M.N.

Sharath kumar 23
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Nuclear physics is a branch of physics which deals with atomic nuclei.

Constituents of Nucleus
The atomic nucleus was discovered in 1911 by Rutherford. Rutherfords o-scattering
experiments showed that the atom consists of a very small nucleus surrounded by orbiting
electrons.

All atomic nuclei are made up of elementary particles called protons and neutrons. A proton has
a positive charge of the same magnitude as that of an electron. A neutron is electrically neutral.
Mass of a neutron is slightly greater than that of a proton. The proton and the neutron are called
by the common name nucleon.

The following terms and symbols are widely used to describe a nucleus.
Z = atomic number = number of protons
N = neutron number = number of neutrons
A = Z + N = mass number = total number of protons and neutrons.

A nucleus is represented by the symbol
A
z
X , where X is the chemical symbol of the
element(or atom).
As an example, for arsenic nucleus
75
33
As Z 33 = , A 75 = and
N A Z 75 33 42 = = = . It has 33 protons and 42 neutrons.

Classification of nuclei
1) Isotopes: are nuclei with the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
Isotopes of an element contain the same number of protons but have different number of
neutrons. All the isotopes of an element have identical chemical behaviour and
differ physically only in mass. For example
1
1
H ,
2
1
H &
3
1
H are the isotopes of hydrogen.
2) Isobars :Rare nuclei with the same mass number but with different atomic
numbers.
8
16
O &
7
16
N are examples for isobars.
3) Isotones :are nuclei with an equal number of neutrons.
6
14
C ,
7
15
N and

8
16
O are examples for isotones.
4) Isomers: are nuclei with the same mass number and also atomic number. They
differ from one another in their energy states and exhibit differences in their
internal structure.

General properties of Nucleus
a) Nuclear size:
For all practical purposes the nucleus is considered as spherical in shape. From scattering
experiments, the mean radius of a nucleus is found to be of the order of
15
10 m

while that of
the atom is
10
10 m

.
The empirical formula for nuclear radius is

M.N.Sharath kumar 24

1/ 3
R R A =
Where A is the mass number &
15
R 1.3 10 m 1.3fermi

= = .
15
1fermi 1f 10 m

= = is an
appropriate unit to express radius of a nucleus.
For example, the radius of
12
6
C nucleus is about 3 fermi and that of
92
238
U nucleus
is about 8 fermi.

b) Nuclear mass:
The mass of the nucleus is slightly less than the sum of the masses of its protons and
neutrons in free state.
i.e nuclear mass
p n
Zm (A Z)m < +
where
p
m and
n
m are masses of proton and neutron, Z = atomic number & A = mass number.
Mass spectrographs are used to measure nuclear masses. Nuclear mass is expressed in
amu.

c) Nuclear density:
It is the ration of nuclear mass to its volume. The nucleus has almost the entire mass of
the atom and has extremely small volume. Hence, nucleus has large density,
about
17 3
2.3 10 kgm

.

d) Nuclear charge:
The charge of the nucleus of the nucleus is due to protons contained
Nuclear charge = Ze
Where Z is the atomic number of the nucleus and e = charge of proton =
19
1.6 10 C

+ .

e) Nuclear spin:
Both the proton and neutron have an intrinsic spin. The resultant angular momentum of a
nucleus due to spin and orbital motion of nucleons is called nuclear spin.


f) Nuclear magnetic moment:
Protons and neutron have magnetic properties. The magnetic moment of a proton is
N
2.8 and
that of a neutron is
N
1.9 .
(
N
= one nuclear magneton=
27 1
p
eh
5.05 10 JT
4 m

=
t
)
Nuclear magnetic moment is the resultant of magnetic moments of the nucleons. Nuclei having
appreciable magnetic moment cause hyperfine structure in spectra.

Atomic mass unit
Atomic mass unit(amu) is a small unit of mass used to express masses of atomic and
subatomic particles.
Atomic mass unit is defined as (1/12)th of the mass of a
12
C atom.
Mass of
23
6.023 10 atoms of
12 3
C 12 10 kg

=

M.N.Sharath kumar 25
Mass of 1 atom of
3
12
23
12 10
C kg
6.023 10

3
23
1 12 10
1a mu . kg
12 6.023 10

27
1a mu 1.66 10 kg

=
In terms of this unit, mass of proton=1.00728 a m u, mass of neutron= 1.00867 a m u and mass
of electron = 0.00055 a m u.

Electron volt(eV)
It is a convenient unit of energy used in atomic physics. An electron volt is defined as
the energy acquired by an electron when it moves through a potential difference of 1 volt.
1 eV = KE acquired by the electron
= Work done by the electric field
= Charge PD

19
1.602 10 1J

=

19
1eV 1.602 10 J

=

13
1MeV 1.602 10 J

=

THE LIQUID DROP MODEL
The liquid drop model of the nucleus was proposed by Neil Bohr in 1936. It is based on
certain marked similarities between the nucleus of an atom and a liquid drop. The similarities
between the two are as follows.
1) A stable nucleus is spherical in shape just as a liquid drop is spherical.
2) The density of a nucleus is independent of its volume just as the density of
A liquid drop is independent of its volume.
3) There is a potential barrier at the surface of the nucleus just as the force of
surface tension acts on the surface of a liquid drop.
4) The force between the nucleons (nuclear force) in a nucleus are short range
forces. Similarly the intermolecular forces in a liquid are short range forces.
5) When energy is given to a nucleus by means of bombarding projectile, a
compound nucleus is formed which emits nuclear radiations. Similarly when
thermal energy is supplied to a liquid drop the molecules evaporate from its
surface.
6) The process of nuclear fission is similar to breaking up of a liquid into two
Smaller drops of equal size when allowed to oscillate.
Merits
The liquid drop model accounts for
1) The stability of a nucleus.
2) The binding energy of atomic nucleus.
3) The phenomenon of radioactivity.
4) The phenomenon of nuclear fission.
The model also helps to calculate the atomic masses and binding energy of
the nuclei quite satisfactorily.
Demerits
The liquid drop model fails to explain
1) The high stability of nuclei with magic numbers.
2) The measured spin and magnetic moment of nuclei.


M.N.Sharath kumar 26

NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE( NMR )
A nuclear with non zero spin will have magnetic moment and acts like a tiny magnet. When it is
placed in an external magnetic field the magneticmoment vector processes round the magnetic
field direction. This is called Larmour frequency. Thisprecession is quantized and the magnetic
moment can precess round the magnetic field only at certain values of angle u between the
directions of magnetic moment and the magnetic field.If the precessing nucleus is placed in the
path of electromagnetic radiation, the nucleus can absorb energy from the radiation provided the
frequency of presession or Larmour frequency. This phenomenon is called nuclear magnetic
resonance.
NMR technique is used
1) for the accurate determination of nuclear magnetic moments,
2) in chemical analysis and determination of molecular structure and
3) in medical diagnosis as Magnetic Resonance Imaging or MRI

Magnetic resonance imaging(MRI ) is a technique used primarily in the medical field to
produce high quality images of the inside of the human body. It is based on the principles of
NMR. In this technique the part of the human body whose image has to be obtained for medical
diagnosis is placed between the pole pieces of a suitably designed magnet and radio frequency
radiation is directed towards the parts of the body under study. The spectrum of radiation
absorbed is obtained which can be used for medical diagnosis. This model is supported to be
superior to diagnosis by x-rays because x-rays can cause damage to living tissue where as radio
frequency radiation is harmless.

Nuclear forces
The forces that hold the nucleons together in a nucleus
are called nuclear forces. They have the following properties.
1) Nuclear forces are strongly attractive, stronger than
gravitational and electrostatic force.
2) They are spin dependent.
3) They are charge independent. The nuclear forces
acting between two protons, or between two neutrons
or between a proton and neutron, are the same.
4) They are short range forces i.e, they operate over short
distances of about a fermi.
5) They have a saturation property i.e each nucleon
attracts a limited number of its neighbours.
6) They are non central forces.

According to meson theory, nucleons consist of identical cores surrounded by a cloud of t
mesons called pions. The exchange of pions between the nucleons changes their identity and at
the same time keeps them bound together.
A neutron emits a

t meson and is converted to a proton

n p

+ t
The absorption of a

t meson by a proton converts it into a neutron

p n

+ t
Similarly p n
+
+ t
n p
+
+ t

M.N.Sharath kumar 27
Einsteins Mass-energy relation

Einstein established from his theory of relativity that mass & energy are interconvertible.
The energy produced due to conversion of mass m is given by

2
E mc =
Where c is the velocity of light. This relation is called Einsteins mass energy relation.
According to Einsteins relation, mass & energy
may be considered as two forms of the same physical
entity. In view of this, laws of conservation of mass &
energy are unified into one law called the law of
conservation of mass and energy.
Nuclear fusion, nuclear fission & pair production
(production of electron & position by gamma photon)
provide experimental evidence for Einsteins mass energy
relation.

Energy equivalent of 1 amu
Einsteins mass energy equation is

2
E mc =
Energy equivalent of 1amu=
2
1amu c
=
2
27 8
1.660531 10 (2.997925 10 ) J

1MeV =
=
2
27 8
1.660531 10 (2.997925 10 ) MeV

13
1.602189 10 J

13
1.602189 10

Energy equivalent of 1 amu = 931.5 MeV
Or 1 amu
2
c = 931.5 MeV

Mass defect
It has been found by precise measurements that mass of an atom is less than the sum of
the masses of its constituent particles.

The difference between the sum of the masses of the constituent particles of an atom
and its atomic mass is called mass defect.
Mass defect(Am) of an atom is given by

p n e
m [Zm (A Z)m Zm ] M A = + +
Where Z is the atomic number, A is the mass number, M is the mass of the atom and
p
m ,
n
m &
e
m are masses of proton, neutron and electron.


Note 1: Mass defect of a nucleus is given by

p n
m [Zm (A Z)m ] M A = +
Where M is the mass of the nucleus.

Note 2: Packing fraction(P) is defined as the ratio of difference between atomic mass(M)
& mass number (A) to the mass number.

M.N.Sharath kumar 28

M A
P
A

=
P is negative for elements having mass number between 12 & 200 & it is positive for other
elements.

Binding Energy
Binding energy of a nucleus is the energy required to break the nucleus into its
constituent particles. It is also the energy liberated when a number of protons and neutrons
combine to form the nucleus. It is the energy equivalent of mass defect(Am).

2
BE m.c = A

p n
m {Zm (A Z)m } M A = +
Where M is the mass of the nucleus & c is the velocity of light.
Binding energy per nucleon of a nucleus is called its specifying binding energy(SBE).

BE
SBE
A
=
Where A is the mass number of the nucleus. SBE is a measure of the stability of the nucleus or
atom.

A plot of specific binding energy of
Various nuclei against mass number gives a
Curve called the binding energy curve. It is
Shown in the figure.

The curve rises sharply in the beginning and then more gradually attaining a maximum
Value 8.8MeV for iron(A=56). The curve then falls gradually to 7.6MeV for higher mass
numbers. The curve gives the following informations.
1) SBE for light nuclei is small.

2) The subsidiary peaks occurring at
4
2
He ,
12
6
C &
16
8
O indicate that these
nuclei are much more stable than their immediate neighbours.

3) Nuclei of intermediate mass are most stable, since they have greatest SBE
nearly 8.5 MeV.

4) For higher mass numbers SBE decreases. This is due to repulsion between the
protons and the effect of surface nucleons.


M.N.Sharath kumar 29
5) IN fusion(lighter nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus) and in
fission(heavier nucleus splits into lighter ones) greater value of binding energy
results with the liberation of energy.

Nuclear fission
Nuclear fission is a process in which a heavy nucleus splits up into two nuclei of
comparable masses releasing a large amount of energy.
Following the work of Fermi, Hahn and Strassman discovered nuclear fission in 1939.
When
235
92
U is bombarded by a slow neutron, it captures the nuclear forming an
unstable compound nucleus
236
92
U . This compound nucleus breaks up into two nuclei
141
56
Ba
and
92
36
Kr , with the release of 2 or 3 neutrons & a large amount of energy.

The
235
92
U fission reaction may be represented by the equation.

235 236 * 141 92 1 1
0 92 92 56 36 0
n U [ U ] Ba Kr 3 n 200MeV + + + +
The important features of nuclear fission are as follows:

1) In nuclear fission large amount of energy is released because the total mass of fission
products is less than the mass of uranium & neutron. This difference in mass in uranium fission
is about 0.216 amu. This is equivalent to an energy of 200MeV.

2) Major portion of the fission energy(170MeV) is carried by fission fragments in the form of
kinetic energy.

3) The elements formed lie nearly in the middle of the periodic table.

4) Fission fragments are radioactive.

5) The temperature & pressure is very high in fission process.




Chain Reaction


M.N.Sharath kumar 30
When one
235
U undergoes fission, 2 or 3 fast neutrons are produced. Under suitable conditions
these neutrons can cause fission in other atoms of the sample thereby producing more neutrons.
The process continues and it is called chain reaction.

If more than one neutron produced in each fission produce further fission the nuclear
reaction is said to be uncontrolled chain reaction.

A nuclear chain reaction is said to be controlled if one of the neutrons produced in each
fission produces further fission.
Uncontrolled chain reaction is used in atom bombs whereas controlled nuclear chain
reaction is used in atomic reactors.

Critical size
It is the maximum mass in which radioactive substance withstand without chain reaction.
Critical size of a fissionable material is that minimum size for which the number of
neutrons produced just balances that number lost and the number captured without causing
fission.
For a nuclear chain reaction to be sustained the size of the fissionable material must be
greater than the critical size.

Nuclear Reactor
Nuclear reactor is a device in which self sustained and controlled nuclear chain reaction
takes place releasing large amount of energy.

Types of Nuclear Reactors

a) Research reactor: It is used primarily to supply neutrons for research and
radioisotope manufacture.

b) Breeder reactor: It is used to convert fertile
238
U into fissionable
239
Pu .

c) Power reactor: It is used to generate electric energy, or to propel ships, rockets, etc.


Essential parts(or features) of a nuclear reactor

1) Fuel: Fuel is a fission material. The most commonly used fissionable materials are

235
U ,
232
Th &
241
Pu .

2) Moderator: Moderator is material used to slow down fast neutrons. The commonly used
moderators are graphite, heavy water and beryllium.

3) Control rods: These are used for controlling rate of fission. These absorb the excess
neutrons and maintain neutron number at desired level. Control rods are made up of cadmium,
boron, indium, etc.

4) Coolant: Coolant is a fluid which removes heat generated as a result of fission. Commonly
used coolants are ordinary water, heavy water, air, organic liquids, etc.

M.N.Sharath kumar 31

5) Reflector: A reflector is one which reduces the leakage of neutrons from the reactor. It
covers the core & is made of steel.

6) Reactor shield: It is a layer of concrete of about 6 to 8ft thickness around the reactor. It
protects the workers from intense neutron and gamma radiations emitted by the reactor.

Schematic diagram of a Nuclear Reactor





The figure shows the essential parts of a reactor. Fuel in the form of enriched uranium or
plutonium in the form of rods are introduced in huge graphite blocks in a desired pattern.
Control rods arranged between uranium rods can be raised or lowered. Lowering of control rods
increases neutron absorption and rate of fission decreases. When the control rods are raised rate
of fission increases.

Working: Few neutrons are always present in the reactor. Fission process is started by raising
the control rods. The reaction once started can be controlled by adjusting the position of the
rods. Heat generated due to fission is absorbed by the coolant. The hot coolant passing through a
heat exchanger boils water producing high pressure steam. This is used to run a turbine for
power generation.

Nuclear fusion

Nuclear fusion is a process in which two light nuclei combine to form a single heavy
nucleus, releasing a large amount of energy.

As the specific binding energy for light nuclei is less than for heavy nucleus, the fusion of light
nuclei results in the release of energy.

M.N.Sharath kumar 32

Fusion is a very difficult process to achieve. This is because when positively charged nuclei
come very close for fusion electrostatic repulsion between them becomes very strong. For fusion
against this force, they require very high energy (~ 0.1 MeV). To impart so much of
energy to them, very high temperature(
7
10 K ~ ) and a very high pressure are required.
Till today it has not been possible to create these conditions on a large scale or to construct a
large nuclear fusion reactor. Some of the problems in this regard are containment of plasma,
instability of plasma, etc.

The conditions of high temperature and pressure are available in stars including sun or are
produced when a nuclear fission bomb is exploded. In hydrogen bomb uncontrolled nuclear
fusion of hydrogen takes place and the required high temperature is produced by fission bombs.
The origin for stellar energy is fusion of hydrogen nuclei.

Fusion reactions have been produced in the laboratory using energy deuterons from
particle accelerators. One such reaction is

3 2 2 1
1 1 1 1
H H H H 4MeV + + +

The important features of fusion reactions are as follows
1) Fused nuclei are stabler compared to the fusing nuclei.
2) Energy released per fusion is smaller than the energy released per fission.
3) Energy released per unit mass of fusionable is larger than that of fissionable material.

Stellar energy
The temperature of stars is very high and they radiate tremendous amount of
energy. The sun is a star. It radiates
26
3.8 10 joules of energy in each second. The origin for
stellar energy is neither chemical nor gravitational.

In 1939, Bethe explained the origin of stellar energy. According to Bethe, in stars fusion
of hydrogen is taking place in two different processes, namely, 1) proton-proton cycle and 2)
Carbon-nitrogen cycle. In these two cycles the net result is the same, namely four hydrogen
nuclei being converted into one helium nucleus with the liberation of energy of about 26MeV.
The overall process in each of these cycles can be written as


1 4 0
1 2 1
4 H He 2 e 26.7 MeV
+
+ + ( in p p cycle)
25.7 MeV ( in CN cycle)

In sun both the cycles have equal probabilities. Stars hotter than the sun obtain their energy from
the carbon-nitrogen cycle, while those cooler than the sun do so through the proton-proton cycle.
Reproduction factor
Critical mass: An average of 2.5 neutrons are released in a single fission of
235
92
U . In order to
achieve a self propagating chain reaction at least one of the neutrons in the fission of
235
92
U
must be captured by another
235
92
U nucleus and cause further fission. This possibility is
determined by a quantity called reproduction constant or multiplication factor denoted by K. It
is defined as the ratio of secondary neutrons produced to the original neutrons or the average
number of neutrons of from each fission event that will cause another event. That is

number of neutrons in one event
K
Number of neutrons in the preceeding event
=

M.N.Sharath kumar 33
The nuclear chain reaction is said to be critical or steady when K=1. It will be building
up and become uncontrolled or super critical when K>1 when K<1, the chain reaction is said to
be subcritical and will be dying down.

The number of fission producing neutrons is limited by 2 processes.
(i) Neutron-linkage through the surface of system.
(ii) Neutron capture leading to non fission processes.
This includes radiative captures of neutrons captures by the uranium and the parasitic
capture by other substances in the system and also by impurities which can be minimized. The
escape of neutrons takes place from the entire surface of the fissionable material which fission
takes place throughout its volume.

2
3
Escape rate r
Pr oduction r
o
i.e it is proportional to
1
r
.
This shows that the loss of neutrons by escape from the surface of the system can be
reduced by increasing r i.e the size of the system. Critical size of a system containing fissionable
material is defined as the minimum size for which the number of neutrons produced in the
fission process just balance those lost by leakage and non-fission capture. The mass of the
fissionable material corresponding to its critical size is called the critical mass.
Disposal of nuclear waste:
The fission products are highly radioactive. As a result, in nuclear fission reactor core
contains radioactive materials as nuclear waste while replacing the reactor core, these nuclear
waste must be disposed.
Difference between Nuclear fusion & Nuclear fission:
Nuclear fusion
1)Combining of 2 nucleus

2)Total energy liberated is more
3)Energy per fission is less
4)High temperature is required.
Nuclear fisson
1)Splitting of nucleus into 2 equal or nearly
equal parts
2)Total energy liberated is comparatively less
3)Energy per fission is more