MMME2104 Design & Selection of Mining Equipment Electrical Component

Magnetics
Lecture 4 20 August 2003

Lecture Outline
Magnetic Circuits
Magnetic field intensity, flux density, relative permeability and reluctance B-H curves

Magnetic Materials Electromagnetism

Magnetic fields produced by a conductor Faradays and Lenzs laws

Electromagnetic Effects
Hysteresis Eddy currents Inductance

Magnetic Circuit Nomenclature

Symbol MMF H B o r N L M Represents Magneto-motive force Magnetic field strength Magnetic flux Magnetic flux density Permeability of free space Relative permeability Number of turns/loops Self-inductance Mutual inductance Units Amp-turns (A) Amp-turns per metre (A/m) Weber (Wb) Tesla (T) Henries per metre (H/m) n/a n/a Henries (H) Henries (H)

Magnetic Flux and Flux Density

Whenever a magnetic flux () exists in a body or component, it is due to the presence of a magnetic field intensity (H), given by: H = MMF / l where l is the length of the component and MMF is the magnetomotive-force. The resulting magnetic flux density (B) is given by: B=/A where A is the cross sectional area of the component.

Reluctance
The magnetic flux () and magneto-motive-force (MMF) are related through the reluctance () of the magnetic circuit, as follows: MMF = or Hl=BA This relationship is analogous to the voltage/current relationship for a resistor in an electrical circuit: V=iR

Reluctance
So how do we determine reluctance? The reluctance () is defined in terms of magnetic permeability ():

l = A

Magnetic Circuits: Summary

Magnetic quantities
Symbol MMF H B Represents Magneto-motive force Magnetic field intensity Magnetic flux Magnetic flux density Reluctance Permeability Units Amp-turns (A) Amp-turns per metre (A/m) Webers (Wb) Telsa (T) or Webers per square meter (Wb/m2) 1/ Henries (H-1) Henries per metre (H/m)

Electrical analogies
Symbol V or EMF E I J R Represents Voltage or Electro-motive-force Electric field intensity Current Current density Resistance Conductivity Units Volts (V) Volts per metre (V/m) Amps (A) Amps per square meter (A/m2) Ohms () 1 / Ohm-metres (-1m-1)

Magnetic Circuits: B-H Curves

All these magnetic quantities are very confusing! Fortunately, magnetic materials and circuits can be described far more easily in terms of B H curves: B=H (This relationship can be derived from previous expressions. The electrical analogy would be a J E curve, but this serves no useful purpose for analysing electrical circuits.)

B-H Curve of Vacuum

The magnetic flux density in vacuum is directly proportional to the magnetic field intensity: B = o H where o = permeability constant = 4 x 10-7 H/m Non-magnetic materials such as copper, paper, rubber and air have B-H curves almost identical to that of vacuum. These materials never saturate!
Source: T. Wildi, Electrical Machines, Drives and Power Systems, 5th Edition, Prentice-Hall, 2002

B-H Curve of Magnetic Materials

The magnetic flux density in magnetic materials also depends upon the magnetic field intensity: B = r o H where r = relative permeability of magnetic material However, relative permeability is not constant and varies with the flux density in the material. Consequently, the B-H relationship for magnetic materials is non-linear and this also explains why B-H curves are so useful in magnetics. This non-linear magnetic phenomenon is known as saturation

B-H Curve of Magnetic Materials

r = 1120 r = 560

r = 160

Source: T. Wildi, Electrical Machines, Drives and Power Systems, 5th Edition, Prentice-Hall, 2002

Magnetic Materials
Commonly used magnetic materials: Permanent magnets
Rare-earth magnets (highest flux/field and high cost) Ferrite magnets (low-medium flux/field and low cost)

Laminated materials
Iron-silicon alloys High relative permeability but low conductivity Used to minimise eddy currents at power frequencies (Hz)

Ferrites
Sintered manganese or nickel alloys Low saturation flux density and very low conductivity Suited to RF frequencies (MHz)

Electromagnetism
Magnetic field produced by a conductor:

i B= 2r

r i

Electromagnetism
Magnetic field produced by a solenoid:

B=

Ni
l

= ni

Electromagnetic Induction
Voltage induced in a wire loop by a changing magnetic field (Faradays Law): = magnetic flux enclosed within loop (flux linkage)

N turns

d V =N dt

Electromagnetic Induction
Two special cases of Faradays law need to be considered: 1. When a coil is stationary and the flux linking it changes with time (produced by an AC current). This produces an equation for the induced voltage (V) called the flux linking equation (useful in transformers): V = 4.44 Bp A N f where: Bp is the peak flux density linking the coil A is the cross-sectional area of the coil N is the number of turns of the coil f is the frequency (Hz)

Electromagnetic Induction
2. When the flux does not change with time but a conductor moves through the magnetic field. This produces an equation for the induced voltage (V) called the flux cutting equation (useful in electric motors and generators):

V=Blv where: l is the (active) length of the conductor in the magnetic field v is the velocity of the moving conductor

Electromagnetic Induction
Lenzs Law is used in conjunction with Faradays Law to define the direction of the induced voltage:

the direction of the induced voltage is such that if a current flows as a consequence, the flux produced must oppose the flux change inducing it

Electromagnetic Force
Lorentz force on a conductor:

F = Bil

Source: T. Wildi, Electrical Machines, Drives and Power Systems, 5th Edition, Prentice-Hall, 2002

Electromagnetic Force

Source: T. Wildi, Electrical Machines, Drives and Power Systems, 5th Edition, Prentice-Hall, 2002

Electromagnetic Effects
In rotating electric machines, the electromagnetic force is used to create torque. In transformers and electric motors/generators, there are three kinds of losses that may be attributed to electromagnetic effects: Hysteresis Eddy currents Magnetostriction Electromagnetism also gives rise to the property of inductance.

Hysteresis
Hysteresis losses occur when the flux changes continuously both in value and direction. The magnetic material absorbs energy each cycle and dissipates it as heat. To reduce hysteresis losses, magnetic materials are selected that have a narrow hysteresis loop.

Source: T. Wildi, Electrical Machines, Drives and Power Systems, 5th Edition, Prentice-Hall, 2002

Eddy Currents
Eddy currents occur when AC voltages are induced in a conductor by a changing magnetic field Eddy currents dissipate power as resistive losses in the conductor To reduce eddy current losses, magnetic materials are laminated (for a given core size, eddy current losses decrease in proportion to the square of the number of laminations).

Source: T. Wildi, Electrical Machines, Drives and Power Systems, 5th Edition, Prentice-Hall, 2002

Magnetostriction
When a magnetic field is established in a ferromagnetic material the dimensions of the crystal structure change the atomic spacing in the direction of the field increasing and that perpendicular to the field decreasing. In addition to being another source of power loss, this minute change in the size of the material occurs at twice the supply frequency and causes a characteristic hum at 100 Hz for devices supplied at normal mains frequency. This noise cannot be overcome and can be the source of complaints by residents living close to distribution transformers.

Inductance
To better understand inductance, we combine Faradays Law with the voltage/current relationship for an inductor:

d di V =N =L dt dt

d L=N di

Therefore, the inductance is the rate of change of flux linkages in a coil produced by the current in that coil. This characteristic of a coil is known as self-inductance. We may further write:

d N 2 N 2 r o A = = L=N l di
For a linear magnetic circuit (constant permeability) the inductance is constant but for a ferromagnetic material (non-linear due to changing relative permeability) the inductance falls as the material experiences saturation.

Mutual Inductance
Two coils that are wound on the same magnetic core (and are therefore linked by the same magnetic flux) will induce voltages/currents in each other and are said to exhibit mutual inductance (M). For example, if all of the flux produced by the current in coil 1 links with coil 2, then the mutual inductance with coil 2 (M21) is given as:

Similarly:

d N 2 N 1 M 21 = N 2 = di1 d N 1 N 2 M 12 = N1 = di2
M 12 = M 12 = M = L1 L2

Therefore:

Mutual Inductance
However, in practice there is some flux produced by coil 1 which leaks from the core (and is therefore called leakage flux) and does not link with coil 2 so M < (L1L2). This leads us to define an inductance called the leakage inductance which for coil 1 is L1M12 and for coil 2 is L2M21. Self- and mutual-inductances are most conveniently presented as a matrix equation:

V1 L1 V = M 2 21

M 12 d i1 L2 dt i2