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1.MATTER nucleon Atom electrons proton neutron

Proton no (no. of protons): no. of protons in the nucleus of an atom Proton no. = no. Nucleon no. : no. protons & neutrons in the nucleus

Isotopes: atoms of the same element that contains same proton no. but nucleon no. Have = chemical properties Have physical properties ( Where, )

: nucleon no. of isotopes 1, 2,3 x, y, z : relative abundance

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Interpret mass spectra in terms of molecular fragments Molecular ion (x %) usually has highest m/e mass = RMM of the compound ( Where , ) : m/e x, y, z : relative abundance/height

formulas solution that diluted with water

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THE GASEOUS STATE

Boyles law ( (final) -gas that obeys ideal gas -real gases obeys at ( ) )

Charles law ( )

( )

Avogadro Law equal V of all gases at (=T/p) have equal no. of molecules ( ) T = 0 (273K) & p = 1 atm ( )

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Ideal gas equation ( ) Gas that obeys the eq. ideal gas/perfect gas (at fixed mass of g) When

R p V T

8.31Jk-1mol-1 Pa/Nm-2 m3 K

0.082dm3atmK-1mol-1 atm dm3 K

Daltons law

Mole fraction of A, Partial pressure,

(mole fraction)

Deviation from ideal behavior Conditions: a. V occupied by molecule - negligible b. f.a. between molecules ideal pV=constant real pVconstant Real gases obey / p, T deviate from ideal gas behavior p, T

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A. Negative deviation 1. intermolecular f.a. between mol. - > compresssible - V of gas 2. polar bonds weak i.f.a mol. Size small - non-polar least deviation - polar stronger i.f.a Marked deviation B. Positive deviation p, V occupied by gas mol, becomes # cant be ignored V of gas < C. Ideal behavior Normal p can be ignored. pV = constant

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THE LIQUID & GASES STATES Melting point: T at which a solid convert into Vaporisation /Evaporation: T at which a into gas Vapour p: pressure exerted by vapour above its in a closed container (depends on T) Saturated V.P: pressure exerted by vapour in equilibrium with its in a container boiling p: T at which its v.p. = external p. Volatile has weak i.f.a which evaporate quickly at T volatile , BP , VP

SOLID Crystalline closely packed & 3D ar. Structure Amorphous randomly ar. & order Lattice: pattern of points which are randomly arranged & consistently repeated. Basic unit: unit cell small repeating unit that makes up a crystal. Name Cubic Rhombohedral Tetragonal Hexagonal Orthorhombic Monoclinic Triclinic Characteristics ===90 ==90 ===90 ==90, =120 ===90 = 90 90 e.g.

a=b=c a=b=c a=bc a=bc abc abc abc

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Types Simple cubic (primitive) Body-centered cubic (multi-primitive) Face-centered cubic (multi-primitive) Type of lattice point Centre Corner Cell edge Face

Structure

e.g.

Unit cell 1 1/8

Allotropes: element that can exist in > 1 structural form (under = p/T) Carbon Diamond Graphite Structure Arranged in tetrahedral Arranged in parallel layer -use sp3 hybrid orbital -use sp2 hybrid orbital Bonding -c.b. -c.b. -Joined 4 -Joined 3 -harder -soft bond weak Properties - MP/BP-strong c.b. - MP/BP-strong c.b. Electrical cond. - delocalized / - / delocalized Uses Tips of cutting Pencil lead/electrodes Fullerenes -spherical mol. Of 30-70 C atoms - : buckminsterfullerene

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Sulphur Mol.formula Bond & structure Colour Crystalline struc. S in CS2 Phase diagram Rhombic S S8 Simple Lemon yellow Orthorhombic latt. S Monoclinic S S8 Simple Deeper yellow Monoclinic latt. IS

AO Sublimation curve of ice (SV) OB Vapour p. curve of H2O (H2OV) OC MP curve (S H2O) slopes left O Triple point (S, H2O, V in equi.)[.006 atm] B Critical point > B , H2O vapour condensed to H2O CO2 O 5.1 atm L can exist p > 5.1atm MP/OC towards right -p MP

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2.ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF ATOMS

( ( )

Energy of photons, ( Emission spectrum When an element in its gaseous state is heated at high T & p, radiation of certain are emitted.

H2 at p in discharge tube is heated. at lowest E level, ground state -absorb E jump to E level (exited state) unstable Return to E level ( stable) & emits E (photons) Quantum of E = - of E in level, E=hf Quantum has f, contributes to 1 line to the line spectrum Line represent E radiated when - drops from E (unstable) to E level (stable) Level get further from nucleus, get closer to each other. - between E level until it become as subs. Level converge.

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Ionisation E: min E required to remove 1 mol of from 1 mol gaseous atoms to form 1 mol of + ions Rydberg equation ( ) (of 1 mol H atoms) Atomic Orbitals

Aufbau principle -- filled from lower orbitals -4s (empty) - E level < 3d -4s (filled) - E level > 3d

_________________ 4d n=4 -----_________________ 4p _________________ 3d _________________ 4s n=3 ----- _________________ 3p _________________ 3s _________________ 2p n=2 _________________ 2s n=1 ----- _________________ 1s 1s2 _ _

Pauli exclusion principle -max. 2 - in an orbital Hunds rule -fill one by one

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3.PERIODIC TABLE Newlands - atomic mass Mendeleev ascending RAM Moseley - prot. No. Period- prot. no Group valence -

Atomic Radii a. Van der Waals r b. Covalent r c. Metallic r Factors affecting 1. Screening effect: mutual repulsion between - in inner shell with outer shell ( SE , AS) 2. Nuclear charge (-, attraction, NC, AS) 3. Effective nuclear charge,eff =NC-SE (:eff , AS ) / (+:eff, AS ) Properties Atomic size Period NC, no.e , SE (remain unchanged) -e- added same shell eff , attraction , AS
-

Group no. shells filled with e- , SE > NC, eff , less tightly, AS

Ei

-NC - SE (almost =), Ei - > E remove e- from 1. fully occupied s orbital 2. filled p orbital

AS , NC , Ei

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Electronegativity, , eAS, NC, attraction 4e-

, AS, NC, SE, eff attraction 4e-

Isoelectronic atoms/ions that have = no. e- & = electronic configuration Ionic size AS: + < n < {X+: = no.e-, - prot. no } {Y-: = no.e-, - prot. no } anions > cations -1 extra quantum shell filled with eMP/BP/Enthalpy of vaporization (Hvapour) Giant metallic(Na-Al) -ions attracted to the cloud of e-v.e-, NC, metallic b., MP/BP Giant covalent(Si) -strong covalent b. between atoms -difficult - > E, MP/BP Simple molecular(P-Ar) - weak vdWf -mol. Size , F , - S8>P ->Ar : Diatomic > monoatomic

Electrical conductivity Metal good: / delocalized eN-metal- weak: delocalized e- / insulator Metalloids/semi-metal poor Ei (NC, SE, AS) Factors a. AS Atomic radius , Ei b. NC , e- attraction , Ei c. SE , Ei

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Periods of d-block 1. Atomic radii -almost constant ENC remains constant 2. MP/BP - strong metallic b. - Zn/Mn : /fully filled d-shells 3. Density - : small atomic radii, atoms tightly packed together 4. Ei - , no.protons - > E needed to remove e- from /fully filled d-shells Scandium(Sc) Iron(Fe) Titanium(Ti) Cobalt(Co) Vanadium(V) Nickel(Ni) *Chromium(Cr) *Copper(Cu) Manganese(Mn) Zinc(Zn) * /fully filled d-shells > stable Predicting group 1. (-) in 2nd & 3rd Ei = E2-E1 2. (-) 2/1 G1 3/2 G2 4/3 G13 5/4 G14 ...

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4.CHEMICAL BONDING IONIC BOND Formed by transfer of e- from metal atom to nonmetal atom Strong electrostatic attraction Dot and cross diagram LiF Li + F [Li]+ [ F ] MgBr2 Mg + 2[ Br ] [Mg]+ 2[ Br ]

Strength of ionic b. , S Polyatomic ionic & covalent b.

METALLIC BOND : Electrostatic attraction between + charged ions & cloud of delocalized e v. e- freely moved particles delocalised no. atomic orbitals overlap large, no. of mol. orbitals produced Conductors Semi-conductors Insulator

-v.b: v.e-, electric free to move c.b. - T, e. cond

Good conductor

-E gap small -Electric - e- can jump E gap is small -e.cond < metal, e- in cb small T, e. cond

e- jump into c.b.

insulator

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Semiconductor Doping: add small amount of the subs. e.cond Pure Si v.b(full) , c.b(empty) Si(4 v.e-) doped with P(5v.e-) n-type Si p-type > e- occupy in c.b e.cond Si(4 v.e-) doped with gallium(3v.e-) no e- occupy in v.b e.cond Strength of metallic b. , S

COVALENT B By sharing of e- between atoms. Electrostatic attraction between pair of shared eSingle bond - 2e- shared Bond diagram: Dot & cross d.: Strength of c.b (stronger b) a. Shorter b , Eb b. Multiple b. >> single b.

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COORDINATE B C.b. formed when 1 atom donate 1 lone pair of e- to another atom that has vacant valence orbital. e- pair donor atom that has 1 lone pair of eacceptor atom that has 1 empty orbital shell

Aspects Phy. app. MP/BP

Ionic c

Covalent c Simple g/l/s - weak inter.F eIS S s -strong att. F > E needed 2 break cb. IS IS Giant

crystalline -strong att. F > E needed 2 overcome Electrical Good-molten/aq conductivity Delocalized eS H2O S Org.solvent IS

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Lewis structure Steps 1. Count no. v. ea. Mol simply sum up b. Polyatomic anion - + ec. Polyatomic cation - - e2. Draw skeleton structure a. Single b b. Central atom(<electro-) c. Terminal atoms (H/O/Cl) 3. no. v. e- still available - subtract 2e- -1 bond 4. no. v. e- required to fill out octet 4 each atom ( ) a. no. v. e- available = require -unshared pairs b. no. v. e- < require i. 1 - = (<2 e- ) ii. 1 - (4 e- ) iii. multiple b (O/C/N/S) iv. H/Br/Cl/F/I single b Shapes of molecules & ions VSEPR theory Lp-lp repulsion > lp-bp repulsion > bp-bp repulsion Strongest weakest E.g

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Geometry Linear Trigonal planar Linear

Molecular shape

Eg. BeCl2 AlCl3 GeCl2

Electron pairs bp lp Total 2 3 2 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 6 5 4 0 0 1 0 1 2 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6

Trigonal planar Bent/V-shape

Tetrahedral

Tetrahedral Trigonal pyramidal Bent/V-shape

Trigonal bipyramidal

Trigonal bipyramidal See-saw T-shape Linear

Octahedral

Octahedral Square pyramidal Square planar

bond angle

lone pair of eelectronegativity

lp-bp e- rep > bp-bp rep 3 bp move closer - angle between bp central atom surrounding atom

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-Large A overlap, > cb -.b > .b sideways overlapping HYBRIDISATION Mixing together 2/> atomic orbitals (=E) Orbitals sp3 sp2 Diagram

sp

Ground state Exited state hybridised state E.g. Hybridization of S & P orbitals in the N/O atom

ELECTRONEGATIVITY -Ability of an atom that is covalently bonded to another atom to attract e- to itself enacross period/ down group
2 identical atom bonding e- shared equally between 2 atoms & attracted equally diatomic mol (Cl2) : = en2 atoms identical

Bonds

Non-polar Polar

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Polarisation: separation of charge in a polar covalent bond -2 electrical charges of opposite signs are separated by small distance
po o n n

Molecular shape

IONIC CHARACTER IN COVALENT COMPOUND Polar c. mol. has ionic character : presence of dipoles polar, ionic character Ionic 1.7 0.4-1.7 Polar c 0 Non-polar c COVALENT CHARACTER IN IONIC COMPOUND To incomplete transfer of e > degree of polarization of anion, > amount of covalent character. Cation : polarising power
Anion & - pp n on on v on ( on z n pp

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INTERMOLECULAR F VAN DER WAALS F a. Permanent dipole F - Exist between polar molecule - + end of dipole of 1 mol. will attract end of another mol. - d-d F/permanent d-permanent d F - , >polar, strength of d-d attraction, BP b. Temporary dipole induced dipole F - Temporary fluctuations in e- density in a mol. Strength a. Molecular size bigger size, vdWF stronger, BP b. TSA larger SA, greater contact with mol, F , BP i. = no. C atoms, - structural formula, - BP ii. Isomer straight chain larger SA -branched chain smaller SA c. RMM td-id F > significant than pd-pd F - RMM, attraction - almost similar - d-d F > significant - > polar mol, stronger att. Effect of going down a. G17,G18 atomic size , F, BP b. Homologous series, mol.size, id, BP Alkenes series , BP , enthalphy of vap.

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HYDROGEN BOND d-d attraction between H atom covalently bonded to O,N,F & an unshared pair of e- on neighbouring en atom. a. H is covalently bonded - en- atoms (FON) b. unshared pair of e-/another en- atom vdWF < Hb. < Cb. x lp x H.b. Effect 1. HF is strong 2. BP of hydride (G14-G17):RMM, mol.size, F, BP 3. Sol. In organic compound in H2O 4. Dismerisation in carboxylic acid 5. H.b. in ice & H2O Ionic compound dissolve in Mol. H. Bond H2O a. Intermol -cation + (-) end of H2O -between 2 - mol -anion + (+) end of H2O b. Intramol Ion dipole F -between same mol.

Ions involved? Polar molecules involved? H atoms bonded to F/O/N atoms Mol & ions both involved?

Td-Id F

Ion-d F

Ionic b

H b.

d-d F

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5. REACTION KINETICS RATE OF REACTION

( ( )
[ ]

Determine ROR quantity of gas/conc./time taken COLLISION THEORY Reaction occur when reactant part. Must collide possess min Ek (Ea) have right orientation during collision

Eff.coll: coll of react mol that will results chem react. Ea: min E of reactant mol. must acquire for chem. Reaction occur. Energy profile diagram:

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Factors that affect ROR: SA/conc./T/catalyst Conc., > reactant particles/V, > collisions, f.coll, f.EC ROR

RATE LAW
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

where k: rate constant at constant T m/n: rate order with respect to reactant A/B m + n : overall reaction order Aspects Rate Unit for k Graph of rate vs [A] Integration of rate equation Graph 0 = k [A]0 = k mol dm-3s-1 ORDER OF REACTION 1st 2nd = k [A]1 =k[A]1[B]1 =k[A]2 -1 s dm3mol-1 s-1

[ ]

[ ]

n[ ]

n[ ]

[ ]

[ ]

Half time,t1/2 Notes Graph

[ ]

Not constant

Rate conc.

[ ]

Constant t2 = t1 ROR conc.

Not constant t2 = 2t1 ROR conc.

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Calculation method

www.studysmart.page.tl Experiment [A] [B] [C] Initial rate 1 x1 y1 z1 r1 2 x2 y1 z1 r2 3 x1 y2 z2 r3

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] ( ) o o ( )

Graphical method Rate = k [A]n Reaction mechanisms

[ ]

Overall equation: 3A + B + C Arrhenius equation,

n n T Ea n ( ) k , ROR

D+F
( )

T Ea

f , ROR

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CATALYST : substances that alters the ROR without chemically changed.

Homogenous c. - tansition metal ion -catalyst + R exists at + phase

Heterogenous c. -transition element - catalyst & R exist at - phase a. adsorption of R at S of catalyst b. reaction (R+C) c. desorption of prod. at S of catalyst

CATALYSIS

Autocatalysis -product = catalyst