle material (b) brittle material with slight ductility.

A A

max

fracture

C O Fig. typical stress strain curve of ductile material 1.4What constitutes failure? 1. Excessive elastic deformation 2. yielding or excessive plastic deformation 3. Fracture Two general types of excessive deformation may occur(1) excessive deflection under conditions of stable equilibrium, such as the deflection of beams under gradual load; (2) sudden deflection or buckling, under conditions of unstable equilibrium. Excessive elastic deformation of a machine part may mean failure of the machine; for example, a shaft which is too flexible can cause rapid wear of bearings or excessive deflection of closely mating parts can result in interference and damage. The sudden buckling type failure may result in case of slender beams when axial load exceeds Euler load. Failures due to excessive elastic deformation are controlled by Elastic modulus, not by the strength of the material. Stiffness of a member can be effectively increased by changing the shape or the dimension.

Yielding or excessive plastic deformation occurs when the elastic limit of the material has been exceeded. Yielding may prevent the proper functioning of the part. Failure by plastic deformation is controlled by yield strength of the material for uniaxial loading. For more complex loading, yield strength is still the parameter but used with a failure criterion. At higher temperatures the material constantly deforms at constant stress in a time dependent yielding known as creep. The formation of a crack which can result in complete disruption of the continuity of the member constitutes fracture. Metals fail by fracture in three general ways: (1) sudden brittle fracture (2) fatigue or progressive fracture (3) delayed fracture Fatigue failures occur in parts which are subjected to alternating or fluctuating stresses. A minute crack starts at a localized spot(notch) and gradually spreads over the c/s until the member breaks. Fatigue failure occurs without any visible sign of yielding at average stresses below the tensile strength. Design for fatigue failure is based on empirical relationship. One common type of delayed fracture is stress-rupture failure, which occurs when metals have been loaded statically at elevated temperature for a long period of time. Depending on the stress and the temperature there may be no yielding prior to failure. All engineering materials show variability in property. further, uncertainty exists regarding the magnitude of applied load. Accidental loads of high magnitude are also possible. In order to provide a margin of safety, it is necessary that the allowable, safe stresses be smaller than that producing failure. The safe stress is called working stress and is considered as either the yield strength or tensile strength divided by a number called factor of safety. 1.5Concept of stress and types of stresses Stress is defined as the internal resistance of a body to an external applied force per unit area. Figure represents a body in equilibrium under the action of external forces P1,P2, P3, P5. There are two kinds of external forces on a body surface forces (hydrostatic pressure or pressure exerted by one body on another) and body forces (forces distributed over the volume of the body such as gravitational, magnetic, or inertia forces). In general the forces will not be uniformly distributed over any cross section of the body. To obtain the stress at some point O in a plane, a part of the body is removed and replaced by a system of external forces that will retain each point in the other part of the body in its original position as before the removal a part. See figure.

We then take an area A surrounding point O and note that a force P acts on this area. If the area A is continuously reduced to zero, the limiting value of the ratio P/A is the stress at the point O on the given plane of the body. P = A0 A

lim

The stress will be in the direction of the resultant force P and will be inclined at an angle to A. the stress will be different on ay other plane passing through point O. It is inconvenient to use a stress which is inclined at some arbitrary angle to the area over which it acts. The total stress can be resolved into a normal component , perpendicular to A, and a shearing stress , lying in the plane of the area considered. Considering the figure, the force P makes an angle with the normal to the plane of area A. also the plane containing normal z and force P makes angle with y-axis. The normal stress is given by = (P/A) cos The shear stress in the plane acts along the line OC and has magnitude = (P/A) sin The shear stress may be further resolved into two components parallel to x and y directions lying in the plane X direction = (P/A) sinsin Y direction = (P/A) sincos Therefore a given plane may have one normal stress and two shear stresses acting on it.

C y

Fig. resolution of total stress into components 1.6Concept of strain and types of strain The average linear strain was defined as the ratio of change in length to the original length of same dimensions. = /Lo = L/Lo = (L-Lo)/Lo where is average linear strain and is deformation. By analogy with definition of stress at a point, the strain at a point is the ratio of the deformation to the gauge length as gauge length approaches zero. Not only will the elastic deformation of a body result in a change in length of a linear element in the body but it may also result in a change in the initial angle between any two lines. The angular change in a right angle is known as shear strain. Figure shows pure shear of one face of a cube. The angle at A which was originally 90 degrees is decreased by a small amount by the shear stress. The shear strain is equal to the displacement a divided by the distance between the planes, h. the ratio a/h is also the tangent of the angle through which the element has rotated. For small angles, = a/h = tan =

Fig.shear strain

1.7Stresses on an inclined plane Consider a plane ABC inclined to the three Cartesian coordinate axes x1,x2,x3 and intersecting them at the points A,B,C respectively. Thus ABCP forms a trapezoid. The stress components acting on the three perpendicular faces of this trapezoid, which lie in coordinate planes are the components of the stress tensor or the stress state at the point P and are completely known. We have to determine the normal and shear stress on the inclined plane ABC. Let S1, S2, S3 be the magnitudes of the three stress components in the direction of the coordinate axes, on the inclined plane ABC. Let As be the area of the triangular face ABC and A1, A2, A3 be the area of the triangular faces BPC, CPA, APB respectively. The trapezoid ABCP would be in equilibrium if the resultant forces acting along the three axes are zero. Therefore, we can write the following equations. S1 As - { 11. A1 + 21 .A2 + 31 .A3} =0 S2 As { 12 .A2 + 22. A2 + 32 A3} = 0 S3 As - { 13 A3 + 23 .A3 + 33 . A3} =0 Now, dividing the above equations by As and substituting n1=A1/As; n2=A2/As; n3=A3/As S1 = 11 . n1 + 21 n2 + 31 . n3 S2 = 12 .n1 + 22 . n2 + 32 . n3 S3 = 13 . n1 + 23 . n2 + 33 . n3 Because ij = ji, we can write Si = ij nj (i,j=1,2,3)

The stress normal to the plane is obtained by projecting the three components S1, S2, S3 on to the normal. n = S1 n1 + S2 n2 + S3 n3 = Si ni Based on the previous equation for Si, n = ij ni nj The resultant of the stresses S1 ,S2, S3 acting on the plane ABC is obtained as S2 = S12 + S22 + S32 The shear stress component s acting on the plane ABC can be determined from the following equation s2 = S2 n2

Example The stress state at a point is given by the stress tensor 5 3 2

T=

10

532 T = 3104 246

2 4 6 Determine the normal and shear components on a plane which is equally inclined to the three axes. The unit of stresses is N/mm2. The direction cosines of the normal to the plane equally inclined to three axes are 1/3, 1/3, 1/3. The normal stress n is given by n = ij ni nj = (5+3+2+3+10+4+2+4+6)/3 = 13 N/mm2 The stress components on ABC plane, S1,S2,S3 are given by S1 = 11 n1 + 21 n2 + 31 n3 = 5/3 + 3/3 + 2/3 = 10/3 N/mm2 Similarly S2 = 17/3 N/mm2 S3 = 12/3 N/mm2 Hence S2 = (100+289+144)/3 = 533/3 Therefore the shear stress is given by s = (533/3 169)1/2 = 2.94 N/mm2

1.8State of stress at a point in three dimensions The general three dimensional state of stress consists of three unequal principal stresses acting at a point. This is called a triaxial state of stress. If two of the three principal stresses are equal, the state of stress is known as cylindrical, while if all three principal stresses are equal, the state of stress is said to be hydrostatic or spherical. Determination of principal stresses for a three dimensional state of stress acting on an arbitrary Cartesian coordinate system:
z K x yx yz zy z x J xy xz zx y L

Figure represents an elemental free body, with diagonal plane JKL of area A. the plane JKL is assumed to be a principal plane cutting through the unit cube. is the principal stress acting normal to the plane JKL. Let l,m,n be the direction cosines of (i.e. cosines of angle between and the x,y,z axes). Since the free body must be in equilibrium, the forces acting on each of its faces must balance. The components of along each of the axes are Sx, Sy and Sz. Sx = l Sy = m Sz = n Area KOL = Al Area JOK = Am Area JOL = An Taking the summation of forces in x direction results in Al - xAl yxAm zxAn = 0

which reduces to ( x) l yx m zx n = 0 Summing the forces in other two directions results in - xy l +( y) m zy n = 0 - xz l yz m +( z) n = 0 the above three equations are homogenous linear equations in terms of l,m,n. the only solution can be obtained by setting the determinant of the coefficient of l,m,n equal to zero, since l,m,n can not all be zero. | x | -xy | -xz -yx -y -yz -zx | -xz | = 0 -z|

Solution of the determinant results in a cubic equation in 3 (xx + yy + zz)2 + (xxyy + yyzz + zzxx xy2 yz2 zx2) (xxyyzz + 2xyyzzx xxyz2 yyzx2 zzxy2) = 0 (i.e) 3 I 2 + II III = 0 The three roots are three principal stresses 1, 2, 3. To determine the direction, with respect to the original x,y,z axes, in which the principal stresses act, it is necessary to substitute 1, 2, 3 each in turn into the three equations of force balance. The resulting equations must be solved simultaneously for l,m,n with the help of relation, l2+m2+n2 =1. since there is only one set of principal stresses, the above equation must remain the same irrespective of the changes in the co-ordinate system, because it has to have the same roots. With the change of co-ordinate system, the different stress components change, however the coefficients I, II, III do not change. Hence these coefficients I, II, III are called the first, second and third invariants of stress tensor. If we choose the principal directions (direction of no shear) as the direction of co-ordinate axes, then the stress invariants take the form I = 1 + 2 + 3 II = -(12 + 23 + 31) III = 123 It is often possible apriori to establish from physical conditions, the direction of one of the principal axes. Let it be z, so that 3 = zz and xz = yz = 0 the non-zero components of the stress are xx, yy, zz and xy, therefore

1 = (xx + yy)/2 + {[(xx yy)/2]2}1/2 + xy2 2 = (xx + yy)/2 - {[(xx yy)/2]2}1/2 + xy2 3 = zz

1.9Planes of maximum shear Let S be the total stress before resolution into normal and shear components and acting on a plane, with l,m,n as the direction cosines with respect to the three principal axes. S2 = Sx2 + Sy2 +Sz2 = 12l2 + 22m2 + 32n2 The normal stress acting on this plane is given by = Sxl + Sym + Sz n = 1l2 + 2m2 + 3n2

Therefore the shearing stress acting on the same plane is given by 2 = S2 2 = 12l2 + 22m2 + 32n2 - (1l2 + 2m2 + 3n2)2 which reduces to 2 = (1 2)2l2m2 + (1 3)2l2n2 + (2 3)2m2n2 Values of for the three particular sets of direction cosines listed below are of interest because they bisect the angle between the two of the three principal axes. Therefore they are the maximum shearing stresses or the principal shearing stresses. l 0 1/2 1/2 m 1/2 0 1/2 n 1/2 1/2 0 1 = (2-3)/2 2 = (1-3)/2 3 = (1 2)/2

since according to convention, 1 is algebraically greatest principal normal stress and 3 is the algebraically smallest principal stress, 2 has the largest value of shear stress and it is called maximum shear stress max. The maximum shearing stress is of importance in theories of yielding and metal forming operations. 1.10Mean Stress and Stress Deviator The first invariant of the stress is the sum of the normal stresses, i.e., I = xx + yy + zz The mean stress which is also known as hydrostatic stress is m = I/3 = (xx+yy+zz)/3

The hydrostatic stress is regarded as a special stress tensor as m 0 0 0 m 0 0 0 m In this tensor, all the normal components are equal and the shear components vanish. When the mean stress components are subtracted from the stress tensor components, a stress deviator tensor is obtained. Sij = xx yx zx xy yy zy xz yz zz m 0 0 0 m 0 0 0 m

the principal directions are the same for the deviator tensor. In terms of principal stresses the deviator tensor is Sij = 1 m 0 0 0 2 m 0 0 0 3 m

Example The stress state at a point is given by 10 4 0 T= 4 12 0 0 0 0 Determine the principal stresses. The stresses are in N/mm2 The principal stresses are the roots of the following equation | 10- 4 0| |4 12- 0 | = 0 |0 0 -| The above equation may be simplified to, -{(10-)(12-) -16} = 0 Or [ 2 - 22 +104} = 0

From the above equation, it is clear that one of the principal stresses is zero, 3=0. for 2, 1 we equate the second factor to zero.

2 - 22 +104 = 0 so, 1,2 = [22 (222 416)1/2]/2 = 11 17 N/mm2

Example Determine the principle stresses for the following stress state. The stresses are in N/mm2 . 0 10 0 T= 10 0 0 0 0 0 The principal stresses are given by the following equation, |- |10 |0 OR 10 - 0 0| 0| = 0 -|

-( 2 100) = 0

One of the principal stresses in zero, 3 = 0. The remaining two principal stresses, 1,2 are 10 N/mm2 and -10N/mm2 respectively.

1.11Strain at a point

ex = du/dx ; ey = dv/dy; ez = dw/dz xy = du/dy + dv/dx xz = du/dz + dw/dx yz = dv/dz + dw/dy thus six terms are necessary to completely describe the state of strain at a point. In complete analogy with stress, it is possible to define a system of coordinate axes along which there is no shear strains. These axes are the principal strain axes. An element oriented along one of these principal axes will undergo pure extension or contraction. By analogy with the expression for principal stress, we can derive an expression for principal strain. These equations may be obtained much more easily by replacing , in the stress equation by

e and /2. for example, the linear strain on any plane in a two dimensional situation can be expressed by e = ex cos2 + ey sin2+ xy sin cos the principal strains are then the roots of the following equation e3 (ex +ey +ez) e2 +[exey +eyez +exez (xy2 +yz2 +xz2)]e [exeyez + (ex yz2 + 2 ey xz + ez xy2 ) (xy xz yz)] = 0 by the same analogy the principal shearing strains can be obtained as 1 = e2 e3 2 = max = e1 e3 3 = e1 e2 The strain at a point can be divided into spherical component (em) and a strain deviator. em = (e1+e2+e3)/3 the strain deviator in this case is e1 0 0 em 0 0 0 e2 0 - 0 em 0 0 0 e3 0 0 em

1.12Forming Properties of Metals and Alloys Most of the metal forming processes require a combination of material properties for their successful operation. For example, for deep drawing of sheet metal, one of the requirements is that the material should be ductile. However, lead is quite ductile at room temperature but lead sheet is not that suitable for drawing into cups in the way steel cups are drawn. The material properties that are of importance for metal forming are: 1. Yield strength / Flow stress 2. Ductility 3. Strain hardening 4. Strain rate sensitivity 5. Effect of temperature on yield strength and ductility 6. Effect of hydrostatic pressure on yield strength and ductility 7. Instability and fracture strength. 1.13Testing for Yield Strength / Flow Stress For the determination of yield strength or flow stress, one or more of the following three basic tests are conducted 1. Tension test 2. Compression Test 3. Torsion test

For loading up to point A there is a linear relationship between the stress and strain. Point A is called proportionality limit. Thereafter the stress strain relation is nonlinear; up to point B the deformation is elastic and on unloading the specimen regains its original dimensions. Beyond point B the metal yields, it suffers plastic deformation. Most of the strain after this point is plastic strain which is not recovered upon unloading. The value of the stress at the point B is called upper yield strength and point B is the upper yield point. E

B A

C Proportionality limit

Figure 1 A typical stress-strain curve for mild steel

With further increase in strain, the stress may fall a bit to a lower level; this is due to the formation of Luder Bands. With increase in tension, localized plastic flow takes place in a narrow band with the boundary planes inclined at an angle to the axis of specimen. However due to strain hardening of the material in the band, the load again increases until another Luder band appears in the test piece. This goes on until the whole specimen is full of Luder Bands. Up to point C the stress is oscillating between two narrow limits. This occurs in alloys having interstitial solid solution structure like low carbon steel. The stress at the point C is called the lower yield strength. However with further increase in strain beyond point C, the load or stress again starts increasing. The stress at the point C is the flow stress at yield point, however the data given in material standards generally refer to the upper yield point. After point C the stress-strain curve moves upwards, however, with further deformation, its slope gradually decreases to zero at the point E, the highest point on the curve. After E, the curve goes down. Before point E, increase in strain increases the load on the specimen due to strain hardening. Even after point E, strain hardening is there; but at some point the area of c/s of the test piece starts decreasing and a neck forms, with the result, the force that the test piece can bear decreases continuously with further deformation. After some elongation in the neck, the specimen fractures at the point F. since we have defined the stress as the force divided by the original area of c/s, the

stress value thus calculated also decreases after E. the stress at the point E is known as ultimate tensile strength.

1.14True stress True strain The stress-strain curve would appear very much different if we use true stress on the ordinate and true strain on the abscissa. The true stress and true strain are defined below. True stress = Force applied on the specimen / current area of cross section Ludwik(1909) first proposed the concept of true strain. For true strain let us take that a specimen of length l is elongated by dl. The differential strain d is d = dl/l The true strain in the specimen which has been elongated from the initial length lo to the final length l is obtained by integrating the above equation. True strain = lol (dl/l) = loge(l/lo) = loge (1+ dl/lo) = loge(1+E), where E is the engineering strain = dl/l

True stress

True strain

The typical stress-strain curve redrawn on the true stress true strain axes would like the one shown in figure. There are standard specifications for the shape and dimension of the test specimen, which should be adapted in order to get meaningful results. Besides, the following factors should be noted. 1. temperature at which the test is conducted 2. strain rate during the test

3. accuracy of load measuring instrument 4. accuracy of instrument which measures elongation.

1.15Strain Hardening Let us again consider the tension test curve. In the figure shown, the test piece is loaded beyond the yield point up to a point P. the test piece is then unloaded. The elastic deformation recovers via the unloading curve PR which is more or less parallel to AO. Out of the total strain OS corresponding to the point P, the part RS is the elastic recovery. The line PR depicts the elastic recovery. The part OR which is not recovered is the plastic strain suffered by the test specimen. Now, if we reload the same test piece, it nearly follows the line RP. There is however some deviation due to hysteresis, which is very small and yielding now, occurs at the point P. Further loading of the test piece beyond P gives the same stress-strain curve as we would have obtained if there were no unloading. This shows that after suffering a plastic strain represented by OR, the yield strength of the metal has increased from point B to point P. This is called strain hardening or work hardening. ot B P

oc

1.16Bauschinger Effect Now consider another experiment for which the test curve is shown in fig. in this test the specimen has been loaded in tension up to a point P beyond the yield point B(yield strength = ot), then unloaded to the point R and again reloaded in the reverse direction, i.e., compressed.

In compression the test piece yields at the point Q, where yield strength is oc, which is smaller in magnitude than ot. This shows that the yield strength in compression has decreased due to the previous plastic strain in tension. Similarly the yield strength in tension would decrease with previous compressive plastic strain. This is known as Bauschinger Effect(BE). BE is observed in many metals and alloys. In fact due to plastic strain the material develops anisotropy. BE may be reduced by thermal treatment. Complete removal is possible only by recrystallization of the strained material. However it may be reduced by stress aging which is a process of heating the material to a certain temperature while it is subjected to a suitable value of stress. Some expressions developed for flow stress (f) by different researchers are as follows. f = o ()n f = o (B + )n for small strains f = (1 + B)n f = o + B[1 exp(-C)]n for large strains, for alloys showing a decreasing rate of work hardening where o, B, n and C are material parameters. The n is called the strain hardening index and is the true strain. 1.17Flow Curve A true stress-strain curve is frequently called a flow curve because it gives the stress required to cause the metal to flow plastically to any given strain. Many attempts have been made to fit mathematical equations to this curve. The most common is a power expression of the form = K n where K is the stress at = 1.0 and n, the strain hardening coefficient is the slope of a log-log plot of the above equation. This equation can be valid only from the beginning of plastic flow to the maximum load at which the specimen begins to neck down. In order to reduce mathematical complexity, it is common practice to device idealized flow curves which simplify the mathematics without deviating too far from physical reality. Figure shows the flow curve for a rigid, perfectly plastic material. For this idealized material, a tensile specimen is completely rigid (zero elastic strain) until axial stress equals o(yield), whereupon the material flows plastically at a constant flow stress (zero strain hardening). The figure illustrates the flow curve for a perfectly plastic material with an elastic region. (example: plain carbon steel which has a pronounced yield point elongation). A more realistic approach is to approximate the flow curve by two straight lines corresponding to the elastic and plastic regions.

 (a)Rigid ideal plastic

(b) ideal plastic with elastic region

(c) strain hardening

Yielding Criteria for ductile materials The problem of deducing mathematical relationships for predicting the conditions at which plastic yielding begins when a material is subjected to a complex state of stress is an important consideration in the field of plasticity. In uniaxial loading, plastic flow begins at the yield stress, and it is to be expected that yielding under a situation of combined stress is related to some particular combination of the principal stresses. 1.18Maximum shear stress theory The maximum shear stress theory, some times called the Tresca, Coulomb, or Guest yield criterion, states that yielding will occur when the maximum shear stress reaches a critical value equal to the shearing yield stress in a uinaxial tension test. The maximum shear stress is given by max = (1 3) where 1 is the algebraically largest and 3 is the algebraically smallest principal stress. For uniaxial tension, 1=o, 2=3=0. where o is the yield strength in simple tension. Therefore the shearing yield stress for simple tension o is equal to one half of the tensile yield stress. = o/2 therefore we can write, max = (1-3) = o = o/2 or 1 3 = o Also, 1 3 = 2k, where k is the yield stress for pure shear. The maximum shear stress theory is in good agreement with experimental results, being slightly on the safer side, and is widely used by designers for ductile materials. It has replaced older and less accurate maximum stress theory, Rankines theory. Prager and Hodge(1951) have pointed out that in certain plasticity problems, the simple relations as above can not be used as the yielding conditions, since it is not known which of these three principal stresses is the largest. 1.19Von Mises, or Distortion energy theory A somewhat better fit with experimental results is provided by the yield criterion given by o = 1/2 [(1-2)2 + (2-3)2 + (3-1)2]1/2 according to this criterion, yielding will occur when the differences between the principal stresses expressed by the right hand side of the equation exceed the yield stress in uniaxial tension, o. The development of this yield criterion is associated with the names of Von Moises, Hencky, Maxwell and Huber.

A number of attempts have been made to provide physical meaning to the Von Mises yield criterion. One commonly accepted concept is that this yield criterion expresses the strain energy of distortion. On the basis of distortion energy concept, yielding will occur when the strain energy of distortion per unit volume exceeds the strain energy of distortion per unit volume of a specimen strained to the yield stress in uniaxial tension or compression. Another common physical interpretation is that it represents the critical value of the octahedral shear stress. The total elastic strain energy per unit volume can be divided into two components: the strain energy of distortion, Uo, and the stain energy of volume change, Uo. As hydrostatic stress has no effect on stress state(yielding), only the stress deviator can cause distortion. The strain energy of distortion will be based on stress deviator. It represents the strain energy associated with changing the shape of specimen and neglects the strain energy associated with volume change. It can be shown that, for uniaxial stress state, Uo = [(1+)/3E] o2 For the condition of pure shear, as in torsion, =. 1=o 2=0 3= -o the strain energy of distortion for this state of stress can be shown to be Uo = {(1+)/E}2 = [(1+)/E]2 The ratio between the strain energy of distortion at yielding for uniaxial stress and that for pure shear can be obtained by {(1+)/3E}o2 = [(1+)/E]o2 o = (1/3) o = 0.577 o thus by distortion energy theory, yield by shear should be(i.e., yield occurs at) 0.577 times the tensile yield strength. 0.6 0.5 xy/o 0.3 Maximum shear stress Distorsion energy

0.0 0.5 1.0 x/o Comparison of max shear stress theory and distortion energy theory (by GI Taylor and H Quinney) 0.1

For plane stress condition, the distortion energy theory of yielding can be expressed mathematically by 12 + 22 12 = o2 this is the equation of an ellipse whose major semiaxis is 2 o and whose minor semiaxis is (2/3) o.

o Distortion energy theory o 2o

1 2/3o

Maximum shear stress theory

A convenient way of comparing the yielding criteria for a two dimensional state of stress is with a plot as in figure. Note that the maximum shear stress theory and the distortion energy theory predict the same yield stress for conditions of uniaxial stress and balanced biaxial stress (1 = 2). It can

be shown that for this state of stress the shear stress law predicts a yield stress which is 15% lower than the value given by distortion energy criterion. 1.20Octahedral shear stress and shear strain The octahedral stresses are a particular set of stress functions which are important in the theory of plasticity. They are the stresses acting on the faces of a three dimensional octahedron which has the geometric property that the faces of the planes make equal angles with each of the three principal directions of stress. For such a geometric body, the angle between the normal to one of the faces and the nearest principal axis is 5444, and the cosine of this angle is 1/3. The stresses acting on each face of the octahedron can be resolved into a normal octahedral stress oct and an octahedral shear stress oct., lying in the octahedral plane. The normal octahedral stress is equal to the hydrostatic component of the total stress. oct = 1/3 (1 + 2 + 3) = The octahedral shear stress is given by oct = 1/3 [(1 2)2 + (2 3)2 + (3 1)2]1/2 = 2o/3 or o = = 1/2 [(1-2)2 + (2-3)2 + (3-1)2]1/2

In a sense the octahedral theory can be considered to be the stress equivalent of the distortion energy theory. According to this theory, the octahedral shear stress corresponding to yielding in uniaxial tension is given by oct = (2) o/3 = 0.471 o Octahedral strains are referred to the same 3D octahedron as the octahedral stresses. The octahedral linear strain is given by oct = 1/3(1 + 2 + 3) Octahedral shear strain is given by oct = 2/3[(1 2)2 + (2 3)2 + (3 1)2]1/2 1.21Invariants of Stresses and Strains It is frequently useful to simplify the representation of a complex state of stress or strain by means of invariant functions of stress and strain. If the plastic stress strain curve is plotted in terms of invariants of stress and strain, approximately the same curve will be obtained regardless of the state of stress. For example, the flow curves obtained in a uniaxial tension test and a biaxial torsion test of a thin tube with internal pressure will coincide when the curves are plotted in terms of invariants of stress and strain functions. Nadai(1937) has shown that the octahedral shear stress and shear strain are invariant functions which describe the flow curve independent of the type of test. Other frequently used invariant functions are the effective or significant stress and strain. With the principal directions as co-ordinate axes, Effective or significant stress ` = (2)/2 [(1-2)2 + (2-3)2 + (3-1)2]1/2 Effective or significant strain ` = (2)/3 [(1-2)2 + (2-3)2 + (3-1)2]1/2

The effective stress and strain are related to the octagonal shearing stress and strain as oct = (2 / 3) ` and oct = 2 ` 1.22Slip-field theory (Henckys plastic section method) Consider a volume element in plane strain within a plastic region of a body. Figure represents a 2D state of stress with respect to arbitrary Cartesian co-ordinates. It is possible to determine the principle planes such that the shear stresses vanish. The principal stresses are simply functions of spherical component of stress , and the shearing stress k. y 2 y y xy x x xy 1 1=+k 1 x xy xy y Figure: 2D state of stress in plane starin The maximum shear stress will occur on planes 45 to the direction of principal stresses. Thus, the critical shear stress k will first reach its value on these planes. In the figure shown, it is seen that the maximum shear stress occurs in two orthogonal directions, designated and . These lines of maximum shear stress are known as slip lines. The slip lines have the property that the shear strain is a maximum and the linear strain is zero in a direction tangent to them. By comparing the figures, it is seen that the principal stresses have a direction 45 to the slip lines. The value of principal stresses can be determined if is known since 1 = + k 2 = k if is constant throughout the region, slip lines will be straight lines. However, if the slip lines curve by an angle , the following relationship holds: + 2k = constant along line -2k = constant along line The slip lines at the free surface must make an angle of 45 with the surface, since there can be no resultant tangential force at a free surface. Since there is no resultant normal stress at a free surface, 1=0 and therefore = -k and 2=-k

2 = -2k. The transverse principal stress is compressive with a value of 2k. 1=0 Free surface k 2 k k k 2=2k

1 Figure: slip line field at the free surface 1.23Deformation of an ideal plastic metal by a flat punch Friction is considered negligible. Plastic deformation will first start at the corners of the punh and will result in a slip line field as shown in figure. Consider point M. since this is a free surface, normal stress is zero and = k The equation of this slip line may be written as + 2k = k. There is no change in the value of until we reach the point N, where the slip line deviates from a straight line. In going from N to Q, the slip line turns through an angle of = -/2 so that its equation at point Q is -2k(/2) = k Since there is no further change in in going to point R, the principal stress normal to the surface at R is 1R = + k = (k + 2k/2) + k Or 1R = 2k(1+/2) And 2R = 2k/2 The pressure is uniform over the face of the punch and is equal to 1 = 2k(1+/2) Since k = o/3 1 = max = 2o/3 [1+/2] = 3o thus the theory predicts that full scale plastic flow, with the resulting indentation will occur when the stress across the face of the punch reaches three times the yield strength in tension.

1R R

1=0 M

Slip line field produced by indentation of a punch 1.24Construction of slip lines Slip lines may be constructed in the body which is undergoing plastic deformation or is at the yield point, provided the normal and shear stresses are completely known on its entire boundary. The construction gives an orthogonal network of slip lines covering the cross section of the deforming body. We can any point inside the body through this network. The application of Henckys stress equations as we go along the and lines of the network gives the state of stress at the desired point in the body. In this way we get the exact solution of the problem. Suppose the boundary is a free line (A free line is one which is not a slip line). in this case the directions of and lines may be determined from the stress prescribed on the boundary and the solution may be extended into the deforming zone limited by the intersecting slip lines emanating from the end points of the free line. Directions of slip lines For construction of slip lines, first of all we have to determine the direction of and lines on the boundary points from the stress prescribed on it. Four types of stress conditions may be encountered on the boundary. They are 1. 2. 3. 4. stress free surface not contacting the tool frictionless interface between the tool and the deforming material interface with coulomb friction condition interface with sticking friction condition

(i) stress free surface in this case there is no shear or normal stress acting on the surface. Since there is no shear stress, the plane tangent to the surface is a principal plane and normal to it is one of the principal stresses. The other two principal stresses lie in the tangential plane. Let 1,2,3 be the principal stresses. Let us take 3 along the normal to the tangential plane. Let 2 be the middle stress, then 2 = (1 + 3)/2 since 3 = 0, 2 = 1/2 this shows that plastic deformation is caused by by 1 which may be compressive or tensile. If 1 is compressive (i.e) 2 = 1/ = -K and 3=0 If 1 is tensile (i.e) 1= 2K and hence 2 = K and hydrostatic pressure P = -K

3=0

3=0

1 2 -line

90

1 -line

90 2

1 -line

-line yielding in tension

yielding in compression

(ii) frictionless interface On a frictionless interface, there is no shear stress. Thus normal to interface at the desired point is the direction of principal stress. Let 3 be the principal stress, not equal to zero. In real case 3 can only be compressive. Let 2 be the middle stress, then 2 = (1+3)/2

3 1 90 (a) 1,3 compressive 1 1

3 1 90

(b) 1 tensile, 3 compressive

(iii)Interface with coulomb friction Let 3 be the stress normal to the surface. The frictional shear stress is equal to 3. let one of the slip lines be inclined at with the free surface. Figure shows the Mohrs stress circle. Take radius CE such that EF = 3 and angle ECG = 2. Then, EF = K cos2 = 3 Hence = cos-1(3/K) 3

3 3

3 surface with coulomb friction (iv) interface with sticking friction The sticking friction occurs when the shear stress at the interface reaches the value K = yield strength of the material in shear. This is also the maximum shear stress. Then cos 2 = 1 or =0,90. therefore one of the slip lines is parallel to the surface and the other is perpendicular to it. Fricton occurs only when 3 is compressive. The directions of and lines are shown in figure.

Construction of slip lines when two slip lines are given Let OA be an slip line and OB be a slip line intersecting line at O. the normal stress, hydrostatic pressure and shear stress(K) are known at all the points on OA and OB. Either of the slip line may be part of the interface between the tool and deforming body on which there is sticking friction (magnitude of friction = K). In order to construct the slip lines in the region bounded by two slip lines, we take a number of points on the two lines, such as (0,1), (0,2), (0,3) etc. on the line and (1,), (2,), (3,0) etc. on the line. OX and OY are the reference co-ordinates. Let us denote the angle of inclination of line with respect to OX at (1,), (2,0), (3,0) etc, by 10,20,30 and so on. Similarly the inclination of line at the points (0,1), (0,2), (0,3) are denoted by 01,02,03 and so on.the values of hydrostatic pressure are also denoted similarly.

Let us take that the line from point (0,1) and line from point (1,0) intersect at the point(1,1). Let P11 be the pressure and 11 be the inclination of line at the point (1,1). For the segment (0,1) to (1,1) on the line, we have P01 +2K01 = P11 + 2K11 For the segment (1,0) to (1,1) of line, P10 - 2K10 = P11 2K11 Based on the above two equations, 4K11 = P01 P10 + 2K(01 + 10) And by adding the two equations, we get 2P11 = P01 +P10 + 2K(01 10) Thus at point (1,1) we know the complete stress stste. To find the location of the point (1,1): The line segment (0,1) to (1,1) as well as the line segment (1,0) to (1,1) may be approximated by straight segments. We may draw a line segment with the mean of angles of line at (0,1) and at (1,1) i.e., (01 +11)/2. similarly we may draw a line segment with the mean of the angles of line at (1,0) and at (1,1) i.e., /2 + (10 + 11)/2. The intersection of these two points gives the location of point (1,1). Proceeding this way we may know the stress and location of (1,1),(2,2),(3,3), etc. bounded by the slip lines. The slip line from the extreme points A and B intersect at D. the region OADBO is the region of the solution. Beyond this region the solution can not be extended. 2.1Friction in metal working Friction condition between deforming tools, work piece in metal working are of great importance to a number of factors, viz., mode of deformation, properties of finished specimen, resulting surface roughness, etc. A stumbling block in correlating theory and practice is the certainty attached to the magnitude of magnitude of interfacial friction. The friction stress is measured in units of force per unit area of contact. The surface area of contact is a boundary of the deformed material. The mechanics of friction is a complex phenomenon and depends on a number of variables such as nature of materials, size, and shape of specimen, velocity of deformation, temperature and atmospheric conditions. Coulombs Friction Law By Coulombs law, F = N or =p The coefficient of friction is taken as constant for a given material and die and is said to be independent of velocity, applied load and area of contact. This relations describes the conditions well until the product p becomes higher than the yield stress in pure shear of the material. The material will then stick to the tool and yielding takes place in the interior of the material. Then the above law does not apply.

Constant friction factor Some investigators prefer to assume a constant shear stress irrespective of the pressure between the die and the material. It is assumed that the d=shear stress is proportional to the strength of the material. When one body is fully plastic, = m /3 where m is the friction factor and is constant for a given die, work & constant surface , temperature conditions. If a lubricant is brought into picture, three models are generally used to describe the effect such as hydrodynamic lubrication, boundary lubrication or hydrostatic lubrication. In the latter, well known in metal forming, the lubricant is trapped in numerous small pockets formed in the surface of the specimen when the tool and the specimen meet. The pressure in these is sufficiently high to transmit the necessary normal stresses. Composite friction It is well known that in plastic deformation of metals, the surface of the work piece is distorted and takes on an impression of the tool surface. Hence, friction in plastic deformation is different from sliding friction in machine parts. However high relative velocities between the work piece and the tool surfaces combined with high interface pressure and severe deformation mode will cause breakdown of surface film and will allow new surfaces to come in contact with the tool surface and hence facilitate the intimate contact essential for adhesion. For such a case the metal undergoing deformation does not necessarily slip along the tool surface, though it is not ruled out. For such a composite mechanism of friction, Deryagin suggested that it is a function of sliding and adhesion. The shear equation is = (P + A) where, the first term denotes sliding friction and the second term denotes adhesion. The load between the two surfaces is supported by the minute asperities. Under light loads the contact may be elastic, but as the load increases, some of the asperities undergo plastic deformation and adhere to each other resulting in micro-welds. The strength of the bond depends on interfacial conditions, time, and temperature. Adhesion friction constitutes a major drawback in production because it affects the die life and surface finish of the product. By the well known theory of adhesion of Bowden and Tabor, the friction force becomes the force that is required to shear these junctions in order to slide the two surfaces over each other. Hence the coefficient of friction is defined as F/N = / Since the asperity is surrounded by a large mass of material, the normal stress on the asperity is analogous to the hardness of the material, thus, = H.

Friction in high speed forming Coefficient of friction generally decreases with increasing velocity between the work piece and the tool, but at the same time increased velocity results in increased temperature and the resulting lubricant breakdown. However extremely high velocities may generate sufficient temperature to melt a thin layer of metal at the work piece and deforming tool interface to act as a lubricant and is usually known as flow zone. This layer of very high strain increases in thickness along the face of the deforming tool and in the direction of flow. This layer may be conveniently considered as a Newtonian fluid for which, = u/y (i.e), friction stress is proportional to viscosity and velocity gradient. It has been shown that thickness of flow zone increases parabolically, in the direction of flow. 2.2Lubrication in metal working Much attention has been paid to produce low values of coefficient of friction. In metal working, however, elimination of the possibility of damage caused by metal transference from work piece to the tool is important. Tool life can be prolonged both by reducing friction and by preventing metallic contact with work piece, by using lubricants. Apart from increasing the force required, frictional stress may cause inhomogeneity as well as surface cracks in the worked part. To produce a bright surface it is necessary to sacrifice some lubrication efficiency. In rolling of flat strips, the roll will slip if the friction is too low and it is necessary to use a poor lubricant to obtain the greatest reduction per pass. Principle of lubrication Most metal working lubricants have been developed empirically, by trial and error. Lubricants in use vary from gases to solid, but majority are fluids. Additives are compounded in oils or emulsions to improve boundary lubrication under severe conditions of temperature and pressure. An ideal metal working lubricant should perform all of the following functions: 1. provide boundary and hydrodynamic lubrication at high pressure 2. minimize and restrict surface temperature 3. reduce wear rate at tool-work interface 4. dissipate contaminants such as particles, dirt, and scale from the work surfaces 5. dissipate the heat generated in metal working 6. prevent metal adhesion and pick-up between the tools and work piece 7. assist in maintaining the desired surface finish and metallurgical characteristics of the finished product The most common lubricants are oils, chemical compounds, soap solutions and phosphate and oxalate coatings. Certain elements are also added to the fluids to act as anti-welding agents. Now the developments in the field make use of chemical reactions between fluids and surfaces to form low shear strength layers such as fluorides and chlorides. A thin layer of materials such as Teflon between the two surfaces is also helpful. For wire drawing of steels chemically deposited copper coatings are used. Small electric current of the order of a few amperes, reduce wear when applied to sliding surfaces. It appears that the current

produces additional chemical compounds of low shear strength in lubricating oil containing additives. For elevated temperatures and some cold operations, various solid lubricants are used such as graphite, MoS2, phosphate, glasses and saw dust. A recent development in reducing friction is the use of high frequency vibration between the die and the work piece. In most metal working operations, the pressure involved are too high and the speed too low to permit full hydrodynamic lubrication and the best that can be obtained is a boundary lubrication or intermittent hydrodynamic lubrication. All metal working lubricants therefore contain constituents having boundary lubrication properties. Lubrication mechanism Most metal working processes are considered to be operating in the boundary regime of lubrication. Under high loads lubrication film is thinned to near molecular dimensions, rendering it discontinuous. There are three types of lubrication mechanisms. In the ideal thick film lubrication (full fluid or hydrodynamic lubrication) the film is continuous, the true area of contact is zero and the friction is a function of viscosity of lubricant undergoing shear in the contact region. With this mechanism, coefficient of friction is low and wear is nil. This mechanism is common in bearing system. Most metal deformation processes are carried out predominantly in boundary or mixed film regime. This system does consider the presence of any apparently thin film separating the surfaces, but at the same time admits some asperity interactions. In this case, the film where present is extremely thin and discontinuous. Friction in boundary lubrication is comparatively high and coefficient of friction of 0.1 and above can be tolerated without damage. The term solid lubrication is used to describe the reduction of friction and wear through the use of inorganic solids having low shear strength. The mechanism involves complete separation of surfaces by the soild lubricants. Ex. : graphite and MoS2. 2.3Forging machines

The upper die and ram are lifted by rolls gripping the board. When the ram is released it falls by its own weight. In the board hammer, the energy supplied to the blow is equal to the potential energy due to the weight of the ram and the height of the fall. They range from 400lb 35in fall to 7500lb75in fall. Greater forging capacity in the range 1000 to 10000 lb is available with steam hammer. Since the falling ram is accelerated by steam pressure, the energy supplied to the blow is related to the kinetic energy of the ram. W = Mv2/2g Striking velocity in excess of 25 ft/sec may be obtained. Presses are rated by the load developed at the bottom of the stroke. Loads of 100 to 7000 tons are commercially available. Hydraulic presses are developed for 500 to 18000 tons. Horizontal presses are very useful for high production forging of symmetrical shapes from bar stock. The machine is basically a double acting press with dies to firmly grip the work aroung the circumference and forming tools which upset the metal. Bolts, ears and rivets are typical parts made. Rotary swaging

Swaging is the process of extending the length at the cost of reducing the cross section Rotary swaging subjects the a bar or tube to a series of blows from two dies which rotate around the stock so that it is hammered from all the sides. Two dies backed up by rollers are rotated with a spindle which rotates in a cage containing a number of hardened steel rollers. When the hammers contact the rollers, the des are forces together but when the spindle rotates the hammer to a position between the rollers, the dies fly open owing to centrifugal force. Thus the work is subjected to several thousand blows per minute.

In the absence of friction when dies are well lubricated, uniaxial compressive force required to cause yielding is P = o A The compressive stress p induced by uniaxial force P is given by Pp=4Ph / D2ho Where h is height of cylinder at any instant and ho is original height of cylinder. 2.4Forging defects 1. if the deformation during forging is limited to the surface llayers, as with light rapid hammer blows, the dendritic ingot structure will not be broken down at the interior of the forging. Incomplete forging penetration can be readily detected by macroetching a c/s. 2. the examination of deep etch disk for segregation, dendritic structure, cracks is a standard quality control procedure for large forgings. 3. surface cracking can occur as a result of excessive working of surface at too low a temperature or as a result of hot shortness. Cracking at the flash is another surface defect in

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

closed die forging, since crack generally penetrates into the body of the forging when the flash is trimmed off. Flash cracking can be avoided by increasing the flash thickness or by relocating the flash to a less critical region. cold shut in closed die forging is a discontinuity produced when two surfaces of metal fold against each other without welding completely. Ex. The flash of a forging operation may press into the metal surface during a subsequent operation. in upsetting of bar stock, buckling of the bar should be prevented. Unsupported length should be no greater than 2 or 3 times the diameter. secondary tensile stresses can develop and produce cracking. Internal cracks develop as a result of circumferential tensile stresses. presence of flow lines or fiber structure. residual stresses in forgings are a result of inhomogenous deformation and are generally quite small because deformation is carried out in hot working range. special precautions must be observed during cooling of large forgings. They are subjected to cracks or flakes at the center of c/s.

ROLLING
Rolling constitutes a group of processes in which deformation or change in shape of product is brought about by compression between rotating cylindrical rolls, disc type rolls or dies.

1. Longitudinal rolling processes Produce strips, sheets, flats, bars of circular/ non-circular cross section, angle sections, beams, channels, wide flange beams, rails, etc. 2. Transverse rolling or cross rolling Produce rolled gears, axles, rolled discs(pulley), seamless tubes, pipes, etc., thread rolling 3. Lateral rolling or axial rolling Produce spherical balls, finned tubes 4. Die rolling It is a combination of rolling and forging processes. Instead of pressing the entire component simultaneously between the dies (as in forging) a rotating die presses the metal into a stationary die successively in each rotation. Adapted, to do noiseless riveting. 5. Forge rolling In this process, die like impressions are made on the surfaces of rolls. The component is rolled between them. Produce stepped shafts, components. LONGITUDINAL ROLLING OF STRIPS AND SHAFTS Process parameters The ingot or billet is passed between two rolls mounted on a rigid frame or stand. The gap between the rolls is adjusted to less than the height of the incoming billet and hence it gets rolled to a reduced height while it increases in length and width. Let h1, b1, v1 and h2, b2, v2 be the length, breadth and width of billet at the entrance and exit of the rolls. Then, h1b1v1 = h2b2v2

h/b >2

h/b < 2

Non-uniformity of deformation in transverse section

In cold rolling of thin sheets, the rigidity of roll frame is particularly important. h2 = hg + f + r + s however in hot rolling the elastic deformation of rolls and elastic recovery of strip are very small compared to the reduction and hence may be neglected.

Rolling load curve Rolling load

Elastic deformation curve for rolling stand and rolls

Set gap

f+r

Rolled sheet thickness

Initial thickness of sheet

Entry condition and maximum reduction Figure shows the forces acting on the rolls at the entry side. The radial pressure of the rolls pushes it away from the rolls while the frictional force tries to pull into the roll gap. Let be the angle of contact. The billet will enter the roll gap if there is a net positive force in the direction of rolling. Therefore the condition for the billet to enter the roll gap is P cos >= P sin Where P is the force exerted by the rolls, is the coefficient of friction and is the contact angle. In the limiting case for the maximum value of , the two sides of the above equation may be equated giving max = tan-1 the maximum possible reduction is hmax = D(1-cosmax), D is diameter of rolls. If we desire to icrease the reduction , we need to increase the coefficient of friction or diameter or both

P P

In cold rolling, the is quite small because the rolls are ground and well lubricated. varies 0.05 to 0.1 In hot rolling the for steel may be determined from = k1 . k2. k3(1.05 0.0005t) Where t is the temperature of the billet in C and k 1 coefficient which takes into account the material of the rolls. k2 coefficient for influence of rolling speed k3 coefficient to take care of material being rolled; its value is 1 for M.S, 1-1.3 for alloy steels

k2

10 14 18 rolling speed m/s

The area of contact between the rolls and the deforming work material affects the load on the rolls. Curved area of contact = R. bm Projected area of contact = L.bm Where bm = (b1 + b2)/2 L is the length of contact projected on the middle plane of rolling L2 = (2R h/2) h/2 It is observed that the speed of the billet on the entry side is less than the speed of the rolls, so the frictional stress on the billet is directed in the direction of rolling. On the exit side the billet speed is higher than the roll surface speed and the frictional stress is directed against the metal flow. Between the entry and exit, there is a section called neutral section where the roll speed and the billet speed are the same. Thus the deformation is divided into (i) leading zone which extends from the neutral section to exit (ii) lagging zone which extends from entry to neutral section

v2 v1 L

Neutral section

let vr roll surface speed v1 billet speed at entry side v2 billet speed at the exit side v billet speed at neutral section % forward slip on exit side = [(v2 v) / v] x 100 % backward slip on entry side = [(v v1)/v] x 100

Conical portion of die

Die casting

land

WC nib

Die ang le

Relie f angle