Journal of Leadership Education: All Rights Reserved

Journal of Leadership Education
...is an international, refereed journal that serves scholars and professional practitioners engaged in leadership education. ...provides a forum for the development of the knowledge base and professional practice of leadership education world wide. ...is made available through the continued support and efforts of the membership of the Association of Leadership Educators.
Copyright 2010 by the Association of Leadership Educators. All rights reserved.
ISSN 1552-9045
Volume 9, Issue 2 Summer 2010
Volume 9, Number 2 Summer 2010

The Journal of Leadership Education (JOLE) is the official publication of the Association of Leadership Educators. The purpose of JOLE is to provide a forum for development of the knowledge base and practice of leadership education. The journal is intended to promote a dialogue that engages both academics and practitioners. Thus, JOLE has a particular interest in applied research and it is the premise of JOLE that feedback between theory and practice tests both and makes each better. The journal provides several categories for submittals to promote diversity of discussion from a variety of authors. The members and board of the Association of Leadership Educators became aware of the need for a journal about leadership education in the early 1990s. The challenge of educating people about leadership is particularly provocative, complex, and subtle. Other journals with leadership in the title focus primarily on defining and describing leadership, and journals concerning education seldom address the subject of leadership. Indeed, one common argument in society is that leadership is innate (you have it or you dont) and teaching leadership is difficult and often ineffective. This attitude is expressed, perhaps, in the dearth of leadership courses on our university campuses. In this context, JOLE provides a means to test the hypothesis that leadership education is possible. Our journal sits at the nexus of education theory and practice and leadership theory and practice, and from this divide, this mountain pass there is a need to look both ways. Whether leadership education is a discipline of its own is unclear, at least at present. If nothing else, by looking both ways this journal hopes to provide a passageway between two disciplines, enriching both in the process. JOLE is an electronic journal open to all, both as writers and readers. The journal has been conceived as an on-line journal that is available on the world-wide web and is to be self-supporting. To this end, at some time in the future a fee may be charged for publication. At present, all editorial, Board, and reviewer services are provided without cost to JOLE or its members by volunteer scholars and practitioners.
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Editorial Staff
Editor
Barry Boyd, Texas A & M University
Associate Editor Brent J. Goertzen, Fort Hays State University Editorial Reviewers Scott Allen, John Carroll University Tony Andenoro, Gonzaga University Jill Arensdorf, Fort Hays State University Paul Arsenault, West Chester University Elizabeth Bolton, University of Florida Chester Bowling, Ohio State University Christie Brungardt, Fort Hays State University Curt Brungardt, Fort Hays State University Jackie Bruce, University of Pennsylvania Robert Colvin, Christopher Newport University Marilyn Corbin, Pennsylvania State University Chris Crawford, Fort Hays State University Ken Culp III, University of Kentucky Renee Daugherty, Oklahoma State University Dennis Duncan, University of Georgia Don DiPaolo, University of Detroit Garee Earnest, Ohio State University Chanda Elbert, Texas A&M University Patricia J. Fairchild, University of Nebraska, Lincoln Nancy Franz, University of Illinois Carrie Fritz, University of Tennessee Susan Fritz, University of Nebraska, Lincoln Brent J. Goertzen, Fort Hays State University Mark Grandstaff, Brigham Young University Tracy Hoover, Pennsylvania State University David Jones, North Carolina State University Eric Kaufman, Virginia Tech University Tony Middlebrooks, University of Delaware Jeffery P. Miller, Innovative Leadership Solutions Lori Moore, Texas A&M University Chris Morgan, University of Georgia Martha Nall, University of Kentucky Penny Pennington-Weeks, Oklahoma State University Carolyn Roper, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign
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John Ricketts, University of Georgia Kris Ricketts, University of Kentucky Manda Rosser, Texas A&M University Richard Rohs, University of Georgia Mark Russell, Purdue University Nicole Stedman, University of Florida Kelleen Stine-Cheyne, Texas A&M University Wanda Sykes, North Carolina State University Laurie Thorp, Michigan State University Jim Ulrich, Antioch University Willis M. Watt, Methodist University Bill Weeks, Oklahoma State University Jennifer Williams, Texas A&M University Larry Wilson, University of Illinois Karen Zotz, North Dakota State University
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Table of Contents
From the Editors Clipboard Barry Boyd, Texas A & M University Bet you never heard of this leadership trait Joseph J. Thomas, PhD, United States Naval Academy Examining Gender Differences of Servant Leadership: An Analysis of the Agentic and Communal Properties of Servant Leadership Questionnaire John E. Barbuto, Jr., Ph.D., University of Nebraska-Lincoln Gregory T. Gifford, Ph.D., University of Florida Using Achievement Motivation Theory to Explain Student Participation in a Residential Leadership Learning Community Lori L. Moore, Texas A&M University Dustin K. Grabsch, Texas A&M University Craig Rotter, Texas A&M University 4-H Made Me a Leader: A College-Level Alumni Perspective of Leadership Life Skill Development Jessica Anderson, North Carolina State University Jacklyn Bruce, North Carolina State University Lauren Mouton, North Carolina State University Creating Meaningful Environments for Leadership Education Kathy L. Guthrie, Ph.D., Florida State University Sara Thompson, MS, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Transformational Leadership and its Relationship to Adult 4-H Volunteers Sense of Empowerment in Youth Development Settings Pamela Rose, PhD, Oregon State University/Marion County Extension Service viii
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Students Attitudes and Perceptions of the Use of Cooperative Exams in an Introductory Leadership Class Lori L. Moore, Texas A&M University The Effects of Teaching Methods in Leadership Knowledge Retention: An Experimental Design of Lecture, Experiential, and Public Pedagogy Jennifer Williams, PhD, Texas A&M University Megan McClure, MAL, University of Georgia Impact of Group Development Knowledge on Students Perceived Importance and Confidence of Group Work Skills Natalie Coers, M.A.L., University of Georgia Jennifer Williams, Ph.D., Texas A&M University Dennis Duncan, Ph.D., University of Georgia Serving the Once and Future King: Exploring Servant Leadership in Merlin Laura M. Oliver, Gonzaga University Kae Reynolds, Gonzaga University Interviews: Linking Leadership Theory to Practice Deborah N. Smith, Ph.D., Kennesaw State University Deborah B. Roebuck, Ph.D., Kennesaw State University Developing Life-Long Learners Through Personal Growth Projects Barry Boyd, Texas A&M University Jennifer Williams, Texas A&M University Servant Leadership and Constructive Development: How Servant Leaders Make Meaning of Service Kelly A. Phipps, J.D., Ph. D., Rockhurst University
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Submission Guidelines Le Culminant
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From the Editors Clipboard Volume 9, Number 2 - Summer 2010

What is the power in one little word? We all grew with the adage that Sticks and stones may break my bones, but words can never hurt me. An adage meant to sooth childrens feelings when their peers have said mean things. But the truth is that words do hurt. Words are just that powerful. Ali Edwards has found a way to use the power of one little word to make life more meaningful. Ali writes a weekly blog on scrapbooking, creativity, and life (and the concept of life art). Even if you are not a scrapper, she offers interesting insights into many facets of life, including personal leadership. Her blog is at http://www.aliedwards.com/onelittle-word/ if you would like to check it out. In 2006, Ali chose one word (play) to focus on for that year. As she describes it, "A single word can be a powerful thing. It can be the ripple in the pond that changes everything. It can be sharp and biting, or rich and soft and slow." She reflects on her word daily, incorporating it into every facet of her life. In the last four years, thousands of her followers have adopted this practice of choosing and focusing on a single word for the year. The impact on their lives has been astounding (according to their posts). The concept of one little word can be a great tool for leadership educators. If our goal is the transformation of our students (in whatever form they come in), the one little word concept can become another tool in our arsenal. We have so much going on in our lives, as do our students, that the idea of focusing on one word seems overly simplistic. But that is the strength of this concept. By focusing on one important thing rather than 1,000 less important things, we can make a tremendous impact in our lives. This spring, Manda Rosser chose to use the one little word concept with the students in the Dr. Joe Townsend Leadership Fellows program. Each participant chose their one word and created a collage that visually described its meaning to them. They shared their word at the initial retreat and one Fellow shared their word during the weekly meeting for which they were the host. During the final meeting of the Fellows, participants shared their one little word again and the impact that it had made on them during the semester. The impact on each student was visible to both their peers and the faculty working with the Fellows. One student chose Passion as her word: I chose 'Passion,' because I wanted everything I did to reflect the passion I had for it. Whether it be loving my family, reading a book, camping, leading, learning, photography, etc, I wanted to show passion behind all
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that I did. I believe I successfully accomplished that this semester. I hope others can see that. In my opinion, people can have many passions, but to not act on those passions or live out those passions would be a shame and a waste. I consider it a blessing to have found passion/s in my life, and I do not want to waste time on things I am not passionate about or that have not impacted my life. Another student chose Patience. She describes the impact of her word: I have always been known as a bit impatient and so it was very difficult, yet refreshing to remind myself to be patient in all that I did this semester. I started with little things like while I was driving. Instead of getting upset with an individual who made an unwise driving choice, I thought about how maybe their day hadn't been going well or maybe they really didn't see me. I have also implemented this word with my relationships with roommates, family and other friends. My family has noticed a significant difference in my attitude because of my pursuit to have more patience. I plan to continue to use the one little word theory and create a bank of words that I consider on a daily basis to better myself. And yet another chose Confidence: I chose this word because sometimes I find myself holding back class discussions, or other public activities because I am scared to put my opinion out there and have people judge me. I want to work on my confidence to speak up and have no fear in public situations. I also chose confidence because I am getting ready to graduate and go out in the real world, so I want to have the confidence to make the decisions that I need to succeed in my endeavors. How do you or your students implement this one little word idea? First you choose a word. This may require a little reflection or a word may choose you. Define what the word means to you. Identify the areas of your life to which you plan to apply the word. Because pictures are powerful, create some graphic way of describing your word Write about your word. Acting on your word is necessary for making it work. Make a list of actions that you can do today or this week to make your word have impact. Add new actions each week.
Any craftsman will tell you that having the right tool for the job makes a world of difference. It is no different for leadership educators. As we seek to make a
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difference in others lives and continue our own growth as leadership educators, we need multiple tools at our disposal. May one little word be the tool that you need to help your students grow in a new way. My word for 2010 is Commit. Issue Information The Journal of Leadership Education (JOLE) continues to strive for excellence in manuscript review and acceptance. Acceptance rates are calculated for each issue and vary depending on the number of submissions. The JOLE acceptance rate for this issue is 58%. The manuscripts were authored by 11 writers. In their review of the submitted documents, representatives of the JOLE Editorial Board provided a juried assessment of a manuscripts scholarly significance and relevance. The Theoretical Features, Research Features, Application and Idea Briefs were peer reviewed and closely scrutinized to ensure selected manuscripts advance the theory and practice of leadership education. See the journal website for a more detailed discussion of these categories (www.fhsu.edu/JOLE/). This issue of JOLE supports scholars in their development of new knowledge in the quest for successful leadership education. Respectfully submitted, Barry L. Boyd, Editor This issue begins with a commentary by Joseph Thomas, U.S. Naval Academy. Thomas comments on curriculum gaps when educating leaders who are involved in a highly technical curriculum. He proposes that in a setting where the curriculum is highly technical, special attention must be paid to the students interpersonal communication skills.
Research Features
Examining Gender Differences of Servant Leadership: An Analysis of the Agentic and Communal Properties of Servant Leadership Questionnaire Barbuto and Gifford investigated five servant leadership characteristics by male and female servant leaders. The findings contradict many studies on gender roles in leadership. Using Achievement Motivation Theory to Explain Student Participation in a Residential Leadership Learning Community Moore, Grabsch, and Rotter examined a voluntary residential leadership learning community to discover how achievement motivation theory influenced the
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students to join these communities. The researchers found that only two out of the three needs were common motives for the students. 4-H Made Me a Leader: A College-Level Alumni Perspective of Leadership Life Skill Development What motivates 4-H alumni to continue their involvement with that organization? Anderson, Bruce, and Mouton qualitatively examined this as well as the impact of 4-H experiences on college-level 4-H alumnis leadership life skill development. Creating Meaningful Environments for Leadership Education Guthrie and Thompson describe student experiences when institutions create environments that incorporate theory, practice, and reflection of leadership education. The authors discovered that a partnership between Student Affairs and Academic Affairs can provide a learning environment where students experience high quality leadership experiences. Transformational Leadership and its Relationship to Adult 4-H Volunteers Sense of Empowerment in Youth Development Settings Roses research dealt with the sense of empowerment that 4-H volunteers feel in relation to the perceived leadership styles of their 4-H Youth Development Educators. The studys results showed a connection between empowerment of volunteers and transformational leadership. Students Attitudes and Perceptions of the Use of Cooperative Exams in an Introductory Leadership Class Moore investigated the use of cooperative exams in an introductory leadership class. The use of these exams led to advantages and disadvantages from the students perspective, but overall, the students enjoyed the cooperative exams and think that they should continue to be used. The Effects of Teaching Methods in Leadership Knowledge Retention: An Experimental Design of Lecture, Experiential, and Public Pedagogy Williams and McClure examined the impact of three different teaching methodologies. Findings show that lecture is an inferior method of teaching leadership and that public pedagogy has efficient and consistent results. Impact of Group Development Knowledge on Students Perceived Importance and Confidence of Group Work Skills Coers, Williams, and Duncan examined the impact of Tuckman and Jensens group development process on students attitudes towards group work. A positive impact leads the authors to recommend that leadership educators continue using and teaching this process in the classroom and helping students see how the skill transfers to roles outside of the classroom.
Application Briefs
Serving the Once and Future King: Exploring Servant Leadership in Merlin Oliver and Reynolds discover a religiously neutral example of how worldly media can be used to teach ten basic principles of servant leadership. These ten principles can be seen in Merlin, and students can observe these principles as qualities that are still desired today. Interviews: Linking Leadership Theory to Practice Smith and Roebuck describe the impacts of an assignment where students interview a leader in order to apply leadership theories, and to understand the complexities of being a leader. Using a constructivist approach, this assignment has been successful in helping students connect leadership theory to practice. Developing Life-Long Learners Through Personal Growth Projects Boyd and Williams reported on an assignment that is required in a personal leadership development course. The assignment allows students to apply course content while developing the habit of life-long learning.
Theoretical
Servant Leadership and Constructive Development: How Servant Leaders Make Meaning of Service Phipps proposes a theoretical framework that examines the subject/object relationship for servant leaders at progressive stages of meaning making, showing how the way leaders make meaning of service evolves with their constructive development.
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Bet You Never Heard of this Leadership Trait

Joseph J. Thomas, Ph.D. Lakefield Family Foundation Distinguished Military Professor of Leadership and Senior Fellow Stockdale Center for Ethical Leadership United States Naval Academy Annapolis, MD jjthomas@usna.edu
Abstract
This is a commentary on educating leaders within the constraints of a highly technical curriculum. The U.S. Naval Academys mission is to produce leaders for the nation. Many things compete for the time and attention of Midshipmen (the Academys students). Greater attention must be paid to interpersonal communications skills in the formal and informal curriculum.
Trait Approach
There are few things in the study of leadership as polarizing as the trait approach. Widely viewed as anachronistic at best and counterproductive at worst, trait theory is commonly associated with the axiom that great leaders are born that way. Those who rightly view leadership as a process reject the trait approach because they believe it suggests that a few are preordained and the rest of us will never fully get it. I consider this view an oversimplification and an injustice. Leadership is largely about maximizing inherent talents and then combining those talents with experience and education. By applying this combination of inherent traits and developed abilities in accordance with a foundation of values, we all have the opportunity to fulfill our potential as effective leaders. Some may have to work at it a little harder than others, but we can all get there on our own timeline.
Student Criticism
While I was on a recent speaking engagement in Hawaii a young sailor, just returned from Iraq, shared with me her principal criticism of the graduates of my own institutionthe United States Naval Academy. Of course I was prepared to take all of it with a grain of salt, for whenever anyone paints with such a broad brush as to say all Academy grads do this or all Academy grads think that way then I am instinctively skeptical. To my relief, her criticisms were not pejorative. Rather, she offered observations that were fair and intended to get me thinking about our process. She acknowledged that the technical preparation of Academy grads was beyond reproach, their professionalism was unquestioned,
and their potential for higher command unrivaled. She felt the human touch was, unfortunately, lacking. She felt graduates of the Academy seemed to care about their subordinates a little less, were more awkward in social situations, and lacked the essential skills of socialization with varied groups.
Need for Social Skills Development

This young sailor was making an observation I had heard echoed many times before, that somehow the preparation we provide aspiring officers was incomplete. Perhaps the very rigor, demands on their time, expectation of detached professionalism and technical competence produced the perverse effect of making our graduates socially inept. Was this a consequence of the educational philosophy of the institution? Due primarily to the realities facing all Naval Academy graduates, particularly in a time of war, the technical and practical course of study must continue. Only the most zealous proponent of the Great Works Curriculum would suggest swinging the pendulum in the other direction and embracing the classical liberal arts education. Besides, the Naval Academys next door neighbor, St. Johns College, has that local market cornered. What then should be added to the existing Academy curriculum to address the concern of this young sailor and others who feel similarly?
Savior Faire
Selfishly, or perhaps self-deprecatorily, I believe the task falls to my own field of study and department, Leadership and Ethics. The fundamental issue at stake involves personal effectiveness and that is the ostensible starting point of leadership development. Among the attributes graduates of the U.S. Naval Academy require to fulfill their leadership potential is the seemingly unlikely trait of savoir faire. Now I must admit I am neither a Francophone nor necessarily a Francophile, however, the term does capture something the simple English term tact does not. Most people consider tact through its antonyms, the qualities of being blunt or rude. Tact is the absence of blunt and rude behavior. Savior faire is so much more. Savoir faire is polish, it is graceful behavior, it is the ability to do or say just the right thing in virtually any settingfrom counseling an underachieving, grieving, or misguided subordinate to mingling socially with diplomats, contractors, or janitors. Clearly there is no short-cut to the development of savior faire. It has long been considered the product of a proper upbringing and that upbringing surely includes a humanistic education. But given the realities of the technical curriculum of the U.S. Naval Academy and the myriad demands on the time of its students, how do we achieve development of this trait? At risk of sounding like a hopeless reactionary, I submit we must bow to tradition in this regard. The classical, yet moribund, discipline of rhetoric should be our guide. The art of persuasion through the concepts of ethos, pathos, and logos provides the pedagogy. The Academy must assemble people of firm moral competence to serve as models of
human interaction (ethos). Those charged with development, both faculty and staff, must maintain the narrative of graceful and gracious behavior (pathos) in and out of class. Finally, the actual technique of effective interpersonal communication must be introduced and reinforced (logos) also in and out of class. To the inevitable detractors who will claim we certainly do not need a finishing school to build Navy and Marine Corps officers, I would simply offer my agreement. The point in developing the trait of savoir faire is less about gentility than it is good old-fashioned leadership effectiveness. The young sailors and Marines who will be led by Naval Academy graduates deserve the best. Being the best leader includes deft handling of human beings. The tried and tested trait of tact is insufficient, as is our apparent ability to inculcate it. By aiming higher at the unlikely quality of savior faire, we correct the real and perceived limitations of our product.
Author Biography
Joe Thomas is a retired Marine whose research interests include experiential leadership development in austere and demanding environments.
Examining Gender Differences of Servant Leadership: An Analysis of the Agentic and Communal Properties of the Servant Leadership Questionnaire
John E. Barbuto, Jr., Ph.D. Associate Professor of Leadership University of Nebraska-Lincoln 300 Agricultural Hall P.O Box 830709 Lincoln, NE 68583-0709 (402) 472-8736 FAX: (402) 472-5863 jbarbuto@unl.edu Gregory T. Gifford, Ph.D. Assistant Professor University of Florida 213 Rolfs Hall P.O. Box 110540 Gainesville, FL 32611-0540 (352) 392-0502 (ext. 239) ggifford@ufl.edu
Abstract
This study examined the use of five servant leadership dimensions including altruistic calling, emotional healing, wisdom, persuasive mapping, and organizational stewardship by male and female servant leaders. Staff members (368) employed in county government offices across a Midwestern state were sampled using the Servant Leadership Questionnaire and a series of demographic questions. Results indicated males and females equally and effectively utilized both communal and agentic servant leadership dimensions. These findings contest prevailing gender role stereotypes in leadership.
Introduction
The conceptualization of servant leadership has inspired many thought-provoking essays describing a service-first leadership orientation counter to most other perspectives in the field (Buchanan, 2007; Greenleaf, 1970). Spears (1995) identified ten characteristics of servant leaders, which, at the time, was the first multi-dimensional model of servant leadership. Barbuto and Wheeler (2006) clarified the construct and operationalized servant leadership for research with the development of the Servant Leadership Questionnaire. A plethora of research opportunities of servant leadership have resulted from this operationalization.
Other scholars have followed with servant leadership constructs and measures (Liden, Wayne, Zhao, & Henderson, 2008; Sendjaya, Sarros, & Santora, 2008). For the purpose of this research gender is the appropriate term, rather than sex, because this study is testing the socialized difference that make up agentic and communal behaviors. As the concept of servant leadership pervades the field identifying the nature and development of the construct offers timely and necessary lines of inquiry. Avolio, Walumbwa, and Weber (2009) suggested that servant leadership be examined from a follower-centric perspective in an effort to more clearly differentiate servant leadership from similar leadership constructs such as transformational. Workplace issues related to sex and gender have not been empirically evaluated in the servant leadership literature. Several scholars have examined sex differences for other leadership constructs with mixed results (Eagly & Johnson, 1990; Eagly & Karau, 1991). Others have tested sex differences for full range leadership behaviors (Antonakis, Avolio, & Sivasubramaniam, 2003; Barbuto, Fritz, Matkin, & Marx, 2007), leader-member exchange relationships (Pelled & Xin, 2000), and sources of work motivation (Barbuto & Gifford, 2008). Other studies have used dispositional, biological and psychological variables in comparative examinations of male and female gender role leadership behaviors (Eagly & Carli, 2004). Barbuto et al. (2007) investigated the use of influence tactics and found that less educated female leaders used more pressure influence tactics than less educated male leaders although difference weakened with increased education. Those few studies that have been conducted to date have tested the impacts of servant leadership on positive organizational outcomes (Barbuto & Wheeler, 2006; Neubert, Kacmar, Carlson, Chonko, & Roberts, 2008). The antecedents of servant leadership have not been tested. Among the plethora of leadership constructs that have been tested in the organizational behavior and applied psychology field, servant leadership is among the few leadership constructs that has yet to be tested for its gender roles and differences. Scholars have called for new research testing followers' perceptions of gender role behaviors of servant leaders (Barbuto et al., 2007). The present study tests these sex differences by examining agentic and communal servant leadership behaviors against positive organizational and follower outcomes.
Servant Leadership
Greenleaf (1970) originally conceptualized servant leaders as those who displaced self-interest in lieu of prioritizing the needs of those being led. Servant leaders bring a service-oriented approach to leadership that is manifested by enabling followers to grow and develop. Servant leaders have been described as having an ability to invoke organizational wisdom, fold experience and knowledge into decision-making to make pro-social choices and also possessing many of the
characteristics of transformational leaders but moving beyond those behaviors by aligning motives and values with followers (Bass, 2000; Bierly, Kessler, & Christensen, 2000). More recently, scholars have sought to delineate the behaviors associated with servant leadership. Spears (1995) identified ten characteristics of a servant leader listening, empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion, conceptualization, foresight, stewardship, commitment to growth of people and community building. Farling, Stone, and Winston (1999) conceived servant leadership as a hierarchical model operating as cyclical processes, which consist of behavioral (vision, service) and relational (influence, credibility, trust) components. Other scholars have made distinctions between servant leadership and other constructs (Smith, Montagno, & Kuzmenko, 2004). Ehrhart (2004) developed a measure and tested leaderships role in predicting organizational citizenship behavior. The measure appeared to be based on unpublished work and some of the earliest works on the construct. Barbuto and Wheeler (2006) clarified the servant leadership construct with a comprehensive critique of the literature and developed a measure for a revised construct. Two subsequent measures were developed offering alternative constructs to the seminal work (Liden et al., 2008; Sendjaya et al., 2008). Barbuto and Wheeler (2006) identified five dimensions of servant leadership: altruistic calling, emotional healing, wisdom, persuasive mapping, and organizational stewardship. Altruistic Calling Bass (2000) suggested that one of the key differences between transformational leaders and servant leaders was the intent of the leader. Servant leaders are likely to exhibit more altruistic motives. Greenleafs (1970) original conception of servant leaders argued that a conscious choice is made to serve others, which was contrary to the notion that leaders pursue such positions with the intention of leading others. Barbuto and Wheeler (2006) operationally defined altruistic calling as having both desire and willingness to put aside self-interest in order to benefit followers. Emotional Healing Spears (1995) conceptualized healing as the ability of an individual to provide emotional support when another individual fails at a task, dream or relationship. Other scholars have argued that the ability to provide emotional healing to employees is not only a powerful skill for leaders to maintain but also provides for the emotional stability and support for the entire organization (Dacher, 1999; Weymes, 2003). Barbuto and Wheeler (2006) operationalized emotional healing as having the ability to recognize when and how to foster the healing process within others.
Wisdom Servant leaders have been described as categorically wise (Barbuto & Wheeler, 2002). Bierly et al. (2000) argued that servant leaders are able to monitor surroundings, understand implications of happenings and anticipate consequences of actions. This ability to invoke wisdom in a variety of settings allows servant leaders to make both altruistic choices and the best possible decision at any given time (Greenleaf, 1970). Barbuto and Wheeler (2006) drew from the concepts of awareness and foresight and defined wisdom as the combination of height of knowledge and utility. Persuasive Mapping The ability to influence others has regularly been regarded as a cornerstone of the ability to lead (Yukl, 2006). Leaders use both sources of power and influence tactics as a means to persuade followers in one direction or another (Yukl & Falbe, 1991). Falbe and Yukl (1992) tested the effectiveness of influence tactics and found that rational influence behaviors were more effective than forceful influence tactics. Mapping lends itself to an inspirational, futuristic approach to rational influence. Barbuto and Wheeler (2006) argued that leaders who utilize persuasive mapping are able to map issues and conceptualize greater possibilities and are compelling when articulating these opportunities. Effective persuasive mapping encourages others to visualize the organizations future in such a way that is persuasive and offers compelling reasons to get followers to engage. Organizational Stewardship Understanding that organizations do not operate within a vacuum and instead can have both positive and negative impacts upon society, servant leaders prepare individuals within an organization to sustain positive effects beyond the organization (Barbuto & Wheeler, 2002). Pro-social and altruistic behaviors have been widely researched within the field of psychology where findings have indicated that such behaviors are often indicative of an individuals attitude towards a situation and can have subsequent effects on observers (Batson, Chang, Orr, & Rowland, 2002). Barbuto and Wheeler (2006) defined organizational stewardship as extending leadership beyond the organization by taking responsibility for the well-being of the community and ensuring that strategies and decisions undertaken reflect the commitment to give back to a larger community.
Leadership and Gender Roles

With increased gender representation in upper management, women should experience fewer hurdles for advancement (Federal Glass Ceiling Commission, 1995). However, Eagly and Carli (2007) likened a womans path to leadership as traversing through a labyrinth with unexpected turns, dead ends, roadblocks and
confusion. Ely (1995) posited that socially constructed views of female behavior were not congruent with leadership positions. Counter-productive social constructions have led to negative associations with female leadership behaviors as women try to balance behaviors perceived to be more masculine such as authoritative, confident and motivated with socially constructed feminine behaviors such as caring, compassionate and kind (Eagly, Makhijani, & Klonsky, 1992). Other work has demonstrated little to no sex difference (Barbuto, Fritz, & Plummer, 2003). Barbuto et al. (2007) reported gender differences only when moderated by education and age. Social role theory suggested that individuals would behave in accordance with preconceived notions about the roles that individuals occupy (Eagly & Johnson, 1990). Categorically, individuals, who can be classified into defined roles, will adjust behaviors based upon the norms of that role. Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt, and Engen (2003) argued that leaders tend to simultaneously conform to the defined roles both within an organizational hierarchy and within societal gender roles. Gender roles refer to shared expectations (about appropriate qualities and behaviors) that apply to individuals on the basis of their socially identified gender (Eagly, 1987, p. 12). Within the context of social role theory, females have largely been considered to fulfill more supportive and interpersonal roles whereas males are considered more likely to fulfill functional roles such as the primary breadwinner and negotiator (Eagly, 1987). Gender roles have an implicit manifestation in the functionality of an organization (Gutek & Morasch, 1982). Gender roles and stereotypes have been a widely researched topic (Quinn, Macrae, & Bodenhausen, 2007). Research has generalized that most individuals possess assumptions that are biased by gender specific stereotypes (Ely, 1995). This means that certain behaviors are expected based on the gender of leaders and followers. While this pattern of assumptions has been confirmed, the research that would warrant these assumptions has produced mixed results (Barbuto et al., 2007; Eagly et al., 2003; Eagly & Johnson, 1990). This has led to a call for research testing the socialized aspects of gender specific behaviors, which led to differentiations between agentic and communal gender role behaviors (Eagly, 1987). Agentic behaviors refer to give-and-take tendencies (Eagly, 1987). An individual who displays agentic behaviors is likely to be described as assertive and would utilize resources as leverage for obtaining a goal. Agentic behaviors include selfsufficiency, independence, dominant, aggressive and task-oriented (Carli, 2001; Eagly, 1987; Eagly et al., 2003). Men are more likely to display agentic behaviors than their female counterparts (Eagly et al., 2003). Communal behaviors refer to a concern with interpersonal relationships (Eagly, 1987). An individual who displays communal behaviors is likely to be described as caring, empathetic and nurturing. Communal behaviors include showing sympathy, socially oriented, helpful and expressive (Carli, 2001). Eagly et al.
(2003) found that women are more likely to display communal behaviors than their male counterparts. Transformational leadership refers to the leaders ability to enhance followers performance beyond personal and the leaders expectations (Bass, 1985). Transformational leadership behaviors include individualized consideration (an identification of the personal needs of each follower), intellectual stimulation (seeking to encourage innovative thinking from followers), inspirational motivation (assisting followers in achieving levels of performance thought to be impossible), and idealized influence (inspiring a charismatic admiration and emulation of the leader by having a genuine purpose and confident vision) (Bass, 1985). In the most recent factor analysis of transformational leadership behaviors, the idealized influence scale was divided into attributed (eliciting respect and pride from followers because of the association with the leader) and behavior (inspiring a buy-in effect to the organizations mission through verbal and nonverbal communication behaviors) (Avolio & Bass, 2002). Judge and Piccolo (2004) examined 87 studies in a meta-analysis and found that leaders who scored higher on the four transformational behaviors were rated as more effective by their followers. These meta-results indicated that transformational leadership consistently led to positive organizational outcomes. Transactional leadership behaviors are characterized by the use of contingencies to reinforce desirable behavior (Avolio, 1999). Transactional leadership behaviors include passive management by exception (using punishment or penalty in response to deviations from desired performance standards), active management by exception (actively looking for deviations from desired standards and taking preventive actions before mistakes are made), and contingent reward (using incentives and other rewards in exchange for meeting desired goals) (Bass, 1996). Finally, laissez-faire leadership is classified as the absence of leadership. This sedentary approach to leadership includes behaviors such as ignoring problems and needs, an inability to recognize followers achievements and an overall lack of responsibility for management duties (Bass, 1996; Yukl, 2006). This category of leadership is described as the most ineffective and passive form of leadership (Avolio, 1999). Eagly et al. (2003) used social role theory as a theoretical basis and hypothesized that female leaders were more likely to be seen as transformational leaders than males. The behaviors associated with transactional leadership and laissez-faire leadership have distinct linkages to the masculine behaviors commonly associated with agentic behaviors (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001). Eagly et al. (2003) reported that gender roles have spillover effects into the practice of leadership within organizations. Female leaders scored significantly higher in the use of transformational leadership behaviors (with the exception of idealized influencebehavior scale) and the use contingent rewards. Male leaders displayed significantly higher use of passive management by exception, active management by exception and laissez-faire leadership. In contrast with transactional leadership
behaviors and laissez-faire leadership, transformational leadership behaviors have shown to produce extra effort from followers as well as increase satisfaction with and perceived effectiveness of the leader (Judge & Piccolo, 2004). Eagly et al. (2003) examined these outcomes across sexes and reported female transformational leaders scored significantly higher on effectiveness, extra effort and satisfaction scales. Taken together, considerable evidence indicates that leadership behaviors may be influenced by agentic and communal dynamics.
Implications for Servant Leadership

This study tests the behavioral differences servant leadership between males and females. As discussed, previous research has indicated somewhat mixed results when analyzing leadership behavioral differences between males and female leaders. In this study, followers perceptions of leaders were examined for behavioral differences of male and female servant leaders as well as the extent that male or female leaders were considered to be more effective. Communal Servant Leadership Behaviors Using Eaglys (1987) differentiation between communal behaviors, which are most commonly associated with females, the servant leadership behaviors that classify as communal behaviors are altruistic calling, emotional healing, and organizational stewardship. Altruistic calling implies a selfless motivation for engaging in leadership activities. Helping behaviors are often associated with an altruistic person (Batson et al., 2002). Such behaviors tend to direct the leaders attention to others within the community or organization. Female leaders are expected to display significantly higher altruistic calling behaviors than male leaders (H1a). Emotional healing behaviors indicate an empathetic approach toward followers. Leaders who utilize emotional healing are able to sense the emotions and feelings of other individuals. Such ability is often associated with females. Eagly (1987) stated that women are often expected to care for the emotional needs of followers. Female leaders are expected to display significantly higher emotional healing behaviors than male leaders (H1b). Organizational stewardship turns the leaders attention to a focus on the community. Stewardship implies preparation for contributions to a larger cause (Barbuto & Wheeler, 2002). Other research on organizational stewardship argued that leaders should be concerned with their legacy and the legacy of the organization within the immediate community and the larger society (Coleman, 1998). Eagly (1987) stated the caring and nurturing aspect of the female role may also be extended to some extent to the problems of the larger community (p. 44). Female leaders are expected to display significantly higher organizational stewardship behaviors than male leaders (H1c).
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Agentic Servant Leadership Behaviors As previously discussed, agentic leadership behaviors are aligned with a taskfocused orientation, assertiveness, calmness in crises, and strength (Eagly et al., 2003). Such behaviors have been commonly aligned with behaviors displayed by male leaders. Using Eaglys (1987) differentiation between agentic behaviors, which are most commonly associated with females, the servant leadership behaviors that classify as agentic behaviors are wisdom and persuasive mapping. Wisdom is a combination of institutional knowledge as well as the ability to apply such knowledge in appropriate situations (Barbuto & Wheeler, 2002). The ability to apply wisdom from a leadership position within an organization has been found to be most often attributed to male leaders (Eagly & Johnson, 1990). Male leaders are expected to display significantly higher wisdom than female leaders (H2a). Persuasive mapping implies and ability to forecast the future and prepare an organization to sustain a course to achieve its goals (Barbuto & Wheeler, 2002). Such skills lend themselves to task-oriented behaviors where the successful completion of one task provides a step forward to the next task and onward to a final goal. Task-oriented behavior is commonly associated with male leaders (Eagly, 1987). Male leaders are expected to display significantly higher persuasive mapping behaviors than female leaders (H2b). Outcomes Outcomes associated with the use of communal and agentic leadership behaviors are also of interest. Eagly et al.s (2003) meta-analysis found that leaders who used more communal behaviors scored higher levels of satisfaction from followers, stimulated greater levels of extra effort from followers and were rated as more effective leaders. Leaders who use communal servant leadership behaviors are expected to receive significantly higher ratings of satisfaction than leaders who use agentic servant leadership behaviors (H3a). Leaders who use communal servant leadership behaviors are expected to receive significantly higher ratings of extra effort than leaders who use agentic servant leadership behaviors (H3b). Leaders who use communal servant leadership behaviors are expected to receive significantly higher ratings of effectiveness than leaders who use agentic servant leadership behaviors (H3c). Ratings of satisfaction, extra effort, and effectiveness were judged by followers.
Methods
Data were collected from 75 elected community leaders and 388 raters. Leaders served as treasurers in their respective counties and were elected by eligible voters in those specific counties. Sixty-five percent of the leaders were female with an average age of 51, where 50% had earned a bachelors degree and 20% had
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earned an advanced degree. Raters were colleagues or subordinates of the leader. Fifty-three percent of the raters were female with an average age of 46 years, where 42% of the raters had earned a bachelors degree and less than 10% had earned an advanced degree. Leaders scores were matched with their individual followers to form a total of 368 usable leader-follower dyads. Servant Leadership Servant leadership behaviors were calculated using the Servant Leadership Questionnaire (SLQ) (Barbuto & Wheeler, 2006). Followers scored leaders on the SLQ instrument. Followers were assured anonymity and returned instruments directly to the primary investigator via United States mail. Each of the five servant leadership subscales achieved acceptable reliability based on Cronbachs alphas ( >.82). A sample item from the altruistic calling subscale includes This person puts my best interests ahead of his/her own. A sample item from the emotional healing subscale is This person is one I would turn to if I had a personal trauma. A sample item from the wisdom subscale is This person is good at anticipating the consequences of decisions. A sample item from the persuasive mapping subscale is This person encourages me to dream big dreams about the organization. A sample item from the organizational stewardship scale is This person believes that the organization needs to play a moral role in society. Outcomes The outcomes affected by leadership behaviors were calculated using the outcomes scales of extra effort, satisfaction, and effectiveness from the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Avolio & Bass, 2002). Eagly et al.s (2003) meta-analysis of sex differences across full-range leadership behaviors also analyzed these positive outcome variables. Followers ratings of leaders on each of these three subscales were used in the analysis. All three subscales achieved acceptable reliability with Cronbachs alphas of =.82 and higher. A sample item from the extra effort subscale is This person gets others to do more than what they expected to do. A sample item from the satisfaction subscale is This person uses methods of leadership that are satisfying. A sample item from the effectiveness subscale is This person is effective at meeting others jobrelated needs. Gender Leaders self-reported gender as part of a demographic profile that included age and education. Leaders were asked to choose either male or female to report their gender.
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Results
Descriptive statistics and the ANOVA results between groups on the five servant leadership behaviors are reported in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. Results indicate that none of the hypothesized relationships were significant. Therefore, both male and female servant leaders displayed equal levels of both communal and agentic servant leadership behaviors. Additionally, no main effects were found on any of the three outcome variables between leaders whose dominant leadership behaviors were communal leadership behaviors as opposed to agentic leadership behaviors. Results of the ANOVA for outcome variables and dominant leadership behavior are reported in Table 3. TABLE 1. Descriptive Statistics for Servant Leadership Behaviors and Outcomes Among Male and Female Leaders Women (n=239) Men (n=129) M SD M SD Altruistic Calling 2.68 0.67 2.76 0.80 Emotional Healing 2.45 0.83 2.71 0.97 Wisdom 3.00 0.72 3.25 0.72 Persuasive Mapping 2.50 0.59 2.58 0.81 Organizational Stewardship 3.15 0.52 3.12 0.74 Extra Effort 7.75 1.66 8.58 2.32 Satisfaction 6.17 1.34 6.48 1.49 Effectiveness 9.09 1.87 9.74 2.10
TABLE 2. Analysis of variance for Altruistic Calling, Emotional Healing, Wisdom, Persuasive Mapping and Organizational Stewardship F Source df AC EH Wisdom PM OS Gender 1 0.11 0.72 1.51 0.12 0.02 Within Group 367 (0.63) (0.94) (0.51) (0.64) Note. Values in parentheses represent mean square errors. AC=Altruistic Calling, EH=Emotional Healing, PM=Persuasive Mapping, OS=Organizational Stewardship
(0.54)
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TABLE 3. Analysis of variance for Extra Effort, Satisfaction and Effectiveness F Source df Extra Effort Satisfaction Effectiveness 1 1.50 0.54 1.02 Dom Behav Within Group 367 (5.33) (2.20) Note. Values in parentheses represent mean square errors. Dom Behav=Dominant Behavior
(4.39)
Discussion
This study tested the gender differences in servant leadership and found no significant differences. This means that males and females are equally capable of utilizing both agentic and communal leadership behaviors. This lack of difference is counter to prior work that found agentic and communal behavioral differences for transformational leadership (Eagly et al., 2003). This disparity in findings speaks to the credibility of separating transformational from servant leadership (Barbuto & Wheeler. 2006; Smith et al., 2004). Gender differences have previously been found with transformational leadership but were not found with servant leadership in this study. Altruistic calling, emotional healing and organizational stewardship were operationalized as communal behaviors for this study. Wisdom and persuasive mapping were operationalized as agentic behaviors for this study. Since results found no significant differences it is evident that male leaders are equally capable of effectively exercising altruistic calling, emotional healing and organizational stewardship behaviors, which would be more commonly associated with female gender roles. Likewise, female leaders are equally capable of effectively exercising both wisdom and persuasive mapping, which would be more commonly associated with male gender roles. The lack of gender differences speaks well to the potential of all leaders to develop capacity to exhibit each of the five dimensions of servant leadership, regardless of their agentic or communal properties. This also provides reason for caution in making agentic and communal assumptions about leaders. These findings are counter to prior work testing the spillover effect of gender role norms to positions of leadership. It appears that servant leaders are able to effectively embrace counter-stereotypes often associated with gender norms (Eagly et al., 2003). It is possible that the altruistic nature of servant leaders allows these leaders to serve followers in the best possible manner, which leads to a reduction in the implementation of standard gender roles while in positions of
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leadership. This assertion requires empirical inquiry before generalized beyond the population sampled in this study. Most importantly, no differences were found on the outcome variables of extra effort, satisfaction and effectiveness, which indicate that servant leaders are efficiently using both agentic and communal behaviors to achieve these outcomes. The lack of findings appears to contradict prior research that found that communal leaders were rated significantly higher when compared with agentic leaders (Eagly et al., 2003). One explanation of this finding may be that the altruistic motive of servant leadership diminishes the negative effects previously associated with agentic behaviors. However, this conclusion would need to be tested to determine if altruism neutralizes these relationships. Additionally, the ability of both male and female servant leaders to find an acceptable balance between agentic and communal behaviors may explain the trend towards positive outcomes. This sample included more female than male leaders. While homogeneity of variance tests found the groups to be acceptable for comparison, a sample with more equal male representation could strengthen this line of research. The sample was drawn from public officials who, by the nature of the position, have accepted a role serving the public. Further investigation drawing samples from a variety of vocations would merit future inquiry. This work demonstrated that men and women have equal ability to develop and demonstrate both agentic and communal characteristics of servant leadership as measured on the Servant Leadership Questionnaire. The two more recent measures of servant leadership constructs should also be tested for any of these agentic or communal patterns. An important line for future research is to consider a multi-study, multi-population research design to fully access gender differences of servant leadership across a variety of contexts. Such an endeavor may provide a more in-depth analysis of the gender differences or lack thereof described in this study.
Conclusion
This study examined the servant leadership behaviors employed by men and women in the workplace by delineating between agentic servant leadership behaviors and communal servant leadership behaviors. The effect of agentic and communal leadership behaviors on followers satisfaction with leadership, extra effort and ratings of leaders effectiveness was also examined. No differences were found between men and women in the utilization of communal and agentic servant leadership behaviors. This result contradicts many previous findings on leadership gender roles, which have reported that men utilized more agentic leadership behaviors and women utilized more communal leadership behaviors (Eagly et al., 2003). Additionally, followers did not discriminate on the outcomes
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of extra effort, satisfaction and effectiveness regardless of the leaders use of agentic servant leadership behaviors or communal servant leadership behaviors. Servant leadership performed differently than transformational leadership when tested for agentic and communal properties. This difference warrants additional work to replicate these findings and also to test other leadership constructs such as LMX, authentic leadership, shared leadership and charismatic leadership for their agentic and communal influences. Future research may also test multiple leadership constructs together in the same research design to account for possible differences between constructs, their antecedents, and impacts. Avolio et al. (2009) argued that research should seek to differentiate servant leadership from other leadership constructs. The present study contributes to this research direction for servant leadership and offers insight into the uniqueness of servant leadership. To the extent that the focus of servant leaders is on the needs and concerns of the followers, the altruistic nature of servant leadership that sets it apart from other leadership models allows leaders to step out of gender role norms and provide the most appropriate leadership for followers.
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Author Biographies
John E. Barbuto, Jr. (Jay) is an Associate Professor of Leadership in the Department of Agricultural Leadership, Education, and Communication. He teaches courses in foundations of leadership, leadership development, motivation, and power/influence. His current research projects include transformational advising, dramaturgical teaching, servant leadership, work motivation, emotional intelligence, cross-cultural and diversity issues, and antecedents of leadership. He has published over 70 journal articles and 150 conference proceedings in the leadership, organizational behavior, and social psychology field. His work has been published in journals such as Journal of Leadership Education, Leadership Quarterly, Sex Roles, Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, Group & Organization Management, Journal of Agricultural Education, and Journal of Social Psychology. Gregory T. Gifford is an Assistant Professor of Leadership Education in the Department of Agricultural Education and Communication at the University of Florida. He teaches courses in interpersonal leadership, leadership for groups and teams, and motivation. Dr. Giffords research interests include diversity in leadership and organizations, social justice and social role theory, work motivation and the integration of social psychological perspectives with leadership theory and practice. He has been published in the Journal of Leadership Education, International Journal of Leadership Studies, Psychological Reports and has received nominations for outstanding paper awards from the Eastern Academy of Management and the American Association of Agricultural Education.
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Using Achievement Motivation Theory to Explain Student Participation in a Residential Leadership Learning Community
Lori L. Moore Assistant Professor Department of Agricultural Leadership, Education, and Communications Texas A&M University 2116 TAMU 143 Scoates Hall College Station, TX 77843-2116 (979) 845-1295 llmoore@tamu.edu Dustin K. Grabsch Undergraduate Student Department of Agricultural Leadership, Education, and Communications Texas A&M University 2116 TAMU College Station, TX 77843-2116 Craig Rotter Coordinator of Residence Life Leadership Education Department of Residence Life Texas A&M University 1253 TAMU College Station, TX 77843-1253 (979) 862-3158 craigr@housing.tamu.edu
Abstract
This study sought to examine student motives for participating in a residential leadership learning community for incoming freshmen using McClellands Achievement Motivation Theory (McClelland, 1958, 1961). Eighty-nine students began the program in the Fall 2009 semester and were administered a single, researcher-developed instrument. Responses to an open-ended question that asked students what their primary motive for participating in the voluntary, residential leadership learning community were analyzed using deductive content analysis techniques (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2009; Patton, 2002) and categorized according to McClellands Achievement Motivation Theory as the need for Achievement, the need for Power, the need for Affiliation, or any combination thereof. Results demonstrated that while all three needs were found within the responses, the need
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for Achievement and the need for Affiliation were more common motives for joining the voluntary, residential leadership learning community.
Introduction
According to the Association of American Colleges and Universities (AAC&U) (2002), students are flocking to college because the world is complex, turbulent, and more reliant on knowledge than ever before (p. viii). Teaching these students about leadership and their development as leaders is becoming increasingly more important to colleges and universities across the country (Cress, Astin, Zimmerman-Oster, & Burkhardt, 2001). However, some would argue that our education practice has emphasized information transfer without a great deal of thought given to the meaning, pertinence, or application of the information in the context of the students life (Keeling, 2004, p. 10). In other words, academic learning and student development have often been viewed separately from each other (Keeling). This notion is supported by Minor (1997) who noted that faculty often think of courses taking place only in traditional classroom settings while residence hall programs focus on dimensions of student development. What is needed is the view of learning as a comprehensive, holistic, transformative activity that integrates academic learning and student development (Keeling, 2004, p. 4). In his book Achieving Educational Excellence, Alexander Astin describes learning communities as small sub-groups of studentscharacterized by a common sense of purposethat can be used to build a sense of group identity, cohesiveness and uniqueness that encourages continuity and the integration of diverse curricular and co-curricular experiences (Minor, 1997, p. 21). Minor noted that while students who are coenrolled in common courses, a typical practice in learning communities, might exhibit many characteristics that describe learning communities as defined by Astin, the potential for their success is significantly enhanced by making use of a location where a majority of freshman spend most of their time the residence halls (p. 21). Keeling (2004) described student affairs and academic affairs partnerships, such as residential learning communities in which students are all enrolled in one or more of the same classes and live together, as an example of a transformative learning opportunity for students. According to Keeling, these powerful partnerships, jointly planned, combine knowledge acquisition and experiential learning to promote more complex outcomes (p. 20). Residential learning communities require that faculty members and student affairs professionals come together for the overriding purpose of the college experience: educating the same students together (Gablenick, MacGregor, Matthews, & Smith, 1990, p. 91). Researchers have studied learning communities developed specifically for freshmen students (Minor, 1997; Nahavandi, 2006; Stedman, Arnold, & Rotter, 2006) and have examined their impact on various factors (Staub & Finley, 2007; Zhao & Kuh, 2004). A study involving Freshmen Interest Group (FIG) students at
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the University of Oregon (cited in Gabelnick, et al., 1990) discovered that FIG students differed from other freshman only in being a little more anxious about making friends and having slightly more elevated expectations about their academic success at the university (p. 62). Gabelnick, MacGregor, Matthews, and Smith (1990) also discussed a study of 1000 students enrolled in learning communities and comparable traditional classes at 12 community colleges in Washington that was conducted by the Washington Center for Undergraduate Education during the 1997-1988 academic year which found that students in both groups were similar in average age and gender break-down; all were highly oriented to completing a four-year college degree, although this was slightly more true of students in learning communities (p. 62). Similarly, in a meta-analysis of more than 300 studies, Johnson, Johnson, and Smith (Cited in Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005) found learning communities foster development of supportive peer groups, greater student involvement in the classroom learning and social activities, perceptions of greater academic development, and greater integration of students academic and nonacademic lives (p. 423). Gabelnick et al. (1990) ultimately identified eight themes related to what students value about their experiences in a learning community including friendships and a sense of belonging, learning collaboratively, intellectual energy and confidence, appreciation of other students perspectives, discovering texts, the building of intellectual connections, embracing complexity, and new perspectives on their own learning process. Fewer studies, however, have been found that explored the motives behind why students participate in learning communities. At some universities, such as Dickinson College, participation in a first-year seminar is required (Staub & Finley, 2007). In 2003 Dickinson began linking similar first-year seminars into residential learning communities that contained out-of-the-classroom educational experiences. Zhao and Kuh (2004) found in their study of 80,479 randomly selected first-year and senior students from 364 four-year colleges and universities who completed the National Survey of Student Engagement in the Spring of 2002, Zhao and Kuh (2004) that native students (as opposed to transfer students), students of color, members of fraternities and sororities, full-time students, students in preprofessional majors, and those with two or more majors were most likely to participate in learning communities. When looking only at the first-year students, Zhao and Kuh concluded that students from families with lower levels of parental education and students who lived on campus were more likely to participate in learning communities. The question must be asked, What motivates first-year students to participate in optional residential learning communities that require both in-class and out-ofclass experiences? This study sought to explore the motives behind student participation in a voluntary, residential learning community that focused on leadership at Texas A&M University. The students were all traditional-aged, incoming first-year students, and in addition to enrolling in a one-credit academic
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class focused on leadership each semester of their first year, they also agreed to live on the same floor of an on-campus residence hall.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework for this study was rooted in McClellands Achievement Motivation Theory. Achievement Motivation Theory attempts to explain and predict behavior and performance based on a persons need for achievement, power, and affiliation (Lussier & Achua, 2007, p. 42). The Achievement Motivation Theory is also referred to as the Acquired Needs Theory or the Learned Needs Theory. Daft (2008) defined the Acquired Needs Theory as McClellands theory that proposes that certain types of needs (achievement, affiliation, power) are acquired during an individuals lifetime (p. 233). The Achievement Motivation Theory evolved from work McClelland began in the 1940s. In 1958 McClelland described human motives in the Methods of Measuring Human Motivation chapter of Atkinsons book, Motives in Fantasy, Action, and Society. At that point, McClelland identified human motives related to the achievement motive, the affiliation motive, the sexual motive, and the power motive. In his later work, The Achieving Society (McClelland, 1961), however, McClelland focused his attention on only need for Achievement, the need for Affiliation, and the need for Power. In essence, McClellands theory postulates that people are motivated in varying degrees by their need for Achievement, need for Power, and need for Affiliation and that these needs are acquired, or learned, during an individuals lifetime (Daft, 2008; Lussier & Achua, 2007). In other words, most people possess and will exhibit a combination of three needs. Need for Achievement McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, and Lowell (1958) defined the need for Achievement (n Achievement) as success in competition with some standard of excellence. That is, the goal of some individual in the story is to be successful in terms of competition with some standard of excellence. The individual may fail to achieve this goal, but the concern over competition with a standard of excellence still enables one to identify the goal sought as an achievement goal. This, then, is our generic definition of n Achievement (p. 181). McClelland et al. (1958) went on to describe that competition with a standard of excellence was most notable when an individual was in direct competition with someone else but that it can also be evident in the concern for how well one individual performs a task, regardless of how someone else is doing. According to Lussier and Achua (2007), the need for achievement is the unconscious concern for excellence in accomplishments through individual efforts (p. 42). Similarly, Daft (2008) stated the need for Achievement is the desire to accomplish something difficult, attain a high standard of success, master complex tasks, and
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surpass others (p. 233). Individuals who exhibit the need for Achievement seek to accomplish realistic but challenging goals. Need for Power McClelland (1961) defined the need for Power as a concern with the control of the means of influencing a person (p. 167). Lussier and Achua (2007) defined the need for Power as the unconscious concern for influencing others and seeking positions of authority (p. 42). Similarly, Daft (2008) defined the need for Power as the desire to influence or control others, be responsible for others, and have authority over others (p. 233). Individuals who exhibit the need for Power have a desire to be influential and want to make an impact. Need for Affiliation When defining the need for Affiliation, McClelland (1961) stated, Affiliationestablishing, maintaining, or restoring a positive affective relationship with another person. This relationship is most adequately described by the word friendship (p. 160). Therefore, the need for affiliation is the unconscious concern for developing, maintaining, and restoring close personal relationships (Lussier & Achua, 2007, p. 43). Daft (2008) defined the need for Affiliation as the desire to form close personal relationships, avoid conflict, and establish warm friendships (p. 233). Individuals who exhibit the need for Affiliation are seeking interactions with other people.
Purpose
The purpose of this study, conducted as part of a larger study, was to explore why students participated in a voluntary, residential learning community focused on leadership. More specifically, this study intended to determine if students were motivated to participate because of their need for Achievement, need for Power, or need for Affiliation. Therefore, the guiding research question for this study was What was your primary motive for participating in the Leadership Living Learning Community?
Methodology
The population frame for this study was a census of students who participated in the Leadership Living Learning Community (L3C) at Texas A&M University during the 2009-2010 academic year. The program was developed as a partnership between the Department of Residence Life and the Department of Agricultural Leadership, Education, and Communications and is now in its fifth year. Invitations to apply for the 5th cohort of students were sent to all freshmen accepted to the university. Initially, 145 of the 15,158 students accepted into the university submitted applications to be considered for the program. Some applicants were not eligible to participate in this residential learning community
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due to the specific programmatic requirements. Eighty-nine of the 145 students who applied accepted invitations to participate. Therefore, the population frame for this study consisted of the 89 students who began the program in the Fall 2009. In an effort to sample the entire population frame, all 89 participants were administered a single, researcher-developed instrument designed to collect data related to why participants applied and agreed to participate in the L3C and their expectations of themselves as learners, their expectations of the instructors within the program, and their expectations of the L3C program as a whole. Data used in this study came from a single, open-ended question that asked participants to identify their primary motivation for participating in the residential learning community focused on leadership. All 89 students completed the instrument for a response rate of 100%. This study employed deductive content analysis where data from the open-ended question responses were analyzed according to an existing framework (Patton, 2002), in this case, McClellands Achievement Motivation Theory. Content analysis is a technique that enables researchers to study human behavior in an indirect way, through an analysis of their communications (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2009, p. 472). Responses to the open-ended question were analyzed according to the three needs within McClellands Achievement Motivation Theory by the researchers. The determination of themes based on previous knowledge, theory, and/or experience, prior to data analysis is an acceptable procedure used in content analysis studies (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2009). Because the Achievement Motivation Theory (McClelland, 1958, 1961) postulates that most people possess and exhibit a combination of the need for Achievement, the need for Power, and the need for Affiliation, the researchers used these three needs as the themes to code the data. Data from the responses were unitized such that only one of the key themes was found within each unit of data (Erlandson, Harris, Skipper, & Allen, 1993). The researchers coded both the manifest content and the latent content of each unit of data (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2009). To ensure consistency of the codes, the three members of the research team coded the responses collectively. According to Fraenkel and Wallen, there are two common methods of interpreting content analysis data: the use of frequencies and the percentage and/or proportion of particular occurrences to total occurrences and the use of codes and themes to help organize the content and arrive at a narrative description of the findings. This study employed both methods. Representative quotes from participants written in their own words are included in the findings. The researchers, as human instruments in the study, employed prolonged engagement and persistent observation as strategies to enhance the credibility of the findings (Erlandson et al., 1993; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Lincoln and Guba (1985) noted that, if prolonged engagement provides scope, persistent observation provides depth (p. 304).
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Results
Content analysis of the responses revealed incoming freshmen students were motivated to participate in the L3C primarily because of the need for Achievement and the need for Affiliation. While all three needs were detected in the student comments, the need for Power was not as pervasive in the comments as the need for Achievement and the need for Affiliation. The need for Achievement was evident in the statements written by the students. Within this need, common phrases included wanting to gain leadership skills, expand leadership abilities, and to learn how to become a better leader. Student comments demonstrating the need for Achievement are included: I wanted to further myself in as a leader in all aspects of my life, but also because I plan on being a teacher and want to be as affective a leader as possible. (87) My primary motivation was improving my leadership skills which I believe are essential in my life. (12) I also wanted to enhance my leadership abilities. (82) I wanted to challenge myself as a person step outside my comfort zone and better understand what it takes to be a good leader. (89) To further and better my leadership skills. (30) Forty of the 89 students (44.94%) demonstrated the Need for Achievement in their responses. The need for Affiliation was also often identified within the statements. Within this need, phrases such as students desire to meet people, establish friendships, and develop a sense of community were common. Student comments demonstrating the need for Affiliation are included: My primary motivation for joining the L3C was so I could be a part of a close-knit community my first year of college. (13) I thought be a good way to meet fellow freshmen and grow good relationships with them. (65) The Leadership Learning Community sounded like a close-knit family, and what I really needed to feel safer at such a big university was people who had things in common with me. (55) One of the primary reasons was that being a part of L3C would help facilitate my networks as I begin college life. Along with having people who I can depend on if I fall short on anything. (59) I wanted to have a smaller community of people that I could get close to in such a huge university. (66) Thirty-nine of the 89 students (43.82%) demonstrated the need for Affiliation in their responses.
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The need for Power was less evident in the responses to the open-ended question. Students who expressed the need for Power included in their responses the desire to serve in leadership roles or positions. I have always been involved and loved leadership positions. The reason for joining L3C is to become active in leadership roles and events my first year at Texas A&M. (4) I was a big fish in a little pond in high school, so I felt that joining the L3C would give me leadership roles during my first year at TAMU. I felt that it would also help give me an instant group once I arrived on campus. (10) I want to learn how to be a better leader and be able to organize people in a productive way without breeding contempt. (29) Only eight of the 89 students (8.99%) demonstrated the need for Power in their responses.
Conclusions and Discussion

By analyzing student comments from an open-ended question, the researchers were able to conclude that incoming first-year students were motivated to participate in a voluntary, residential leadership learning community based on the three needs identified by McClelland (1958, 1961), primarily the need for Achievement and the need for Affiliation. Students expressed their needs to make new friends and to develop leadership knowledge, skills, and abilities. Because the words living, community, and leadership are all in the title of the program, it is possible that the initial question asking students what was their primary motive for participating in the Leadership Living Learning Community was leading, therefore prompting students to include affiliation and achievement related comments. The fact that student comments demonstrated a clear need for both achievement and affiliation supports the work of Minor (1997) and Keeling (2004) who noted the need to view learning more holistically and to integrate academic life with residence life to create transformative learning experiences for students. The demonstrated need for Achievement clearly indicates the need for strong academic programs. Similarly, the demonstrated need for Affiliation clearly indicates the need for strong residential life programs. The benefits for students come when strong academic programs and strong residential programs are integrated. Because almost as many comments reflected the need for Achievement and the need for Affiliation, program coordinators and instructors need to ensure that there is a balance of both academic achievement and social affiliation, thus requiring a continued partnership between the academic department and student affairs.
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It is not surprising that this group of students clearly demonstrated the need for Achievement. In essence this finding is consistent with the findings of the studies from the University of Oregon and the Washington Center for Undergraduate Education cited in Gabelnick et al. (1990) which showed students in learning communities had slightly higher expectations about their academic success than freshman who were not enrolled in a learning community. This is also consistent with the findings the Johnson et al. (1998) study cited in Pascarella and Terenzini (2005) which showed that students in learning communities help perceptions of greater academic achievement. Because for many students, starting college means leaving their friends and families behind, it is not surprising that students entering their first year in college would demonstrate the need for Affiliation. This finding supports findings of the University of Oregon study (cited in Geblenick, et al., 1990) that showed FIG students were a little more anxious that other freshman about making friends. A possible explanation for such a finding can be found in Schlossbergs Transition Theory (Schlossberg, 1981, 1984) which includes a framework for human adaptation to transition. Within the theory there are four stages: situation, self, support, and strategies. The support stage is characterized by finding types of social supports a person has become accustomed to in their previous environment. Social supports can include: intimate relationships, family units, networks of friends, and institutions and communities (p. 107). The need for Power was not as common in the comments of the students. It appeared as though students were more focused on the concept of learning leadership rather than practicing leadership within specific leadership roles. Komives, Longerbeam, Owen, Mainella, and Osteen (2006) proposed a model of leadership identity development in which individuals progress from Stage One: Awareness, through Exploration/Engagement, Leader Identified, Leadership Differentiated, and Generativity to Stage Six: Integration/Synthesis. Participants in their study entered college in the Leader Identified stage in which students were fully involved in organizations, but were only leaders if they have positional leadership, otherwise they were followers. Perhaps because these students were incoming freshmen they had not yet progressed through their leadership identity development to Stages Four, Five, and Six where they were actively seeking leadership opportunities and exhibit the desire to influence others. McClellands research showed that only about 10 percent of the U.S. population has a strong dominant need for achievement (Lussier & Achua, 2007, p. 42). While it was beyond the scope of this study to measure the strength of students need for Achievement, it is interesting to note that almost half of the students (44.94%) in this study made reference to the need for Achievement in their responses.
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Implications for Practice and Future Research

Findings from this study showed that students chose to participate in the L3C based primarily on their need for Achievement and their need for Affiliation. Therefore, it is recommended that program coordinators and instructors continually revise the academic component of the program to ensure it remains relevant to the lives of the students while at the same time challenging them to meet high standards of academic success. It is also recommended that program coordinators and instructors ensure that the co-curricular portion of the program and the residence life aspects also remain relevant and clearly emphasize the importance of a sense of belonging. Future marketing efforts within this program should emphasize both the academic and social aspects to ensure students recognize their needs can be met in both achievement and affiliation by participating in the program. It is recommended that this study be replicated at a smaller institution to assess the need for Affiliation in a similar program. The institution in which the study took place is large, and therefore, perhaps the comments related to the need for Affiliation were more related to the size of the university rather than an actual need for Affiliation. While it was beyond the scope of this study, the researchers suggest examining the primary motives based on selected demographic characteristics. For example, are men participating in the program more motivated by one of the needs as compared to women? The need for Power did not appear to be as significant a motive for joining the L3C. It is recommended that further research be conducted to determine if this was in fact due to which stage of the Leadership Identity Development Model (Komives, et al., 2006) participants were at when entering college and the L3C. Had the researchers analyzed the responses from an inductive lens, three additional theme areas would have emerged in addition to the three needs already discussed in this paper: the similarity of the program to their previous experiences, they believe that the program would be fun, or interesting, and the need for on-campus housing. The researchers suggest further research to examine these additional needs. This study focused solely on explaining the primary motives behind why students wanted to participate in a voluntary, residential leadership learning community using the Acquired Needs Theory (McClelland, 1958, 1961). The comments from students came from an open-ended question that students answered at the very beginning of the program. It is recommended that a future study address whether or not these needs were met.
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References
Association of American Colleges and Universities (2002). Greater expectations: A new vision for learning as a nation goes to college. Washington, DC. Cress, C. M., Astin, H. S., Zimmerman-Oster, K., & Burkhardt, J. C. (2001). Development outcomes of college students involvement in leadership activities. Journal of Student Development, 42(1), 15-25. Daft, R. L. (2008). The leadership experience (4th ed.). Mason, OH: SouthWestern, Cengage Learning. Erlandson, D. A., Harris, E. L., Skipper, B. L., & Allen, S. D. (1993). Doing naturalistic inquiry: A guide to methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Fraenkel, J. R., & Wallen, N. E. (2009). How to design and evaluate research in education (7th ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill Higher Education. Gabelnick, F., MacGregor, J., Matthews, R. S., & Smith, B. L. (1990). Learning communities: Creating connections among students, faculty, and disciplines. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Keeling, R. P. (Ed.). (2004). Learning reconsidered: A campus-wide focus on the student experience. Washington, DC: National Association of Student Personnel Administrators (NASPA) and American College Personnel Association (ACPA). Komives, S. R., Longerbeam, S., Owen, J. E., Mainella, F. C., & Osteen, L. (2006). A leadership identity development model: Applications from grounded theory. Journal of College Student Development, 47(4), 401418. Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Lussier, R. N., & Achua, C. F. (2007). Leadership: Theory application, skill development (3rd ed.). Mason, OH: Thomson South-Western. Minor, F. D. (1997). Bringing it home: Integrating classroom and residential experiences. About Campus, 2(1), 21-22 McClelland, D. C. (1958). Methods of measuring human motivation. In J. W. Atkinson (Ed.), Motives in fantasy, action, and society (pp. 7-42). Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.
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McClelland, D. C. (1961). The achieving society. New York: The Free Press. McClelland, D. C., Atkinson, J. W., Clark, R. A., & Lowell, E. L. (1958). A scoring manual for the achievement motive. In J. W. Atkinson (Ed.), Motives in fantasy, action, and society (pp. 179-204). Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc. Nahavandi, A. (2006). Teaching leadership to first-year students in a learning community. Journal of Leadership Education, 5(2), 14-27. Pascarella, E. T., & Terenzini, P. T. (2005). How college affects students: A third decade of research, Volume 2. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluations methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Schlossberg, N. K. (1981). A model for analyzing human adaptation to transition. Counseling Psychologist, 9(2), 2-18. Schlossberg, N. K. (1984). Counseling adults in transitions. New York: Springer Publishing Company. Staub, S. D., & Finley, A. P. (2007, Summer). Assessing the impact of engaged learning initiatives for first-year students. peerReview, 9(3), 18-21. Stedman, N. L. P., Arnold, F., & Rotter, C. (2006). Exploring leadership skill development of freshmen in a leadership living learning community. Proceedings of the 2006 Association of Leadership Educators (ALE) Annual Conference. Big Sky, MT. Zhao, C., & Kuh, G. D. (2004). Adding value: learning communities and student engagement. Research in Higher Education, 45(2), 115-13
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Author Biographies
Lori Moore is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Agricultural Leadership, Education, and Communications at Texas A&M University. She teaches undergraduate and graduate leadership classes and is the co-coordinator for the university-wide Leadership Living Learning Community (L3C). Her primary research interests are in the area of collegiate leadership programming. Dustin Grabsch is a fourth-year undergraduate student majoring in University Studies/Leadership at Texas A&M University. After graduation he will be pursuing a masters degree at Seattle University in Student Development Administration. His research interests include identity and leadership development. Craig Rotter, Coordinator of Residence Life Leadership Education at Texas A&M University, earned four university degrees, including a doctorate in leadership education. He co-teaches two leadership academic courses for first year students in a residential learning community and his research focus is collegiate-level student leadership development.
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4-H Made Me a Leader: A College-Level Alumni Perspective of Leadership Life Skill Development
Jessica Anderson Graduate Student Box 7607 NCSU Campus North Carolina State University Raleigh, NC 27695 jaander3@ncsu.edu Jacklyn Bruce Assistant Professor Box 7607 NCSU Campus North Carolina State University Raleigh, NC 27695 jackie_bruce@ncsu.edu Lauren Mouton Graduate Student North Carolina State University Box 7607 NCSU Campus Raleigh, NC 27695 lnmouton@ncsu.edu
Abstract
The purposes of this qualitative study were to determine the contribution of 4-H experiences to leadership life skill development of college-level 4-H alumni and to determine the effect of those skills on collegiate alumnis desire to continue involvement in 4-H. The research methods included semi-structured interviews. Major findings of the study noted that the interviewees 4-H experiences positively contributed to leadership life skill development, closely following the pattern of the four essential elements which serve as the foundation of 4-H programming. Also identified was a strong desire of college-level 4-H alumni to continue their participation with 4-H. Recommendations include specifically targeting this generation of alumni for greater utilization because of their strong desire to stay connected.
Introduction
4-H has long been hailed as the premiere youth organization of the United States and is known as the most recognizable part of the Cooperative Extension Service (Radhakrishna, 2005). At 108 years old 4-H has a long history of preparing the
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youth of the United States of America by developing life skills through projects and educational activities. Youth, ages 5-19, benefit greatly from the development provided through the 4-H program that extends into their adult lives (Radhakrishna, 2005). Astroth and Haynes (2002) found that 4-H kids aremore likely to contribute to their community by taking on leadership roles in their school and community (p. 7). Many studies have been conducted to determine the role of 4-H on leadership and life skill development (Meyers, 1978; Fitzpatrick, et al., 2005; Radhakrishna, 2005; Boyd, Herring, & Briers, 1992; Ladewig & Thomas, 1987; Goodwin, et al., 2005; Seevers & Dormody, 1995). Leadership and life skill development as defined by Miller (1976) is the development skills necessary for life to perform leadership functions in daily living. These studies cumulatively conclude that 4-H members have developed critical life skills through the program including social skills, personal development, leadership, and responsibility. While there have been numerous studies undertaken to identify life skill development of members and alumni, no studies have investigated the early program alumni (college students).
Literature Review and Theoretical Framework

Goodwin, Barnetts, Pike, Peutz, Lanting, & Ward (2005) ask will your state observe the 200-year mark of the 4-H in 2102? In response to the centennial anniversary, the answer lies in the ability of the 4-H program to demonstrate the continued relevance and worth of this 100-plus-year old institution. As a way to ensure the continuation of 4-H, it is critical to continually assess the impact of 4H on the leadership and life skill development of its members. It is important to understand the three areas of the framework for this study: (a) the programmatic essential elements that provide the foundation for life skill development through 4-H, (b) the prior studies of the impact of 4-H on life skill development, and (c) the uniqueness of the college student population. The Essential Elements of the 4-H Program The foundation of 4-H programming is rooted in four essential elements include belonging, independence, mastery, and generosity (4-H National Headquarters, 2009). The National 4-H Organization suggests that a sense of belonging may be the single most powerful positive ingredient programs can add to the lives of children and youth because youth need to know they are cared about and accepted by others. Through independence, youth gain valuable life skills such as personal responsibility and discipline. Mastery invokes not only skill and knowledge acquisition but self-efficacy to take positive risks and accept challenges to focus on self-improvement. Generosity is most often used as a synonym for service; however, generosity goes beyond service to include the development of personal values such as compassion and tolerance (4-H National Headquarters, 2009).
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These four elements provide the foundation from which all 4-H programming stems. 4-H Impact Studies Cooperative Extension states that the 4-H program develops leadership and life skills among its members (as cited in Bruce, Boyd, & Dooley, 2005). To support this, Goodwin et al. (2007) found that 4-H youth were more likely to demonstrate life skills than their peers. In the same vein, Meyers (1978) specifically looked at leadership skills and found that participation in the 4-H program significantly increased leadership performance in 4-H youth. Another study focusing on leadership development through the 4-H program conducted by Seevers and Dormody (1995) found that participation in 4-H leadership activities had a positive relationship with youth leadership life skill development. They also found that most 4-H members participated in many different leadership activities. Boyd, Herring, and Briers (1992) found that participation in the 4-H program positively relates to perceived leadership life skill development. As expected, the level of leadership life skill development was found to increase as the level of 4-H participation increased. A national study performed by Ladewig and Thomas (1987) found that 4-H alumni were satisfied with 4-Hs contribution to their personal development. Ladewig and Thomas also concluded that life skill development formed in 4-H carries into adulthood. Another study that looked at 4-H alumni was performed by Fitzpatrick, Gogne, Jones, Lobley, & Phelps in 2005. This study asked alumni to identify life skills gained as a result of 4-H club participation. Common themes emerged including self-esteem, teamwork, responsibility, planning and organizing, and cooperation. These were similar to the findings from Radhakrishna (Fitzpatrick et al., 2005). These researchers also posed the question, Can the impacts of 4-H really be measured? According to Fitzpatrick et al. (2005), the answer is Yes. Life skills learned can be tracked through the use of project records, fair exhibits, 4-H stories, testimonials, and interviews with 4-H alumni. Radhakrishna (2005) conducted a study with 4-H alumni to determine the contribution of 4-H experiences to leadership, personal development and communication skills. In the area of community development, including service and citizenship skills, Radhakrishna found that 4-H greatly contributed to 4-H alumnis development. Radhakrishna also found that 4-H alumni perceived that their 4-H experiences greatly contributed to developing group interaction skills, leadership, and decision making skills. Finally, Radhakrishna concluded that 4-H influenced them to finish high school, in their job or career selection, and whether to continue education beyond high school (Radhakrishna, 2005). In addition, alumni also indicated that 4-H participation influenced them in preparing for future a leadership role and its responsibilities.
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College Students When discussing the uniqueness of college-aged individuals, a dichotomy emerges reflecting their self-focused nature while retaining compassionate and considerate characteristics (Arnett, 2006). Specifically this generation has been labeled as (a) conventionally motivated and respectful, (b) structured rule followers, (c) protected and sheltered, (d) cooperative and team-oriented, (e) talented achievers, and (f) confident and optimistic about their futures. All of these characteristics have implications for educators at all levels (Howe & Strauss, 2000). Because this generation is typically very active, this group often searches for opportunities to stay connected to the community through service needs (Elam, Stratton, & Gibson, 2007). According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (2010), 30.4% of individuals between the ages of 16 and 19 years, and 19.5% of the population between the ages of 20 and 24 years engage in volunteer activities. A national survey of undergraduate college students, however, reported that two-thirds of students volunteered in community service activities (The Institute of Politics, 2002). This data illustrates the prominence of volunteer work within the collegiate community (Kustanowitz, 2000). However the average age of volunteers nationwide is 65 plus years followed closely by the 55-64 demographic (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2010). From these statistics, college-aged individuals engage in many service activities well into their adult lives but are not necessarily being utilized within the 4-H program. The desire of college-aged persons to volunteer should be recognized and utilized by the 4-H program because the average age of volunteers is well above the average age of a college student. In the area of study on the impact of 4-H on leadership life skill development, college level 4-H alumni are a population left unstudied. College level alumni bring a unique perspective to the reflection of the impact on their development because they are not far removed from the 4-H program. Clearly, the statistics demonstrate that college-aged students still have desires to serve in their communities. As the nations premiere youth organization, 4-H has a large group of alumni that could be utilized and recruited to continue as volunteers in the 4-H program. By assessing what programs or parts of programs alumni perceive had great influence on their development, they become great candidates for volunteers to extend the influence of 4-H to others. While this study focuses only on the 4-H program, the implications could lead to a new level of volunteer recruitment for other youth organizations as well.
Purpose
There is strong evidence that youth develop leadership life skills as members of the 4-H program. No studies, however, have specifically identified college-level
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alumni to determine their perspective of life skill development. Alumni of college age were used in this study because there is research that indicates college-aged individuals maintain a desire to perform in service opportunities. As a service opportunity, 4-H alumni were used to determine the desire to continue involvement in the 4-H program. The purposes of this study were to determine the life skill development of college-level alumni and to determine if that life skill development led to a continued desire to serve the 4-H organization.
Methods
Erlandson, Harris, Skipper, and Allen (1993) tell us that random sampling is not the preferred method when doing qualitative research because the major concern is not to generalize the findings of the study to a larger population, but to maximize discovery of the issues and nuances under study. In this case, the context being studied is early (five or fewer years out) 4-H program alumni. The researchers used purposive sampling. The intention was to seek out individuals because of certain qualities including: (a) were programmatic alumni in good standing, (b) were currently enrolled in an institution of higher education, (c) represented a variety of states and programmatic areas, and (d) were willing to share their experiences for purposes of research. The names of participants for this study were obtained from the Advisor of the National 4-H Conference Collegiate Facilitator program. Within qualitative research there is no concrete rule for sample size. This study focused on 13 individuals who had participated in the National 4-H Conference Collegiate Facilitator program. The sample was made up of three males and 10 females from 10 states. Semi-structured interviews were conducted and coded to retain confidentiality. These codes are included in the results section in parenthesis after the quotations as part of the trustworthiness confirmability and the audit trail. Data analysis followed the traditional methods of constant comparative analysis described by Glaser and Strauss (1967) for use in naturalistic inquiry. The researchers methodology is outlined as follows: (a) unitization of data, (b) categorization of units, (c) merging categories, and (d) journaling. Peer debriefing and member checking was done to help establish the credibility of the research. Peer debriefing occurred three times throughout the data collection and analysis process. Member checking was done with each interviewee by allowing each to review their individual interview transcript while allowing for full editorial control to ensure that the transcripts accurately reflected the content of the conversations. An audit trail and journaling were used to establish dependability and confirmability.
Findings
The researchers found that 4-H alumni had experiences that demonstrated the four essential elements as outlined by 4-H National Headquarters. In addition, 4-H influence was found to be the foundation of the acquisition of critical skills. A pictorial representation of this phenomenon can be found in Figure 1 and is used
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as an outline for the findings of this study. The four essential elements remain as a model for the life skill development; however, the pictorial image more clearly defines the findings. As a reminder the codes found in parenthesis correspond to the individual or individuals who made the statements and the corresponding page number of the transcription. Figure 1: Pictorial representation of findings.
4-H Influence Many of the college level 4-H alumni interviewed had a positive belief about the influence of 4-H on their professional and personal development. This contributes to the 4-H influence, seen at the base of the theoretical model (I1-I13). 4-H is probably one of the main reasons I am the way I am (I5.1). The 4-H experience showed me that agriculture wasnt all about pigs and pickles or cows and cooking. But it was about feeding the world, clothing the world, and providing the world furniture... Agriculture is a lifestyle for me. It is not something that is down the road from my house. It is not something that I visit once a year at a county fair. It is the person that I am and the person I want to be (I5.3). I think that [4-H] kind of influences the way that I behave in different situations (I13.3). Several of the individuals interviewed discussed how their 4-H experiences had a direct impact on their career choice (I1, I5, I6, I9, I10, I11, I12, and I13). Im studying to be an athletic trainer or motivating others to succeed in athletics and I think that 4-H motivates you to succeed in life and that has inspired me to work with others so that they can succeed as well (I6.2).
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4-H helped me to see that event planning was something that I really wanted to involve in my career path. Without 4-H I would not have decided that was something I wanted to do. So, that clearly was life changing (I11.3). Im majoring in Family Studies and Human Services. I have a minor in Animal Science and Leadership and Id like to be an Extension Agent. Obviously 4-H had an impact on this. If I hadnt been in 4-H, I wouldnt want to be an extension agent because I probably wouldnt know what they were (I1. 4-5). Essential Element #1: Belonging Upon the base that is 4-H influence, sits the four essential elements for youth development as outlined by the 4-H National Headquarters. The first of these critical life skills is belonging, that is the development of an inclusive learning environment. Many of the 4-H alumni interviewed cited relationships with adults, relationships with peers and networking as having a large impact on their sense of belonging (I4, I5, I6, I7, and I11). Learning how to be part of a group, how to feel that unity, but also how to develop into where I am becoming a participant and giving something (I7. 1-2). Friendships: Personal Relationships. Just with the adult leaders and with the youth, so many aspects of 4-H you just become a family through the stuff that youre doing (I11.1). Another theme that emerged that contributes to a sense of belonging was the mentoring of younger 4-H members (I2, I4, I9, I10, I11, and I12). It is very fulfilling to be a part of youth recognizing their abilities and their talents and being able to use thosethrough 4-H (I11.2). There was the youth in general that we reached out to with our programming. So, I think that I was able to have more of a reaching experience and impact than I realized (I10.3). Essential Element #2: Independence Independence, as the acquisition of personal responsibility and discipline, was identified through the interview responses. A common theme that was identified under the heading of independence included confidence (I1, I2, I4, I6, I8, I10, I11, I12, and I13).
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A theme emerged from the experiences of the 4-H alumni in the same vein as confidence: the idea of self-confidence and self-efficacy (II4, I7, I10, I11, I12). Even though I have some natural confidence in the stuff that I do, I think that 4-H instilled in me a sense of confidence, knowing what I want to do and what I believe in (I11.1). 4-H really helped me to come out of my shell, because as I got involved on that state level I was thrown into many situations where I didnt know a single person. So, that really helped me, to push me to meet people by myself and develop my interpersonal skills (I10.1-2). Essential Element #3: Mastery The concept of mastery is essential in the development of life skills. Mastery includes the basic knowledge and skill acquisition that 4-H is known for through its projects and activities. Also involved in mastery is the recognition of self development and the ability to take risks and chances (I1, I4, I7, and I13). I like to learn. And so 4-H lets me do that. And its not like school where you have to learn all about this or that. Some stuff in school you really dont want to learn. 4-H is not like that (I1.5-6). I think 4-H is really key in it your choice in how much you want to learn I13. 2). Every alumnus interviewed credited 4-H to some success or accomplishment they had achieved. Many interviewees gave multiple examples of how 4-H had led them to portray the element of mastery in their lives, in and outside of 4-H (I2, I4, I5, I7, I11). Makes you realize that anything you set your mind to, you can do. And it really just makes you feel, gives you that wonderful feeling of achievement likewow, I did this and I deserved it (I4.2). You see how achievable goals are when you put your mind to it and how rewarding it is when you finally get it done and when you finally see it come to fruition (I11.3). Another component of mastery that arose quite often in interviews was the concept of communication and speaking abilities. Many alumni contributed their communication skills solely to the 4-H program (I2, I5, I9, and I11). I speak the way I do because I was in 4-H (I5.1).
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One thing that I noticed all through high school, teachers would comment and ask me if I had been in 4-H because they could tell when I did speeches or presentations (I2.2). Essential Element #4: Generosity The final essential element is generosity, encompassing service as well as compassion and tolerance. Many alumni cited specific service completed as well as the service that they wish to give to their local communities. Numerous participants cited their desire to give back to the organization that gave them so much (I2, I4, I7, I8, I9). Service to the community via projects and teaching was a key part of developing life skills in alumni. And personally I think its helped me to be able to put other peoples priorities, especially when Im in a service situation, before mine because thats really what makes you a good leader and makes you more effective and can definitely make a bigger impact on peoples lives when they see you doing that and will give them more of a reason to maybe change theirs I9.3). Service to the organization was emphasized throughout the alumnis interviews. Many stressed the point that they still would like to give back to 4-H, because they personally have received so much from the program (I1, I5, I7, I10, I12, I13). I feel like 4-H doesnt stop. If something becomes part of your identity, its hard to remove a part of your identity. I dont want to stop because there is so much that I can give back. Theres so much that I can still receive from 4-H and for me to leave 4-H doesnt make that much sense. Its my life (I12.1). I continue to be involved in 4-H here at my university and even on the county level because 4-H gave me so much and I feel like it is my duty to give backNot only to benefit to myself but how I can give back to others. And if I can make an impact on somebody elses life as a friend, as a professional, then thats important to me (I5.2). I really do have this desire to give back and to make sure that these programs are offered to the youth of today. I know it was such a big part of my childhood and my development and so that is something I hope to give as well (I7.2).
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Life Skill Development As see through Figure 1 the pinnacle or culmination of the development of the four essential elements is life skill development as a whole. Many of the individuals interviewed stated that life skill development was a main asset attributed to 4-H (I4, I6, I7, I9, I12, I13). Responsibility that it forces its members to have and accountability for your actions and knowing that when you are in the position of being a 4-H member you are a role model for others (I13.3). It [4-H] teaches you to be focused, organized, driven, but always know where your roots are (I5.4). It has taught me the importance of being proactive, not being very passive. Not just being comfortable with good, but expecting great and then pursuing it and being active in that (I7.5).
Conclusions
The desire of college level 4-H alumni to continue their experiences with 4-H was overwhelming. The 4-H influence as well as the culmination of the four essential elements into total life skill development is predominant throughout the interviews, supporting many researchers on the positive influence that 4-H has on members leadership and life skill development (Lade wig & Thomas 1987; Fitzpatrick et al., 2005; Radhakrishna, 2005; Seevers & Dormody, 1995; Boyd, Herring, & Briers, 1992). Within this study the researchers found that involvement in the 4-H program develops life skill development which leads to a desire to continue involvement in the 4-H program. The life skill development is in agreement with all four essential elements as outlined by 4-H National Headquarters (2009) which believes that these elements are critical for positive youth development. Through the interviews, the researchers found that college-level alumni credit much of their leadership and life skill development to 4-H. Beginning with the 4-H influence, the base of the life skill development in the program, many of the individuals interviewed stated that the 4-H program had impacted their lives in a positive manner. The impact of the 4-H program went so far as individual career choices and aspirations. Through the essential element of belonging, many alumni believed that 4-H provided them with opportunities to build and foster relationships with peers and adults through friendships and networking. Another skill related to the sense of belonging was mentoring, including both, what they received and what they gave.
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Independence is another of the essential elements that emerged through the interview process. Alumni cited self-confidence as a benefit in skill development through 4-H. Mastery is a concept heavily associated with the 4-H program. The knowledge and skills acquired through projects and events are a predominant focus; however, mastery goes further, pushing members for self discovery and taking chances and risks. Generosity also pushes the limits, extending past service projects and encouraging members in the life skills of compassion and tolerance. College students are a unique population that can be recruited to promote the goals of 4-H. Research suggests that as counselors, advisors, educators, and administrators, we can nurture college students can-do attitudes, civic-minded proclivities and empathic concerns in hopes they may ultimately lead to largescale societal improvements (Elam, Stratton, & Gibson, 2007). The research conducted in this study supported research on college aged students particularly their need for an interconnected environment. Because the pool of college students in the study is typical of other college students in their desires to be connected, the 4-H program should take advantage of the connection with their alumni to recruit volunteers. The combination of 4-H influence and the essential elements culminates in the total life skill development of an individual as a result of the 4-H program. These results indicate 4-H college alumni continue to have a desire to be involved in service opportunities and the 4-H program.
Implications and Recommendations

There is an opportunity to incorporate college-level volunteers with their desires to continue service to the 4-H program. By utilizing this powerful force, 4-H can ensure a new generation of volunteers to guarantee the longevity of the 4-H program for the youth of the United States of America. By targeting this specific audience as volunteer recruitment, 4-H will secure its position as the leading youth organization in this country. The authors recommend this level of research be continued to assess the impact of 4-H on college-level alumni and their desires to continue their involvement with 4-H. Recommendations for extension and leadership educators include targeting college students in their volunteer recruitment. College students still have a desire to be connected, but may not have the time to dedicate to a long-term commitment. Volunteer positions, therefore, should be made available on a more short-term basis as the programmatic need for volunteers continues to increase. This study demonstrates that college-level alumni want to continue to participate in organizations to which they feel connected, however, educators and program administrators need to not only provide the opportunities, but make students aware of their availability. Through successful volunteer recruitment and networking the increase in an enthusiastic volunteer base in a variety of community-based programs will be greatly enhanced.
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From the results of this study, other youth organizations should be encouraged to mine their college-aged alumni as a source of volunteers because of the desire to stay connected. Many other youth organizations including FFA, Boys and Girls Club, and Scouts can utilize this generation of alumni to capitalize on their volunteer recruitment. The college-aged generation wants to serve. Youth organizations just need to provide the opportunity.
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References
4-H National Headquarters (2009). Essential Elements of 4-H. Retrieved April 4,2010, from http://www.national4hheadquarters.gov/about/4h_elements.htm. Arnett, J. J. (2006). Emerging adulthood: Understanding the new way of coming of age. J. J. Arnett, & J. L. Tanner (Eds.), Emerging adults in America: Coming of age in the 21st century (pp. 3-20). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Boyd, B. L., Herring, D. & Briers, G. (1992). Developing life skills in youth. Journal of Extension, 30(4). Available online at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1992winter/a4.html. Bruce, J. A., Boyd, B. L. & Dooley, K. E. (2005). Evaluation of transfer of training and skills learned as state 4-H council members. Journal of Leadership Education, 4(1) 52. Retrieved April 8, 2010 from: http://www.fhsu.edu/jole/issues/JOLE_4_1.pdf. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2010). Volunteering in the United States, 2010. Washington, DC: United States Department of Labor. Elam, C., Gibson, T., & Strange, D. (2007). Welcoming a new generation to college: The millennial students. Journal of College Admission. Volume, Summer, 23. Erlandson, D. A., Harris, E. L., Skipper, B. L., & Allen, S. D. (1993). Doing naturalistic inquiry. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Fitzpatrick, C., Gogne, K. H., Jones, R., Lobley, J., & Phelps, L. (2005). Life skills development in youth: Impact research in action. Journal of Extension, 43(3). Retrieved March 2, 2010 from http://www.joe.org/joe/2005june/rb1.php. Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine. Goodwin, J., Barnetts, C., Pike, M., Peutz, J., Lanting, R., & Ward, A. (2005). Idaho 4-H impact study. Journal of Extension, 43(4). Retrieved February 23, 2010 from http://www.joe.org/joe/2005august/a4.php. Howe, N., & Strauss, W. (2000). Millennial rising: The next great generation. New York: Vintage Books.
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Kustanowitz, I. E. (2000). Characteristics of emerging adults who participate in community service activities. Dissertation, University of Pennsylvania. Ladewig, H., & Thomas, J. (1987). Does 4-H make a difference? College Station, TX: Texas A & M University System. Meyers, J. M. (1978). Busy 4-Hers make better leaders. Journal of Extension. May/June. Retrieved March 2, 2010 from: http://www.joe.org/joe/1978may/78-3-a2.pdf. Miller, R. A. (1976). Leader/agents guide: Leadership life skills. Stillwater: Oklahoma State University. Radhakrishna, R. B., & Sinasky, M. (2005). 4-H experiences contributing toleadership and personal development of 4-H alumni. Journal of Extension, 43(6). Retrieved March 2, 2010 from: http:www.joe.org/joe/2005december/rb2.php. Seevers, B. S., & Dormody, T. (1995). Leadership life skills development: Perceptions of senior 4-H youth. Journal of Extension, [On-line] 33(4). Available at: http://www.joe.org/joe/1995august/rb1.html. The Institute of Politics (2002). The institute of politics survey of student attitudes: A national survey of college undergraduates. Cambridge: John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University.
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Author Biographies
Jessica Anderson is a graduate student at North Carolina State University in Extension Education. Her interests include livestock programming, 4-H, and youth development. She also received her undergraduate degree at North Carolina State University majoring in Animal Science. Jessica is a native of Fayette County, Pennsylvania, where she was an active 4-H participant and loyal Polled Hereford cattle enthusiast. As with other college-level students, as seen in this study, Jessica continues to have a strong desire to continue involvement in the 4H program. Jacklyn Bruce is an Assistant Professor at North Carolina State University in Extension Education. Her research interests include leadership skill acquisition and training environments and their effect on training transfer. Her teaching interests include youth development, leadership and management of volunteers, and collaborative leadership. Lauren Mouton is a graduate student at North Carolina State University in Extension Education. She is a native of Louisiana and a lifelong 4-H member. She received her undergraduate degree at Nicholls State University in Family and Consumer Sciences.
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Creating Meaningful Environments for Leadership Education

Kathy L. Guthrie, Ph.D. Assistant Professor Educational Leadership and Policy Studies Florida State University Tallahassee, FL kguthrie@fsu.edu Sara Thompson, M.S. Acting Director Illinois Leadership Center University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Urbana, IL sethomps@illinois.edu
Abstract
As leadership educators we aim to provide students with opportunities necessary to gain knowledge and appropriate leadership skills. Valuable opportunities developed through Student Affairs and Academic Affairs collaborations which enhance learning through co-curricular and curricular experiences in leadership education will be explored. Present in these intentional environments are opportunities for students to have meaningful leadership learning when comprised of education, experience, and reflection. Specific examples from two institutions will be highlighted.
Introduction
In order to provide high quality leadership experiences for students, institutions need to consider what elements make these experiences meaningful. It is essential that leadership education be comprised of a balanced mix of three elements: formal education in theories and principles of leadership, practical experience, and reflection on experiences in light of formal education. A strong partnership between Student Affairs and Academic Affairs creates a living laboratory for knowledge acquisition, experiences that build upon this discernment, and the opportunity for thoughtful insights gained from combining theory and practice. Throughout this brief, we will share the importance of strong partnerships between Student and Academic Affairs and ways in which this environment creates significant learning for students, specifically in the field of leadership education. Theoretical frameworks in leadership education, experiential learning, and reflection support this concept.
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Intentional Creation of Environments

Situating instructional and experiential components of leadership education on a college campus is essential to creating strong environments for students to learn leadership. With such an interdisciplinary topic, students must understand leadership theory, develop leadership skills through practical application, and reflect upon their knowledge and experiences to learn and grow. In order to reach a diverse population of students, both accessibility and intentional curricular and co-curricular pedagogies need to be explored by both Student Affairs and Academic Affairs. Roberts (2007) advocates for collaborative efforts which are mutually beneficial and respectful. Streit, Dalton and Crosby (2009) suggest there are a variety of structured and unstructured interactions between Student Affairs and faculty members that enhance student learning. There are patterns which exist within the variety of interactions including: learning compacts, research, consultation, advising, committees/task forces, shared use of facilities/resources, and informal personal contacts. Many of these structured and unstructured environments contribute to students learning in significant ways. These opportunities for collaborations are the foundation in which a successful leadership education environment can be developed. With the idea of seamless learning anchoring an intentional environment; leadership knowledge and skill development, experiences which allow for practice of this learned knowledge, and reflection to make meaning of the gained knowledge and skills are all essential in rounding out this notion of an ideal leadership education environment. Kolb (1984) proposed through the experiential learning theory that students should be empowered to take responsibility for their own learning through active participation in structured and planned learning experiences. Conger (1992) suggests four primary approaches to leadership development. These four approaches include personal growth, conceptual understanding, development through feedback and skill building. We feel that in addition to the approaches of Kolb (1984) and Conger (1992), a seamless learning environment must be created to provide students with the opportunity to reach their full leadership potential. In addition to academic and student affairs partnerships, providing knowledge and skill development, opportunities for experience and reflection are also essential in building a successful leadership education environment. Knowledge and Skill Development For decades researchers have explored the multifaceted concept of leadership. Research studies have produced a variety of theoretical approaches that assist in explaining the complexities of this process. Some researchers conceptualize leadership as a trait (Stogdill, 1948) or as a behavior (Yammarino, 2000). Others have viewed leadership from a relationship standpoint (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995) or from a situational perspective (Blanchard 1985). It has been argued that leadership involves a more complex mix of skills including behavioral, social, and
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cognitive. This mix of skills may develop with various learning experiences at different rates (Day & Halpin, 2004). There have been many attempts to define leadership. Gardner (1990) stated that there are over a 100 definitions of the word leadership. Once we try to define the concept, we understand that leadership can have many different meanings (Northouse, 2007). Given the complex nature of the leadership process, providing developmental opportunities for education and sources of learning is a difficult task, especially in a way where students feel empowered to take responsibility for their own learning (Kolb, 1984). In essence, sources of learning are opportunities provided by educators to meet overall developmental objectives. While learning requires choice and action from a student, teaching requires extending an invitation to take a journey of development and exploration of new information and frameworks. Providing opportunities for learning such a complex, multifaceted concept leads educators to question how this best can be done. Experiences McCall (2004) suggests that the primary source of learning leadership is experience. For example, facing adversity, struggling with unfamiliar situations, exposure to different people, problem solving activities and hardships, and making mistakes are reported to be the most developmental types of experiences. Kolb (1984) introduced the experiential learning theory, which describes the process of making meaning from experiences. While experiencing adversity or difficult situations, the experience does not transition to learning unless meaning is made of that experience. Experiential learning theory defines learning as the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Knowledge results from the combination of grasping and transforming experience (p. 41). A growth-producing experience refers not only to a direct experience, but also to the total life experience which includes experiences of others (Kolb & Kolb, 2005). Kolb (1984) argues that learning from experience occurs in a cycle. Kolb proposes two ways one grasps an experience: by concrete experience and by abstract conceptualization; and two ways one deals with experience: reflective observation and active experimentation. Combining both concepts, the four areas of concrete experience, abstract conceptualization, reflective observation and active experimentation create the experiential cycle of learning. The experiential learning theory describes the source of learning, as well as a basis for developing and implementing leadership education. Reflection A critical piece in Kolbs experiential learning theory is reflective observation. Daudlin (1996) states Reflection is the process of stepping back from an experience to ponder, carefully and persistently, its meaning to the self through
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the development of inferences; learning is the creation of meaning from past or current events that serves as a guide for future behavior (p. 39). Chickering (2008) explained without critical reflection learning is not sustainable. Reflective opportunities that guide the meaning making process also assist in the growth of students identity, cognitive and moral development (Jones & Abes, 2004; Strain, 2005; Wang & Rodgers, 2006). Eyler, Giles, and Schmiede (1996) found that reflection needs to be continuous, connected, challenging and contextualized. Effective continuous self-dialogue and collaborative inquiry both involves reflection before, during and after an experience. Connected reflection emphasizes the importance of integrating the experience with theoretical learning. Challenging reflection pushes students to think in new ways and produce new understanding and methods of problemsolving. Contextualized reflection refers to situating the reflection in the particular context and setting.
Theory to Practice
In order to build a strong leadership model for students, an institution needs to consider its campus culture, identify the appropriate leadership content, and determine the best ways to teach and assess students leadership knowledge acquisition and skill development (Kuh, 1995). Understanding institutional context is an essential component that determines how to create programs which enhance students self knowledge and growth. In order to be successful, each institution should consider ways to involve both curricular and co-curricular experiences and how the campus culture will influence program design. To support this proposed idea of creating intentional environments for leadership education by focusing on Student Affairs and Academic Affairs partnerships which provide opportunities for knowledge acquisition, experiences and reflection, we have provided two brief examples. At Florida State University an 18-credit Undergraduate Certificate in Leadership Studies provides an intentional environment for students to focus on leadership education. The certificate is offered as a partnership between The Center for Leadership and Civic Education in the Division of Student Affairs and the Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies in the College of Education. Undergraduate students from all academic disciplines and years in college participate in this program. Leadership knowledge and skill development, as well as opportunities for experience and reflection are offered through a series of five core courses and one elective course. First, a foundation of theory is provided including courses on broad leadership theory, skills and theory around change leadership, and within the context of groups and communities. Once a foundation of theory is established, experiences are provided where theory can be practiced. Experiences may include preprofessional activities, community service, observation, research, or internship opportunities. Structured reflection is provided throughout each course using various methods including class discussions, journal writing, reflective essays,
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video blogging, and group presentations. By creating seamless education through both curricular and co-curricular programs, knowledge development, experiences and reflection, an environment where leadership learning can be fully explored is developed. At the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign the Illinois Leadership Center is also a partnership between Student Affairs and Academic Affairs. The Center engages students in a variety of curricular and co-curricular leadership development programs, workshops and courses. One specific example is the Leadership Certificate program. Unlike the program at Florida State University, Illinois Leadership Certificate program does not appear on students transcripts. Instead, students enroll in two elective leadership courses which are offered across disciplines; participate in four distinct one to three day leadership programs; two out-of-classroom group or team experiences; and, develop a personal development plan identifying two self-improvement goals. While the certificate program focuses learning around 11 skills and attributes, the personal development plan identifies two specific skills or attributes students are to focus on. Throughout the program students meet one-on-one with a leadership coach who assists the students in reaching their self-improvement goals. To cap their experience, students document their leadership development by compiling reflections in a leadership portfolio. The portfolio may take the form of physical documents or an electronic format such as a blog, presentation, or website. The development of the portfolio becomes an experience itself through reflection and the actual creation. Through this program students acquire leadership knowledge, work to develop leadership skills, and document growth through written reflection and active conversations with their leadership coach. These two institutions provide examples that intertwine leadership theory and reflection throughout a students experience providing stronger, more in depth learning for the student.
Conclusion
Strong partnerships between Student Affairs and Academic Affairs provide a seamless learning environment for students to gain high quality leadership experiences. Present in these partnerships are opportunities for leadership knowledge acquisition, practical application of leadership skills and knowledge, and reflection on the experiences in light of the education. Student experiences are strengthened and learning is deepened when institutions intentionally create environments that integrate theory, practice, and reflection.
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References
Chickering, A. W. (2008). Strengthening democracy and personal development through community engagement. New Directions in Adult and Continuing Education, 118, 87-95. Conger, J. (1992). Learning to lead: The art of transforming managers into leaders. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Daudelin, M. W. (1996). Learning from experience through reflection. Organizational Dynamics, 24(3), 36-48. Eyler, J., Giles, D. E., & Schmeide. (1996). A practitioners guide to reflection in service-learning: Student voices and reflections. A Technical Assistance Project funded by the Corporation for National Service. Nashville: Vanderbilt University. Day, D. V., & Halpin, S. M. (2004). Growing leaders for tomorrow: Anintroduction. In Leader development for transforming organizations: Growing leaders for tomorrow. D. V. Day, S. J. Zaccaro, & S. M. Halpin (Eds.), 3-22. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Gardner, J. (1990). On leadership. New York: The Free Press. Graen, G. B., & Uhl-Bien, M. (1995). Relationship-based approach to leadership: Development of leader-member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25 years: Applying a multi-level, multi-domain perspective. Leadership Quarterly, 6(2), 219-247. Jones, S. R., & Abes, E. S. (2004). Enduring influences of service-learning on college students identity development. Journal of College Student Development, 45(2), 149-166. Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Kolb, A. Y., & Kolb, D. A. (2005). Learning styles and learning spaces: Enhancing experiential learning in higher education. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 4(20), 193-212. Kuh, G. D. (1995). The other curriculum: Out-of-class experiences associated with student learning and personal development. Journal of Higher Education, 66(2), 123-155. McCall, M. W., Jr. (2004). Leadership development through experience. Academy of Management Executive, 18(3), 127- 130.
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Northouse, P. (2007). Leadership: Theory and practice (4th ed.). Sage: Thousand Oaks, CA: Roberts, D. C. (2007). Deeper learning in leadership: Helping college students find the potential within. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Stogdill, R. M. (1948). Personal factors associated with leadership: A survey of the literature. Journal of Psychology, 25, 35-71. Strain, C. R. (2005). Pedagogy and practice: Service-learning and students moral development. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 103, 61-72. Streit, M. R., Dalton, J. C, & Crosby, P. C. (2009). A Campus Audit of Student Affairs-Faculty Collaborations: From Contracts to Compacts. Journal of College & Character, 5, 1-15. Wang, Y., & Rodgers, R. (2006). Impact of service-learning and social justice education on college students cognitive development. NASPA Journal, 43(2), 316-337. Yammario, F. J. (2000). Leadership skills: Introduction and overview. Leadership Quarterly, 11(1), 155-170.
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Author Biographies
Kathy L. Guthrie is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies at Florida State University. In addition to teaching courses in Higher Education and Student Affairs, she is the coordinator of the Undergraduate Certificate in Leadership Studies. Sara Thompson is the Acting Director of the Illinois Leadership Center at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. She co-chairs the Academic Affairs/Student Affairs appointed Illinois Leadership Coordinating Committee and oversees the use of the Emotional Competency Inventory-University (ECI-U).
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Transformational Leadership and its Relationship to Adult 4-H Volunteers Sense of Empowerment in Youth Development Settings
Pamela Rose, Ph.D. Associate Professor in Youth Development Education Oregon State University/Marion County Extension Service 3180 Center Street, Room 1361 Salem, OR 97304 pamela.rose@oregonstate.edu
Abstract
This study examined the relationship of adult 4-H volunteers perceived leadership styles of 4-H Youth Development Educators to the adult 4-H volunteer sense of empowerment. There were 498 Oregon adult 4-H volunteers randomly selected to participate. Participants rated the leadership style of their 4-H Youth Development Educator (YDE) using Bass and Avoilios (1990) Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire and self assessed their sense of empowerment using Spreitzers (19915) Psychological Empowerment Instrument. In the structural model, transformational leadership style was shown to have a significant positive relationship (= 0.031) to adult 4-H volunteer sense of empowerment. The 4-H YDEs who were rated as using transformational leadership were very likely to be empowering adult 4-H volunteers.
Introduction
Cooperative Extension programs are in a state of transition in the 21st century. Due to the limitations of fiscal resources and rapid shifts in society within the economy and technology areas, Extension programs are asked to address more needs with fewer staff and resources. In order to address these issues, the Land Grant University Presidents and Chancellors stressed the importance of leadership development. They emphasized leadership is of vital importance to empower individuals and communities and that it should embrace characteristics of the transformational style (The Council of 1890 Presidents and Chancellors, 2000). Transformational leadership is found to be a strong predictor of leadership effectiveness (Judge & Piccolo, 2004; Lowe, Kroeck, & Sivasubramaniam, 1996). The relationship between transformational and transactional leadership styles and leadership effectiveness has been explored through research studies focused on Extension Administrators (Ali, 2005; Brown, et. al. 1996; Moore, 2003; Radhakrishna, Yoder & Baggett, 1994; Stumpf, 2003). Yet only four reports to date have tried to assess the transformational leadership styles of 4-H Youth
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Development professionals (Sinasky & Bruce, 2006; Stedman & Rudd, 2004; Stedman & Rudd, 2006; Woodrum & Safrit, 2003). To date studies have not explored the relationship of 4-H Youth Development Educators (YDE) leadership style to the experience of the volunteer leader. As an organization, the adult 4-H volunteer role is critical to the success of the 4-H program. Therefore, the relationship between the 4-H YDE and the 4-H adult volunteer as well as the leadership of the 4-H YDE to the 4-H adult volunteer would be critical. Is the leadership style utilized by 4-H youth development professionals truly empowering individuals, especially the 4-H volunteer leaders in their programs? No systematic studies have been conducted to substantiate researchers claims that use of a transformational leadership style by 4-H youth development professionals will correlate to a sense of empowerment of adult 4-H volunteers, especially as perceived by the volunteer leaders in the program. With a growing need for 4-H Youth Development professionals within the Cooperative Extension System to be transformative leaders in their programs and communities, it seems important to conduct research that can help enlighten both the leadership and 4-H youth development field in this arena.
Theoretical Framework
A comprehensive literature review of leadership theory, particularly transformational and transactional leadership theory and their relationship to empowerment theory formed the framework for this study. Leadership Style Transformational leadership theory has been the most frequently researched leadership theory over the last two decades. Transformational and transactional leadership theory was introduced by James MacGregor Burns (1978) in his seminal book, Leadership. Burns stated that transformational leadership occurs when one or more persons engage with others in such a way that leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of motivation and morality (p. 20). Several modifications to Burns conceptualizations of transformational and transactional theory were made by Bass (1985). The revised version of Bass (1990) work is referred to as the Full Range Leadership Model. According to Bass, this model delineates four dimensions of transformational leadership as follows: (a) Idealized influence refers to leaders behaving in an admirable manner, which engenders their followers to them and has them hold their leader in high regard; (b) Inspirational motivation refers to leaders motivating and inspiring followers through their strong vision, persuasive language, and optimistic enthusiasm; (c) Intellectual stimulation refers to leaders challenging assumptions and encouraging divergent thinking and creativity from their followers efforts; and, (d) Individualized consideration refers to leaders attending to the needs of followers.
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The three dimensions of transactional leadership are (a) Contingent reward refers to the exchange process between leaders and followers. The leader comes to an agreement with the follower over what needs to be done and what rewards will be exchanged for the follower doing it; (b) Management by exception active refers to the active role a leader plays in watching followers closely so that they can quickly take corrective action when the followers make mistakes or violate rules; and, (c) Management by exception passive refers to the passive role a leader takes in penalizing followers after standards have not been made. Each of the management by exception dimensions uses more negative reinforcement patterns. The model also includes a non-leadership dimension, laissez-faire leadership, which refers to the actual avoidance or absence of leadership. At the heart of the transformational leadership model is the idea that transformational leaders motivate their followers to commit to and to realize performance outcomes beyond their expectations. Bass (1985) argues that three leadership processes are involved in achieving these outcomes: (a) leaders raise followers levels of consciousness about the importance and value of outcomes and the means to achieve them, (b) leaders induce followers to transcend their own self-interest for the sake of the collective team or organization, and (c) leaders stimulate followers desire to address higher-level needs. Transactional leadership differs from transformational leadership in the fact that transactional leaders do not concern themselves with the individual needs of followers or their personal development. Transformational leadership produces greater effects than transactional leadership. While transactional leadership results in expected outcomes, transformational leadership results in performance that goes well beyond what is expected (Bass, 1985; Northouse, 2004; Yukl, 2006). This going beyond what is expected is related to the collaborative, collective action generated by transformational leadership which empowers those who participate in the process. This additive effect is illustrated in Figure 1. According to Conger and Kanungo (1988) and Jung, Chow, and Wu (2003), transformational leadership clearly provides empowering effects on followers. Transformational leadership style has also been found to be positively related to job satisfaction (Stumpf, 2003), leadership skill competency (Moore, 2003), attainment of funding (Ali, 2005), and volunteer administrative competency (Stedman & Rudd, 2005). For this study each of the constructs for transformational leadership style, transactional leadership style, and leadership outcomes were included in the model as latent variables. A latent variable is defined as a hypothetical variable formed by combining several related observed variables. According to Bass and Avolio (1990), the latent variable constructs for transformational leadership style include (a) idealized influence-attributed, (b) idealized influence-behavior, (c) inspirational motivation, (d) intellectual stimulation, and (e) individualized
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consideration. The latent variable constructs for transactional leadership style include (a) contingent reward, (b) management by exception active, (c) management by exception passive, and (d) laissez-faire leadership. Figure 1. The additive effect of transformational leadership __________________________________________________________________ Transformational Leadership __________________________________________________________ I I Idealized + Inspirational + Intellectual + Individualized Influence Motivation Stimulation Consideration I_________________________________________________________I Transactional Leadership Contingent Reward Expected Performance Outcomes Beyond + ManagementExpectations by-Exception __________________________________________________________________
Source: Northouse (2004). Leadership: Theory and Practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, p. 176. Adapted from The Implications of Transactional and Transformational Leadership for Individual, Team and Organizational Development, by B.M. Bass and B.J. Avolio, 1990a, Research in Organizational Change and Development, 4, 231-272.
Empowerment The psychological dimensions of empowerment form the context of this research study. Thomas and Velthouse (1990) operationalized empowerment in terms of intrinsic task motivation which has four cognitive components including (a) meaningfulness, (b) competence, (c) choice (self-determination), and (d) impact. Building on the theoretical framework of Thomas and Velthouse, research by Spreitzer (1995) proved that each of the four cognitions of empowerment are multi-faceted and cannot be separated. According to Spreitzer, the latent variable of empowerment as included in this study is measured by examining (a) meaning, (b) competence, (c) self-determination, and (d) impact. Meaning refers to the fit between work role requirements and a persons beliefs and values. Competence refers to ones capability and self-efficacy to perform work activities. Selfdetermination is a sense of choice in initiating ones actions. Impact is the degree to which one can influence outcomes.
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Purpose
This study was designed to fill a gap in the literature by looking at the relationship of 4-H YDEs leadership style to the experience of the adult 4-H volunteer leader. Informed by the literature review on transformational and transactional leadership theory, this study investigated the following research questions: What is the relationship between perceived 4-H YDE transformational leadership style and the adult 4-H volunteer sense of empowerment? What is the relationship between perceived 4-H YDE transactional leadership style and the adult 4-H volunteer sense of empowerment?
Methodology
Participants The target population for this study was the Oregon 4-H club adult volunteer enrolled in each respective county in the state as identified on the 2007-2008 database. Names were provided from 33 of the 36 counties and from the 4-H program on the Warm Springs Indian Reservation. A total of 3,517 volunteer names were provided. A simple random sampling method resulted in 498 Oregon adult 4-H volunteers being selected for the study. The data collection process utilized procedures outlined by Dillman (2000) for conducting research through mail questionnaires. There were 209 responses received for a 42% response rate. An extrapolation method (Armstrong and Overton, 1977) was used for estimating the response of non-respondents. An analysis of the first 30 respondents with the final 30 respondents indicated no significant differences between early and late respondents. Instruments The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) developed by Bass and Avolio (1990) was utilized to measure transformational/ transactional leadership style. The MLQ 5X instrument contains 45 statements that respondents must answer using a 5-level Likert scale. The scale options include: 0 (not at all); 1 (once in a while); 2 (sometimes); 3 (fairly often); and 4 (frequently, if not always). There are four individual statements for each of the nine leadership construct scales and an additional nine statements related to three outcome variable scales for a total of 12 measurement scales. The MLQ 5X has two forms: a leader form and a rater form. The leader form was designed to be completed by an individual to measure selfperceived leadership styles. The rater form was developed to be completed by individuals who are asked to measure the perception of the leadership styles of a designated leader. In this study adult 4-H volunteers completed the rater form on their respective 4-H YDE. For this research study the Cronbach Alpha Coefficient report reliabilities for each of the leadership constructs ranged from 0.56 to 0.86 and for each of the
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outcome variables of leadership ranging from 0.85 to 0.90. The construct with the lowest Cronbachs Alpha were Management-by-Exception Active (MBEA), =0.56 and Idealized Influence Behavior (IIB), =0.60. Due to its strength in convergent and discriminant validity testing of the four dimensions of empowerment, the Psychological Empowerment Instrument (PEI) developed by Spreitzer (1995) was utilized to measure empowerment. In the current study, the Cronbach Alpha reliabilities for the four empowerment scales are adequate (meaning=0.92; competence=0.91; self-determination=0.82, and impact=0.86). Statistical Analysis and Reliability Measurements The research used both descriptive and inferential statistical methods in answering the research questions. A combination of Statistical Package for Social Science SPPS 15.0 and Mplus 5.1 was used to run the structural equation modeling, including the necessary confirmatory and exploratory factor analysis. Structural equation modeling (SEM) examined the complex relationship among the latent variables of transformational leadership style, transactional leadership style, and empowerment. Preliminary analysis reported adequate Cronbach Alpha reliabilities as well as appropriate convergent and discriminant validity. The confirmatory factor analysis with the two leadership style factors revealed a modest fit (CFI=0.85) and the confirmatory factor analysis with the empowerment factors revealed an excellent fit (CFI=0.99).
Results
Transformational Leadership Style Research Question 1 The first research question of this study was: What is the relationship between perceived 4-H YDE transformational leadership style and the adult 4-H volunteer sense of empowerment? The analysis found a significant and positive relationship (=0.287, p < 0.05) between perceived 4-HYDE transformational leadership and adult 4-H volunteer sense of empowerment. 4-H YDEs who are rated as using transformational leadership are very likely to be empowering adult 4-H volunteers. This research study contributes to the literature by examining, for what appears to be the first time in research literature, the relationship of transformation leadership style and empowerment of volunteers. Most of the prior research on transformational leadership and/or empowerment has been conducted with top level or mid-level managers within an organization, particularly with paid staff. The current study demonstrates the role transformational leadership has for empowering followers within an organization who are volunteers. This research
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study indicates that there is a positive relationship between 4-H YDE staff who utilize transformational leadership and adult 4-H volunteer sense of empowerment. Empowerment of followers is one of the most important aspects of transformational leadership. If leaders have empowered their staff (paid or unpaid) to set goals and determine the strategies to achieve those goals towards the realization of the shared vision, this shows they have taken on the vision for themselves. The followers have made a commitment to and acted upon a shared vision. Empowered staff (paid or unpaid) feel valued by the organization. Transactional Leadership Style Research Question 2 The second research question studied was: What is the relationship between perceived 4-H YDE transactional leadership style and the adult 4-H volunteer sense of empowerment? In the analysis there was no significant relationship (=0.759, p > 0.05) found, either positive or negative, between perceived 4-H YDE transactional leadership style and the sense of empowerment of adult 4-H volunteer leaders. The monitoring, reward-based, status quo behaviors of the transactional leadership style did not relate to whether or not adult 4-H volunteers felt empowered. One reason for this may be that many of the monitoring behaviors used within the 4-H program may be seen as formalized institutional systems within the organization itself, such as rules and guidelines, enrollment processes, awards and recognition systems, and volunteer leader screening and training. These formalized systems may encourage and reinforce transactional behavior, but they may be perceived as separate from the 4-H YDEs personal leadership style. In part, because of this finding, the researcher also looked at the relationship between transformational leadership style and transactional leadership. In comparing transformational leadership style and transactional leadership style, a significant negative correlation was found (= -0.693, p > 0.001). This means that 4-H YDEs who were rated as using transformational leadership were also very likely not to use transactional leadership or vice versa such that 4-H YDEs who were rated as using transactional leadership were very likely not to use transformational leadership. A statistically significant, negative relationship between transformational and transactional leadership style is divergent from the findings supported in the literature. Bass (1985) asserts that transformational and transactional leadership styles are not mutually exclusive and that the best of leaders use behaviors of both styles. The findings by Spreitzer et al. (1999) lend support to Basss assertions adding that empowered leaders may be playing multiple or paradoxical roles reflecting both change orientated (transformational) and status quo orientated (transactional) behaviors. Studies by Sinasky and Bruce (2006) and Woodrum and Safrit (2003) reported that participants rated themselves as using both transformational and transactional leadership style.
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The findings in this research study suggest that adult 4-H volunteer perceive that 4-H YDEs using transformational leadership were likely not to use transactional leadership as well as those 4-H YDEs using transactional leadership were likely not to use transformational leadership. This study would put 4-H YDEs transformational and transactional leadership at different ends of the leadership style behavior spectrum supporting Burns (1978) claims about these leadership styles. This relationship can be referred to in Figure 2 where the path regressions coefficients are presented in the full model. Full Model The last step of the analysis was to test the final model with all variables included. The study included seven continuous latent variables, with 57 constructs used to measure the latent variables. The results yielded by the final model that was tested are presented in a graphic form in Figure 2 and in numeric form in Table 1. The results are also analyzed within the following paragraphs. Figure 2. Path regression coefficients for the full model of adult 4-H volunteer sense of empowerment
Transformational
0.287*
Leadership
-0.693***
Empowerment
-.0.045
Transactional Leadership
*p<0.05 **p<0.01 ***p<0.001
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Table 1. 4-H Volunteer empowerment structural model coefficients, standard errors and p-values Estimate Standardized Structural Model (coefficient) S.E. Estimate/S.E. p-value Empowerment on Transactional leadership -0.045 0.146 -0.307 0.759 Empowerment on Transformational leadership Transformational on Transactional leadership
0.287
0.133
2.151
0.031*
-0.693
0.045
-15.516
0.000***
* p<0.05 **p<0.01 ***p<0.001
Limitations
As with any scholarly study, there are limitations to the generalizability of this studys results. The first limitation that must be considered relates to the organization being studied. As this study was conducted within the Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension System, which is a unique organization in terms of its structure and function, the findings are not generalizable to other organizations. The Extension organization is unique as it is connected to the Land Grant University in each state across the country, but is also embedded in local communities where staff (both paid and unpaid) work in partnerships with businesses, community members, families, and young people to provide both educational programs and materials as well as conduct empirical and applied research. The second limitation which needs to be recognized is that this is not an experimental design research study so the results can not reflect causality, but it can illuminate the predictive power of the tested variables and their relationship.
Recommendations
The following recommendations are applicable to 4-H YDEs in Oregon, the broader Oregon State University Extension System, and those responsible for professional development opportunities for Extension Service faculty. The most appropriate recommendation is to implement strategies for assisting 4-H YDEs in becoming transformational leaders. A range of possible strategies include (a) building transformational leadership into the core competencies needed for 4-H YDE professionals, (b) creating on-line training modules to assist 4-H YDE gather the knowledge, skills and practices of transformational behavior, and (c) shifting our paradigm of preparation of 4-H YDE professionals to include leadership development as something that can be learned and needs to be provided to all professionals not just those in administrative roles. Lastly, it is also recommended that the Extension organization fully embrace the empowerment and transformational leadership constructs. A fuller understanding of these constructs and the dimensions which bring them to life could strengthen the 4-H
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program and organization when put into practice. Enhanced competencies in these areas can only contribute to the empowerment of volunteers who contribute and expand the efforts of the 4-H program.
Conclusion and Implications

Due to the limited fiscal resources and rapid shifts in society within the economy and technology, Cooperative Extension programs, and 4-H programs are in a state of transition. Now, more than ever, transformational leaders are needed to keep 4H youth development educational programs and systems more engaging, relevant, responsive, and moving forward. This study extends previous research on the empowering effect of transformation leadership (Conger & Kanungo, 1988; Jung, Chow, & Wu, 2003) by illuminating the role of transformational leadership and its influence on adult 4-H volunteer empowerment. This study found that 4-H volunteers feel a sense of empowerment in their role within the 4-H program. When adult 4-H volunteers perceived their 4-H YDEs using a transformational leadership style it significantly related to their sense of empowerment. Due to the significant connection found in this study between transformational leadership style and empowerment of volunteers, the implications for the Extension system is to assist 4-H YDEs in becoming adept at using the transformational leadership style or in essence becoming transformational leaders. The study attempted to bridge the gap of knowledge known about the relationship between the 4-H YDE and the 4-H adult volunteer as well as the leadership of the 4-H YDE to the 4-H adult volunteer. An increased understanding of the factors that contribute to adult 4-H volunteer sense of empowerment can enhance 4-H youth development programs when these factors are put into practice.
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References
Ali, R. (2005). An analysis of the degree of transformational leadership exhibited by administrators of 1862 and 1890 cooperative extension programs in states with both systems as a predictor for the attainment of state match in federal fiscal year 2004. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Marshall University, West Virginia. Armstrong, J. S., & Overton, T. S. (1977). Estimating nonresponse bias in mail surveys. Journal of Marketing Research, XIV (August 1977), 396-402. Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: The Free Press. Bass, B. M. (1990). From transactional to transformational leadership: Learning to share the vision. Organizational Dynamics, 18, 19-31. Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1990). Transformational leadership development: Manual for the multifactor leadership questionnaire. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Brown W., Birnstihl, E., & Wheeler, D. (1996). Leading without authority: An examination of the impact of transformational leadership cooperative extension work groups and teams. Journal of Extension, 34(5), Article 5FEA3. Retrieved April 10, 2007, from http://www.joe.org/joe/1996october/a3.php Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper & Row. Conger, J., & Kanungo, R. (1988). The empowerment process: Integrating theory and practice. Academy of Management Review, 13(3), 471-482. Council of 1890 Presidents and Chancellors (2000). 1890 Land Grant System A Strategic Plan. Washington, D C: National Association of State Universities and Land Grant Colleges. Dillman, D. A. (2000). Mail and internet surveys: The tailored design method. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Judge, T. A., & Piccolo, R. F. (2004). Transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analytic test of their relative validity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(5), 755-768. Jung, D. I., Chow, C., & Wu, A. (2003). The role of transformational leadership in enhancing organizational innovation: Hypothesis and some preliminary findings. The Leadership Quarterly, 14, 525-544.
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Lowe, K. B., Kroeck, K. G., & Sivasubramaniam, N. (1996). Effectiveness correlates of transformational and transactional leadership: A metaanalytic review of the MLQ literature. Leadership Quarterly, 7(3), 385425. Moore, L. L. (2003). Leadership in the cooperative extension system: An examination of leadership styles and skills of state directors and administrators. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Florida, Florida. Northouse, P. G. (2004). Leadership: Theory & practice. (3rd ed). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Radhakrishna, R., Yoder, E., &. Baggett, C.(1994). Leadership effectiveness of county Extension Directors. Journal of Extension, 32(2), Article 2RIB2. Retrieved May 11, 2007, from http://www.joe.org/joe/1994august/rb2.php Sinasky, M. E., & Bruce, J. A. (2006). Supervisors and 4-H youth development educators perceptions of the leadership practices employed by educators. Journal of Extension, 44(3), Article 3FEA6. Retrieved April 10, 2007, from http://www.joe.org/joe/2006june/a6.php Spreitzer, G. M. (1995). Psychological empowerment in the workplace: Dimensions, measurement, and validation. Academy of Management Journal, 38(5), 1442-1465. Spreitzer, G. M. (1996). Social structural characteristics of psychological empowerment. Academy of Management Journal, 39(2), 483-504. Spreitzer, G. M., DeJanasz, S. C., & Quinn, R. E. (1999). Empowered to lead: The role of psychological empowerment in leadership. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20, 511-526. Stedman, N., & Rudd, R. (2005). Volunteer administration leadership proficiency and leadership styles: Perceptions of southern region 4-H county faculty. Journal of Leadership Education, 4(2). Retrieved March 9, 2007 from http://www.leadershipeducators.org. Stedman, N., & Rudd, R. (2006). Leadership styles and volunteer administration competence: Perceptions of 4-H county faculty in the United States. Journal of Extension, 44(1). Article 1RIB6. Retrieved February 7, 2007, from http://www.joe.org/joe/2006february/rb6.php Stumpf, M. N. (2003). The relationship of perceived leadership styles of North Carolina County Extension Directors to job satisfaction of county
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extension professionals. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina. Thomas, K., & Velthouse, B. (1990). Cognitive elements of empowerment: An interpretive model of intrinsic task motivation. Academy of Management Review, 15(4), 666-681. Woodrum, W., & Safrit, D. R. (2003). Leadership practices of West Virginia University extension agents working with the 4-H youth development program. Journal of Extension, 41(3), Article 3RIB3. Retrieved March 9, 2007, from http://www.joe.org/joe/2003june/rb3.php Yukl, G. A. (2006). Leadership in organizations (6th ed). New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.
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Author Biography
Dr. Pamela Rose is an Associate Professor in the Youth Development Education Department at Oregon State University. She serves as the 4-H Youth Development Educator for Marion County in Salem, Oregon. Dr. Roses Doctorate in Teacher Leadership is from Oregon State University. Her research and programmatic interests include positive youth development, volunteer leadership, and the professional/leadership development of youth development professionals.
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Students Attitudes and Perceptions about the Use of Cooperative Exams in an Introductory Leadership Class
Lori L. Moore Assistant Professor Department of Agricultural Leadership, Education, and Communications Texas A&M University 2116 TAMU 143 Scoates Hall College Station, TX 77843-2116 (979) 845-1295 llmoore@tamu.edu
Abstract
This study sought to examine student perceptions related to the use of cooperative exams in an introductory leadership class. In this study, cooperative exams were used as a collaborative learning activity in which students took class exams individually first and then as a peer group. The majority of students (n=41, 61.4%) had not previously taken a class that incorporated cooperative exams. Four advantages of cooperative exams were identified: the opportunity for discussion to increase understanding, the opportunity to increase the overall grade on the exam, the opportunity for collaboration and teamwork, and increased individual accountability. Two disadvantages of cooperative exams were identified: the reliance of some students on the efforts of others and the conflict that can arise from peer pressure in the peer group portion of the exam. Overall, students enjoyed the cooperative exams and think they should continue to be used in the class.
Introduction and Theoretical Framework

Leadership educators are well aware of the fact that students entering our classrooms today are different than we were as students. Research shows that they are more team-oriented and are eager to learn in nontraditional ways (Nash, 2009). As Huber (2002) noted in the first issue of the Journal of Leadership Education, The goal of leadership education is to provide opportunities for people to learn the skills, attitudes, and concepts necessary to become effective leaders (p. 27). Much has been written about teaching methods and strategies used in leadership classrooms to accomplish this goal (Barbuto, 2006; Graham, Ackermann, & Maxwell, 2004; Graham, Sincoff, Baker, & Ackermann, 2003; Guenthner & Moore, 2005; Langone, 2004; Roberts, 2008; Williams, 2006). In fact, the Volume 7, Issue 2, Fall 2008 special issue of the Journal of Leadership Education focused on teaching leadership using popular media. Much has also
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been written evaluating the overall impact of leadership education courses and programs (Brungardt & Crawford, 1996; Sessa, Matos, & Hopkins, 2009; Tabke, 1999; Williams, Townsend, & Lindner, 2005). Despite such a commitment to describing strategies for teaching leadership and the assessment of leadership courses and programs, less emphasis has been placed on the use of classroom assessments as learning activities within the leadership classroom to help accomplish the goal of leadership education. The assessment of learning is a critical part of the teaching-learning process in any discipline. Assessments such as quizzes and tests, however, should be seen not only as an evaluation of learning, but as a learning activity as well. Cooperative exams can be used as both an assessment method as well as a type of collaborative learning activity and are seen by many students and teachers as a nontraditional learning activity. Zipp (2007) noted that cooperative exams not only enhance learning but also allow for the process and form of testing to become more closely linked to the process and form of teaching and learning (p. 62). As used in this study, cooperative exams were completed in two stages involving both individual and group components. Students completed exams first on their own. After turning in their individual answers, students re-took the exam as a group within a pre-assigned peer group. The majority of their grade on the exam (70%) was attributed to their individual responses while the remaining 30% came from their peer group responses. Students worked within the same peer group on the exams and other collaborative learning activities for the entire semester. Based on a review of several studies, Zipp summarized the potential benefits of cooperative exams because collectively they may reduce test anxiety and stress; by working together, students can build on each others strengths; collaboration may increase the motivation to learn; students may prepare more so as not to let down their peers; and discussion can help students think at higher levels and recall information better (p. 64). Two-stage cooperative exams have been successfully used in other disciplines (Eaton, 2009; Giuliodori, Lujan, & DiCarlo, 2009; Yuretich, Khan, Leckie, & Clement, 2001; Zipp, 2007), but have not been extensively studied within undergraduate leadership courses. In their study involving approximately 600 students per semester in Introductory Oceanography, Yuretich, Khan, Leckie, and Clement (2001) stated the cooperative exam format increased the value of the exams as a learning experience (p. 115). One student in their study was quoted stating the test format is terrific who would think you could learn something from taking a test (Yuretich, et al., 2001, p. 117). While some students in their study did report instances of changing their answers during the group part of the exam due to peer pressure, the researchers nonetheless reported 88% of 237 oceanography students believed that two-stage cooperative exams increased the amount they learned in the course (p. 116). Specific comments from students further supported this finding. Findings of their study led Yuretich et al. to conclude that cooperative exams increased the morale of students, provided an
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opportunity for discussion about the questions, and indicated long-term retention of class material. Some educators have become skeptical about the use of cooperative exams because of the possibility of low-achieving students benefiting from the knowledge and effort of high-performing students. Zipp (2007) identified freeriders as a potential problem associated with the use of cooperative exams. A study by Eaton (2009) showed that grades were better on the collaborative parts of cooperative exams than the individual parts. Findings of the study also revealed that all students whether low-achieving, middle-achieving, and high-achieving, benefitted from cooperative exams. Eaton stated, it is striking how at all three levels: lowest, middle and high-achieving students, the mean grades increase in the combined (individual plus collaborative) parts compared to the individual part alone (p. 118). Giuliodori, Lujan, and DiCarlo (2009) reported similar findings. These researchers found the positive effects of collaborative group testing to be much higher than the negative effects. They noted Importantly, both high- and low-performing students, when they are correct, can generally convince their peers with incorrect responses to change the correct responses. Thus, educators should not be concerned that low-performing students are carried by or defer to their high performing peers (p. 29). The theoretical framework for this study lies within models of cooperative learning. Cooperative learning is defined as a group of teaching strategies that provide structured roles for students while emphasizing social interaction (Eggen & Kauchak, 2001, p. 64). In essence, cooperative learning requires that students become active and responsible for their own learning (p. 65). Slavin (cited in Eggen & Kauchak, 2001) identified three essential components of cooperative learning: Group goals which help create a sense of community and encourage students to help each other. Individual accountability which requires each student within a cooperative learning group to demonstrate mastery of what is being taught. Equal opportunity for success which means that all students can expect to be recognized for their efforts.
The cooperative exam method incorporates these three essential components and provided the focus for this study.
Purpose
This study was conducted to examine student perceptions related to the use of cooperative exams in an introductory leadership class. Specific objectives of the study included: Describe participants in terms of selected demographics.
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Explore student attitudes and perceptions toward the use of cooperative exams in an introductory leadership class. Explore student perceptions related to advantages and disadvantages of cooperative exams.
Methodology
Population and Sample The population frame for this study included all students enrolled in ALED 201 Introduction to Leadership at Texas A&M University during the Fall 2009 semester. A total of 70 participants were included in the population frame. Instrumentation A single researcher-developed instrument was used to collect data for this study. The instrument consisted of two sections and a total of 29 questions. The first section, Part I, consisted of 23 questions and was designed to collect data related to student attitudes and perceptions about the use of cooperative exams in the introductory leadership class. The second section, Part II, consisted of six questions and was designed to gather demographic information. The instrument was reviewed by a panel of experts for content and face validity prior to data collection. Cronbachs Alpha is an appropriate method for estimating the internalconsistency reliability within a scale in Likert format (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2009). Cronbachs Alpha for the Likert-type questions on the instrument was conducted and the reliability was .76. Data Collection and Analysis In an effort to sample the entire population frame, instruments were administered by a third party at the end of the introductory leadership class after students had taken three exams using the two-stage cooperative exam model. Sixty-four anonymous instruments were completed for an overall response rate of 91.4%. Data for the first two objectives were analyzed using SPSS. To accomplish the first objective, descriptive statistics such as frequencies and percentages were used. To accomplish second objective, descriptive statistics such as frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations were used. Data for the third objective were collected using open-ended questions and were analyzed using deductive and inductive content analysis methods. According to Patton (2002), content analysis is used to refer to any qualitative deduction and sense making effort that takes a volume of qualitative data and attempts to identify core consistencies and meanings (p. 453). More specifically, content analysis is a technique that enables researchers to study human behavior in an indirect way, through an analysis of their communications (Fraenkel & Wallen,
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2009, p. 472). Content analysis, then, involves identifying, coding, categorizing, classifying, and labeling the primary patterns in the data (Patton, 2002, p. 463). Responses to the open-ended questions were reviewed by the researcher once to get a general sense of the data and again to be analyzed for content and coded (Creswell, 1998). This process was further described by Patton (2002), who stated, The first reading through the data is aimed at developing the coding categories or classification system. Then a new reading is done to actually start the formal coding in a systematic way (p. 463). Data from the responses were unitized such that only one idea was found within each unit of data (Erlandson, Harris, Skipper, & Allen, 1993). The recurring regularities found in the unitized data were sorted into categories and combined into topical themes by the researcher to reduce and generate meaning of the data collected (Creswell, 1998; Miles & Huberman, 1984; Patton, 2002). To categorize the codes, the researcher used preexisting themes that had been documented in the literature as well as themes that emerged from the data (Miles & Huberman, 1984). Fraenkel and Wallen (2009) identified two common methods of interpreting content analysis data: the use of frequencies and the percentage and/or proportion of particular occurrences to total occurrences and the use of codes and themes to help organize the content and arrive at a narrative description of the findings. This study employed both methods. Representative quotes from participants written in their own words are included in the findings. A peer debriefing was conducted to enhance the credibility of the study (Creswell, 2003; Erlandson, et al., 1993).
Findings
Objective 1 Objective one sought to describe participants in terms of selected demographics. The majority of students (n=41, 61.4%) had not taken a class that incorporated cooperative exams prior to the introductory leadership class. Over three-quarters (n=49, 76.6%) indicated that they were not at all apprehensive about the use of cooperative exams when they were first told it would be a part of the introductory leadership class. The 23.4% (n=15) who reported being apprehensive, were asked to rate their initial level of apprehension on a scale from 1 to 5 with 1=very little apprehension and 5=extremely apprehensive. Of the 15 students who reported being apprehensive, 46.7% (n=7) responded that their initial level of apprehension was 3, 26.7% (n=4) responded that their initial level of apprehension was 2, 13.3% (n=2) responded that their initial level of apprehension was 4, 13.3% (n=2) responded that their initial level of apprehension was 5, and no participant responded that their initial level of apprehension was 1. Fifty-nine of the 64 students responded to the question about being apprehensive to take another class that incorporated cooperative exams. The majority (n=49, 83.1%) responded that they would not be at all apprehensive if another class incorporated cooperative exams. The majority of students (n=63, 98.4%) indicated that there were
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advantages to the use of cooperative exams. However, over one-half (n=38, 59.4%) indicated that there were disadvantages to the use of cooperative exams. Objective 2 Objective two sought to explore student attitudes and perceptions toward the use of cooperative exams within the introductory leadership class. Table 1 shows mean scores for each statement related to the use of the cooperative exams. Mean scores indicated a level of agreement between Agree and Strongly Agree for three statements: I think cooperative exams should continue to be a part of this class (M=4.45, SD=0.71), I enjoyed the cooperative exam process (M=4.39, SD=0.73), and I felt accountable toward my peer group because of cooperative exams (M=4.23, SD=0.71). Mean scores indicated a level of agreement between Neither Agree nor Disagree and Agree for five statements: Overall, I felt as though members of my peer group put in as much effort to learn the material as I did (M=3.91, SD=1.11), Overall I did much better on the peer group test section of the tests in this class (M=3.84, SD=1.06), I learned more in this class because of the cooperative exam process (M=3.80, SD=0.91), I will retain more of the information I learned as a result of the cooperative exam process (M=3.69, SD=0.97), and Knowing I would be taking the tests with my peers, I studied MORE than I would have if I had not been taking the tests with my peers (M=3.23, SD=1.04). Mean scores indicated a level of agreement between Disagree and Neither Agree nor Disagree for three statements: I was frustrated when members of my peer group were absent on exam day (M=2.85, SD=1.21), Knowing I would be taking the tests with my peers, I studied LESS than I would have if had not been taking tests with my peers (M=2.20, SD=1.00), and I would have preferred to take only individual tests in this class (M=2.05, SD=0.90).
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Table 1 Student Attitudes and Perceptions About Cooperative Exams N M SD Min. Max. I think cooperative exams should continue 64 4.45 0.71 2 5 to be a part of this class. I enjoyed the cooperative exam process. 64 4.39 0.73 2 5 I felt accountable towards my peer group 64 4.23 0.71 2 5 because of cooperative exams. Overall, I felt as though members of my 64 3.91 1.11 1 5 peer group put in as much effort to learn the material as I did. Overall, I did better on the peer group test 64 3.84 1.06 1 5 section of the tests in this class. I learned more in this class because of the 64 3.80 0.91 2 5 cooperative exam process. I will retain more of the information I 64 3.69 0.97 1 5 learned as a result of the cooperative exam process. Knowing I would be taking the tests with 64 3.23 1.04 1 5 my peers, I studied MORE than I would have if I had not been taking the tests with my peers. I was frustrated when members of my peer 62 2.85 1.21 1 5 group were absent on exam day. Knowing I would be taking the tests with 64 2.20 1.00 1 5 my peers, I studied LESS than I would have if I had not been taking the tests with my peers. I would have preferred to take only 64 2.05 0.90 1 5 individual tests in this class. Note. Scale Values: 1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Neither Agree nor Disagree, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly Agree. Objective 3 Objective three sought to explore student perceptions related to advantages and disadvantages of cooperative exams. Sixty-three of the 64 participants (98.44%) responded to an open-ended question about advantages of the cooperative exams used in the introductory leadership class. Analysis of these responses revealed four major themes: the opportunity for discussion to increase understanding, the opportunity to increase the overall grade on the exam, the opportunity for collaboration and teamwork, and increased individual accountability. The primary advantage that students saw with the use of cooperative exams in the introductory leadership class is that they provided an opportunity for discussion to increase understanding of the leadership content included in the class. Student
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comments in this area emphasized the fact that cooperative exams provided the opportunity to discuss answers that they were not sure about. For example, one student wrote, Because it gets you thinking a different way if you got a different answer than your peer group, you can discuss it and have that ah-ha moment where something clicks that didnt before you were with the group (11). Another student wrote, To hear others explain their reasoning for their answer helps me learn the material. It puts things in other words than the book (31). Overall, 25 of the 63 participants (39.7%) who described advantages to cooperative exams included comments related to the opportunity for discussion to increase understanding. Students found the opportunity to increase their overall grade as another advantage of cooperative exams. Most of the comments in this area related to the perception that the collaborative section of the exam offered the opportunity to counteract poor performance on the individual section. For example, one student wrote, If you did not do well on the single part, the group part helped out a little (17). Similarly, another student wrote, When your peer group has prepared well, their help can raise your grade and you get a few more points (39). In all, 12 of the 63 participants (19.1%) who wrote comments about the advantages of cooperative exams referred to the fact that cooperative exams provided an opportunity to increase students final grades on the overall exam. Students also saw the opportunity for collaboration and teamwork as an advantage of cooperative exams. Comments in this area reflected students belief that the cooperative exams provided the opportunity to work together and receive input from each other. One student commented, Especially in a leadership class, it is nice to work in groups and get input from others (25). Similarly, another student wrote, It allows a group to collaborate and learn how to work as a team (20). Other student comments such as, It encourages working together (61) and Learning to work in group (58), further echoed these sentiments. Eight of the 63 participants (12.7%) who described advantages of cooperative exams made comments related to the opportunity for collaboration and teamwork. The final theme that emerged as an advantage of cooperative exams was that the process increased individual accountability. Comments in this area tended to emphasize the pressure students felt to not let the other members of their peer group down. One student wrote, It also makes you study more because you are responsible for not just your own grade but your peer groups as well (5). Another student commented, It creates accountability toward the other group members, therefore making you study more (15). Of the 63 participants who noted advantages to cooperative exams, seven participants (11.1%) made comments related to their perception that cooperative exams increased individual accountability. Thirty-eight of the 64 participants (59.4%) answered the open-ended question about disadvantages of the cooperative exams used in the introductory leadership
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class. Analysis of these responses revealed two themes: reliance of some students on the efforts of others and the conflict that can arise from peer pressure in the peer group portion of the exam. The primary theme that emerged as a disadvantage of cooperative exams used in an introductory leadership class was the reliance of some students on the efforts of other students. Most of the comments in this theme made reference to some students taking advantage of group members or getting the same grade. For example, one student commented, If you are the only one prepared, you are just helping others raise their grade while you get no benefit (39). Another student echoed this sentiment as evidenced by their comment, If someone in the group doesnt feel like studying and doesnt they can get the same grade as someone who devoted more time and effort (5). Of the 38 participants who noted disadvantages to cooperative exams, 24 participants (63.2%) described the reliance of some students on the efforts of others as a disadvantage of using cooperative exams in the introductory leadership class. Another theme that emerged from the open-ended question about perceived disadvantages of cooperative exams was the conflict that arose from peer pressure in the peer group portion of the exams. Comments in this area generally emphasized students feeling pressured to change their answers and the conflict that occurred as a result. One student wrote, The disadvantages is that peer testing causes conflict, its not extreme but 3 people may think B is the right answer and 3 may think D is the right answer. What to do then, there is no majority rule. We have to compromise or accommodate (9). Another student commented, The only disadvantage I can think of is the peer pressure piece. Often a group can have an overwhelming effect on the individual. Therefore leading you to put an answer you might not have put if you were by yourself (7). Nine of the 38 participants (23.7%) who identified disadvantages to using cooperative exams in the introductory leadership class made reference to the conflict that could arise from peer pressure within the group.
Conclusions and Implications

Overall, students were pleased that cooperative exams were incorporated into the introductory leadership class and felt they should continue to be used. More than half of the students (61.4%) had not taken a class that incorporated cooperative exams prior to taking this class. Yet over three-quarters (n=49, 75.6%) of the total number of participants reported that they would not be at all apprehensive if another class incorporated cooperative exams. Furthermore, students indicated that they would not have preferred to take only individual exams instead of the cooperative exams. While students did not agree or strongly agree, rather they reported a level of agreement between Neither Agree nor Disagree and Agree (M=3.80, SD=0.91), when asked if they felt as though they learned more in the class because of the cooperative exams, it is encouraging to note that no student
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strongly disagreed. Combined, these conclusions seem to support Nashs (2009) assertion that todays students are more team-oriented and are eager to lean in nontraditional ways. The use of cooperative exams caused students to feel more accountable to their peer group (M=4.23, SD=0.71) but did not necessarily cause students to study more for the exams (M=3.23, SD=1.04). It is surprising, however, that even though students felt accountable to their peer group, they did not indicate a high level of frustration with members of their peer group who were absent on exam day (M=2.85, SD=1.21). Additional research should be conducted to investigate the impact of group norms on the use of cooperative exams as both learning and assessment tools in undergraduate leadership courses. By analyzing the open-ended responses to questions about the advantages and disadvantages of cooperative exams, four advantages and two disadvantages were identified. The four advantages were: the opportunity for discussion to increase understanding, the opportunity to increase the overall grade on the exam, the opportunity for collaboration and teamwork, and increased individual accountability. Three of these advantages were similar to benefits of cooperative exams outlined by Zipp (2007). Similarly, Yuretich et al. (2001) concluded that cooperative exams provided an opportunity for discussion. The two disadvantages identified within this study were the reliance of some students on the efforts of others and the conflict that can arise from peer pressure in the peer group portion of the exam. Again, these disadvantages were consistent with the potential problems with using cooperative exams discussed by Zipp (2007), Yuretich et al. (2001), and Giuliodori et al. (2009). Zipp (2007) discussed the problem of freeriders that were also apparent in student comments in this study. Yuretich et al. (2001) and Giuliodori et al. (2009) both noted the potential for peer pressure but ultimately concluded that achievement data proved that instructors should not be overly concerned by the possibility of peer pressure. The findings in this study suggest that students in the introductory leadership course perceive the advantages and disadvantages of cooperative exams similarly to students in other disciplines. Overall, the advantages of cooperative exams appeared to outweigh the disadvantages according to the perceptions of students in this introductory leadership class. All but one of the 64 participants (98.44%) indicated that there were advantages to the use of cooperative exams; yet, only 38 participants (n=59.4%) indicated disadvantages of cooperative exams. Furthermore, four themes emerged as advantages to cooperative exams while only two themes emerged as disadvantages. One of the disadvantages of cooperative exams that emerged in this study was the opportunity for some students who did not study for the exam to rely on the efforts of other members of their peer group who did not study. Almost two-thirds (63.16%) of the students who commented on the disadvantages of cooperative exams, 37.50% of the total number of participants, made comments that related to
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this theme. However, it should be noted that the scoring method used in this class (70% individual score, 30% peer group score) appeared to reduce the effect of this disadvantage. Several students noted the impact of the scoring method on the degree to which students could rely on other students. For example, one student wrote, Sometimes others will slack off, trusting someone else will know the answers. BUT, with the 70/30 ratio/percentage, that pushes slackers to actually study (2). Similarly, another student commented, Everyone in the group has to study. If people dont study betting on the group to carry them it hurts. But the weighted percentages takes care of that (45). While these students initially referred to the potential for some students to take advantage of others, one of the two disadvantages of cooperative exams identified in this study, further comments from some of the students showed this to not be a significant factor in the cooperative exam process. Instructors using cooperative exams should ensure that the distribution of points places enough emphasis on the group portion so that students can reap the benefits of the cooperative learning aspect of the exam while at the same time placing enough emphasis on the individual portion to ensure that students will be held accountable for their own learning. This study focused solely on the perceptions of students related to the use of cooperative exams in an introductory leadership class. Further research should be conducted within undergraduate leadership courses using cooperative exams that documents student achievement and retention of class content.
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References
Barbuto, J. E. (2006). Dramaturgical teaching in the leadership classroom: taking experiential learning to the next level. Journal of Leadership Education, 5(2), 4-13. Brungardt, C., & Crawford, C. B. (1996). A comprehensive approach to assessing leadership students and program: Preliminary findings. The Journal of Leadership Studies, 3(10), 37-48. Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Eaton, T. T. (2009). Engaging students and evaluating learning progress using collaborative exams in introductory courses. Journal of Geoscience Education, 57(2), 113-120. Eggen, P. D., & Kauchak, D. P. (2001). Strategies for teachers: Teaching content and thinking skills (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Erlandson, D. A., Harris, E. L., Skipper, B. L., & Allen, S. D. (1993). Doing naturalistic inquiry: A guide to methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Fraenkel, J. R., & Wallen, N. E. (2009). How to design and evaluate research in education (7th ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill Higher Education. Giuliodori, M. J., Lujan, H. L., & DiCarlo, S. E. (2009). Student interaction characteristics during collaborative group testing. Advances in Physiology Education, 33(1), 24-29. Graham, T. S., Ackermann, J. C., & Maxwell, K. K. (2004). Reel leadership II: Getting emotional at the movies. Journal of Leadership Education, 3(3), 44-57. Graham, T. S., Sincoff, M. Z., Baker, B., & Ackermann, J. C. (2003). Reel leadership: Hollywood takes the leadership challenge. Journal of Leadership Education, 2(2), 37-45. Guenthner, J. F., & Moore, L. L. (2005). Role playing as a leadership development tool. Journal of Leadership Education, 4(2), 59-66.
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Huber, N. S. (2002). Approaching leadership education in the new millennium. Journal of Leadership Education, 1(1), 25-34. Langone, C. A. (2004). The use of a citizen leader model for teaching strategic leadership. Journal of Leadership Education, 3(1), 82-88. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1984). Qualitative data analysis: A sourcebook of new methods. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications. Nash, R. J. (2009, March-April). Crossover pedagogy: The collaborative search for meaning. About Campus, 14(1), 2-9. Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluations methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Roberts, C. (2008). Developing future leaders: The role of reflection in the classroom. Journal of Leadership Education, 7(1), 116-130. Sessa, V. I., Matos, C., & Hopkins, C. A. (2009). Evaluating a college leadership course: What do students learn in a leadership course with a servicelearning component and how deeply do they learn it? Journal of Leadership Education, 7(3), 167-200. Tabke, J. J. (1999). Leadership skills and attitudes of collegiate leaders enrolled in an academic leadership class. Unpublished masters thesis, Texas A&M University, College Station. Williams, J. R. (2006). Pirates and power: What Captain Jack Sparrow, his friends, and his foes can teach us about power bases. Journal of Leadership Education, 5(2), 60-68. Williams, J. R., Townsend, C. D., & Lindner, J. R. (2005). Teaching leadership: Do students remember and utilize the concepts we teach? Journal of Leadership Education, 4(1), 62-74. Yuretich, R. F., Khan, S. A., Leckie, R. M., & Clement, J. J. (2001). Activelearning methods to improve student performance and scientific interest in a large introductory oceanography class. Journal of Geoscience Education, 49(2), 111-119. Zipp, J. F. (2007). Learning by exams: The impact of two-stage cooperative tests. Teaching Sociology, 35(1), 62-76.
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Author Biography
Lori Moore is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Agricultural Leadership, Education, and Communications at Texas A&M University. She teaches undergraduate and graduate leadership classes and is the co-coordinator for the university-wide Leadership Living Learning Community (L3C). Her primary research interests are in the area of collegiate leadership programming.
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The Effects of Teaching Methods in Leadership Knowledge Retention: An Experimental Design of Lecture, Experiential, and Public Pedagogy
Jennifer Williams, Ph.D. Texas A&M University dr.jen@tamu.edu Megan McClure, MAL University of Georgia mcclurem@tamu.edu
Abstract
Finding an effective teaching methodology for leadership educators is daunting. In this experimental study undergraduate leadership students retention of knowledge was tested after receiving leadership instruction via lecture, experiential learning, and public pedagogy. Results show lecture is an inferior method of teaching leadership while public pedagogy had effective and consistent results.
Introduction
Teachers of leadership face the difficult task of explaining abstract concepts and ideas to students. The lecture method has long since failed these educators as an effective way to present their information (Halpern, 2000). Therefore, exploring the efficacy of a variety of teaching methods for leadership educators is important due to the potential to determine best practices for classroom delivery. Popular culture surrounds us in the form of mass media and social interaction. This constant exposure to cultural expression has the ability to teach its consumers, whether they are aware of it or not, through non-formal learning. When non-formal learning from popular culture can, and does, occur daily within the lives of adults, it might be a natural progression to move the site of learning into a formal environment (Callahan & Rosser, 2007). Adult educators have recognized the potential for popular culture to impact education and are subsequently utilizing it as a teaching method. More specifically, leadership educators have established the use of popular media in the classroom in an effort to assist students in learning complex concepts such as leadership theory. This utilization of popular media in the classroom relies on the ability of popular culture to act as an educational tool, which is considered public pedagogy (Giroux, 2000).
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Educators wishing to maintain the full attention of students, particularly those educators teaching subjects that have nebulous concepts such as leadership, may be interested in new instruction methods. Due to the lack of historical precedence regarding the best method for teaching leadership, further exploration of new teaching methods is required. Public pedagogy is one such new teaching method and has not been researched to determine its effectiveness when applied to leadership. For this study a static-group comparison design was utilized to test the knowledge retention of three sections of ALDR 3900 Leadership and Service students on the Kouzes and Posner (2007) leadership practice of Challenge the Process. The content was delivered to the students via lecture, experiential learning, or public pedagogy design.
Review of Literature
Educators and researchers have repeatedly acknowledged the drawbacks of teaching with a strict lecture format. This format has been referred to as a method resulting in long periods of uninterrupted teacher-centered, expository discourse which relegates students to the role of passive spectators in the college classroom (Cooper, Prescott, Cook, Smith, Mueck, & Cuseo, 1990, p. 1). Having students serve as passive spectators in the classroom may encourage a drop in attention and decreases their retention of knowledge. Young, Robinson, and Alberts (2009) found that the drop in attention is avoided when presentation is varied, though this is not necessarily associated with interactive participation techniques (p. 41). The incorporation of popular culture into presentations provides for a variety in lecture and does not require interactive participation, thus serving as a viable way to avoid a drop in attention. Popular Culture Recognizing the influence of popular culture in our own lives is the first step to harnessing its educational potential (Thompson, 2007, p. 83). What exactly is popular culture? A variety of meanings exist, but Lulls (as cited in Rogers, 2002) definition is the most applicable to this research: commercially successful, mainstream, mass mediated cultural artifacts and personalities (p. 190). These cultural artifacts include newspapers, books, the Internet, music and movies, all which serve to entertain and educate us. The effects of such entertaining and educating gives rise to two views on popular culture and its use for society. One view of popular culture insists that it is a space where learners are taught hegemonic ways of being in the world (Wright & Sandlin, 2009, p. 126). This view, based on Antonio Gramscis (1971) idea of hegemony, casts popular culture in a negative light due to its influence on consumers. While it is acknowledged that popular culture can have a negative impact on consumers and critical media literacy is suggested, this view is beyond the focus of the proposed research.
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A second, and more applicable, view of popular culture is as a tool to promote learning in the classroom because it is deemed a way to connect with adult learners (Wright & Sandlin, 2009, p. 125). Considering the previously mentioned cultural artifacts and their application to learning has generated the idea of public pedagogy (Giroux, 2000), or education that occurs informally and incidentally (Wright & Sandlin, 2009). Giroux (1992) has found popular culture can help create meaning and aid in the construction of knowledge, whether the consumer is aware of the act of learning or not. Non-formal Learning Learning happens daily, whether through formal or non-formal applications. Non-formal learning, also called incidental learning, can happen through activities that are unplanned and informal (Foley, 2001). This non-formal learning can happen daily and through a variety of activities. Kamis, Muhamad, Junoh, Asmuni, and Idris (2005) found that 94% of adults in Malaysia participated in non-formal learning by watching television, video, and film. Such a high rate of non-formal learning supports Fieldhouses (1995) assertion that it is arguable that broadcasting has been the major adult education agency of the twentieth century (p. 81). Certainly the popularity of television has increased the occurrence of non-formal education, particularly through the demand for, and support of, television channels that serve to educate while they entertain. In a study of women who watched the British television show The Avengers, Wright (2006) found multiple instances of non-formal learning. Additionally, Coles and Armstrong (2007) note that historical films and television are shows popular in the United Kingdom where not one, but two history channels are offered to television watchers. Similarly, a quick look through the types of channels offered in the United States such as Food Network, Discovery Channel, National Geographic Channel, and Science Channel also would support the idea that non-formal education is occurring while audiences are being entertained. Non-formal learning also takes place via other popular culture media as found by Jarvis (2000). In a case study conducted throughout a cultural studies course examining popular romance books, Jarvis found [v]ery few women chose escapism as their reason for reading and were much more likely to say that they read in order to learn more about people and the world (2000, p. 198). This non-formal learning via popular media also occurs through film as cinema assumes a pedagogical role in the lives of many people (Hooks as cited in Rogers, 2002, p. 2). Adult Education Knowles, Holton, and Swanson (1998) assert that adults learning is increasingly self-directed as they mature. This self-directed education occurs via popular
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media (Kamis, Muhamad, Junoh, Asmuni, & Idris, 2005; Jarvis, 2000). Wright and Sandlin (2009) posit that educators must recognize and use the power pop culture wields in the lives of adult learners if they are to fulfill a meaningful role in the education of adults (p. 126). Teaching with popular media may help students determine meaning of the material because concentration on words alone is not enoughno single code can be successfully studied or fully understood in isolation (Hodge & Kress, 1988, p. vii). Wright (2007) builds upon Knowles, Holton, and Swanson (1998) finding educators should connect to the learning that occurs outside of the classroom to help learners make sense of their experiences. Educators who do not reflect on their personal engagement with popular culture may find themselves ineffective in facilitating learning because they are too far removed from the lived experiences of the adults they seek to instruct (Wright & Sandlin, 2009, p. 124). Educators who utilized public pedagogy found that students were able to critically analyze topics seen within the popular media (Marshall, 2001), and became more critically conscious (Jarvis, 2000). Wrights (2007) findings that a popular British television show from the 1960s informally educated viewers lead her to determine that [e]ducators in all disciplines can benefit from incorporating popular culture into their teaching (p. 70).
Theoretical Frame
The concept of public pedagogy is a variation of the Kolb (1984) experiential learning model and the notion of constructivism in education. The theoretical framework of this study is a combination of Kolbs experiential learning model and Deweys (1938) theory of authenticity in constructivist education. Basing his work on Piaget and Dewey, Kolb describes four steps in the experimental learning cycle. Figure 1.1 denotes Kolbs model. Figure 1.1 Kolbs Model of Experiential Learning. Concrete Experience
Testing implications of concepts in new situations Formation of abstract concepts and generalization
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Observations and Reflections
Kolb defines concrete experience as a here-and-now incident in which the learner has full involvement. The observation and reflection stage is where the learner reflects on the experiences from multiple perspectives. In the formation of abstract concepts and generalization stage, students integrate theoretical concepts into their actions. The final stage of Kolbs model, testing implications of new concepts in new situations, encourages students to utilize new theories to make decisions and problem solve (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 1998). Svinicki and Dixon (1987) note Kolbs model integrated into the collegiate classroom has been shown to increase students retention of material. Constructivism stresses all knowledge is context bound, and individuals make personal meaning of their learning experiences (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson 1998, p. 142). Dewey (1938) stresses the importance of not only contextualizing material, but assuring the contextual frame is familiar to the student. Public pedagogy is a pedogological tool which not only contextualizes theories and concepts for the student, but also allows the student to be guided through the Kolb cycle.
Methods
Hypothesis H0: There is no difference in the rate of knowledge retention between students taught the leadership behavior of Challenge the Process using lecture, experiential learning, or pubic pedagogy. Population and Sample The population of this study consists of all students at The University of Georgia enrolled in ALDR 3900, Leadership and Service (n=70). Students were enrolled in three sections of ALDR 3900 on the Athens campus. They represented the sophomore, junior, and senior classes. Subject selection was made by randomly assigning each section of ALDR 3900 taught during the Fall of 2009. One of three teaching methods was used in each section including lecture, experiential learning, or pubic pedagogy. Section A had an enrollment of 18, section B had an enrollment of 20, and section C had an enrolment of 32. Instrumentation Researchers developed the instrument utilizing Challenge the Process (Kouzes & Posner, 2007) material as a basis. Eight questions consisting of six multiple choice and two fill-in-the blank were developed using the sub-constructs highlighted by Kouzes and Posner as essential learning in both the Leadership Challenge (4th ed.) and the Student Leadership Challenge (2008). The instrument was sent to a panel of experts to test face validity.
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Design A static-group comparison design was utilized for this study with the groups consisting of the three sections of ALDR 3900 (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2008). Traditional lecture was treated as the control group while experiential learning and public pedagogy methods were treated as the experimental groups. To lessen experimental bias, the researchers were not the instructor of record for any class sections in the experiment. Section A was randomly selected to receive the contextual information of Challenge the Process via pubic pedagogy. Popular media clips including the music video for Here it Goes Again by Ok Go, a College Sports TV story on a deaf NCAA football player, and a Nike commercial featuring Michael Jordan were infused into the base power point to illustrate conceptual points. Discussions on iPods vs. Zunes, different symbols of change, and examples of Challenge the Process seen on campus were discussed to aid in their assimilation of content to popular culture. Section B was randomly selected to receive the contextual information of Challenge the Process via traditional lecture. A base power point was created to teach the two main conceptual points of Kouzes and Posners Commitment 5 (a) search for opportunities and (b) experiment and take risks. In addintion, the five sub points of (a) seize the initiative, (b) exercise outsight, (c) treat every job as an adventure, (d) question the status quo, and (e) send everyone shopping for ideas were used in the study (Kouzes & Posner, 2007). Section C was randomly selected to receive the contextual information of Challenge the Process via experiential learning. The base power point lecture was used and two experiential activities were added. The Kolb (1984) model of experiential learning was used to process the activities. Students were asked to tell, pair and share an example of change they have been a part of, and role-played the childrens book The Little Engine that Could. The instrument was given to students post instruction as a closed note, closed text quiz by the researcher. Two weeks after the initial experiment, the regular instructor gave the students the instrument again. Four weeks after the initial experiment, the instrument was given a third time to the students by the instructor. Table 1 shows the number of students participating in the treatments and subsequent quizzes.
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Table 1. Participation in quizzes Method Group A Group B Group C Quiz 1 15 13 25 Quiz 2 12 16 19 Quiz 3 13 12 24
Analysis Due to absences of the students over the period of experimentation, 38 students were present in class to take all three quizzes (54% retention rate). Data was entered into the Statistical Package for Social Sciences 18.0 and means were calculated and compared to delineate differences between and among the treatments. Mean differentiation and summation was chosen as the proper statistical methodology due to the low n for this study.
Findings
The null hypothesis of this study postulated there is no difference in the rate of knowledge retention between students taught the leadership behavior of Challenge the Process using lecture, experiential learning, or pubic pedagogy. A comparison of the quizzes using descriptive analysis showed a difference between mean scores between treatments. An analysis of summated means showed differences in the mean scores. By both measures, the null hypothesis is rejected. Retention of Material Quiz 1 After each class period, students were given the first of three quizzes (instruments). Table 2 shows the descriptive results. Section A, public pedagogy, had the highest mean (76.39), Section C, experiential, had the second highest mean (73.33), and Section B, lecture, had the lowest mean (62.50). It is interesting to note the range between public pedagogy and traditional lecture.
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Quiz 2 Two weeks after the experiential treatment, the quiz (instrument) was given to the students by the instructor of record. Table 3 shows the descriptive results. Again, section A, public pedagogy, had the highest mean (73.61), Section C, experiential, Table 3. Quiz 2 Scores M SD Min Max Mdn Quiz 2 Section A (n=9) Section B (n=9) 73.61 47.22 15.87 24.83 50.00 12.50 87.50 87.50 75.00 50.00
Section C (n=15) 67.50 22.56 12.50 100.00 62.50 had the second highest mean (67.50), and Section B, lecture, had the lowest mean (47.22). There was more than a 30 point range between public pedagogy and traditional lecture. Quiz 3 Four weeks after the experiential treatment, the quiz (instrument) was given to the students by the instructor of record. Table 4 shows the descriptive results. Section C, experiential learning, had the highest mean (76.67) followed closely by Section A, public pedagogy, (73.61) and 30 points lower was Section B, lecture, (48.61). Table 4. Quiz 3 Scores M Quiz 3 Section A (n=9) Section B (n=9) 73.61 48.61 15.87 23.75 37.50 12.50 87.50 87.50 75.00 50.00 SD Min Max Mdn
Section C (n=15) 76.67 19.40 25.00 100.00 75.00 It should be noted Section C had completed a test two days prior to the third quiz which may account for the increase in mean between the second and third quiz. Teaching Methods Table 2. Quiz 1 Scores M Quiz 1 Section A (n=9) Section B (n=9) Section C (n=15) 76.39 62.50 73.33 11.60 17.68 19.97
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SD
Min 62.50 37.50 37.50
Max 87.50 87.50 100.00
Mdn 75.00 62.50 75.00
Analysis of the summated means of the three treatments and the three quizzes compared to the grand mean resulted in a discrepancy between public pedagogy and experiential learning and lecture. Public pedagogys summated mean of 74.54 and experiential learnings summated mean of 72.50 was above the grand mean of 67.68, while the summated mean of traditional lecture fell below the grand mean with a value of 51.04. Table 5 shows the differences between the summated means and grand mean. Table 5. Section A B C All Grand M 74.54 51.04 72.50 67.68 SD 14.10 22.60 20.60 21.50
Conclusions/Implications
A main component of leadership development is education (Brungardt, 1996). As more colleges and universities continue to add collegiate leadership theory and application courses, it becomes more imperative for pedagogy of teaching leadership to be studied (Williams, Townsend & Lindner, 2005). In this study three teaching methods including lecture, experiential learning, and public pedagogy were tested to determine the difference in student learning and content retention. Faculty has a direct impact on the learning of their students. Dewey (2006) states that if the habits of the teacher are so narrow and fixed, his imagination and sympathies so limited, his own intellectual horizon so bounded, he brings [ideas] to bear in a wrong way (p. 549). Faculty must be open to modifying their teaching methods. For the millennial student it is not easy for experienced instructors to recognize that the way they were taught and the way they have taught is not effective (Taylor, 2006, p. 251). The findings of the study showed knowledge retention was highest and most consistent over time for the students who received their information via public pedagogy. This supports the findings of Jarvis (2000), Marshall (2001), and Wright (2007) who found students engaged more in the curriculum when public
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pedagogy methods were used. Kamis et al. (2005) noted that for adult learners engagement equals knowledge retention. It can also be concluded that traditional lecture utilizing only slides with key information on them is ineffective in the knowledge gain and retention of the leadership practice, Challenge the Process. The dramatic decrease in mean scores for Section B between the first quiz and the subsequent quizzes show a severe lack of retention of the material. This finding supports the work of Young, et al. (2009) who found lack of engagement brought on by students being passive spectators in the classroom led to decreased retention in material. The summated mean scores of Section B being lower than the grand mean also shows it is an inferior way of teaching Challenge the Process. It can be concluded public pedagogy and experiential learning are more effective ways of teaching Challenge the Process, with public pedagogy slightly more consistent and effective. This supports the work of Champoux (2005) who concluded that supplementing lectures with verbal and visual material enhances the learning of the student. If this study is generalized, the implications for leadership educators are simple: lecture is ineffective. Understanding the teaching methodologies of public pedagogy and experiential learning are paramount in students learning of leadership. To test this implication, more research should be conducted. Repeating this study on a larger scale, repeating with different leadership content, and looking at the use of public pedagogy with other adult learners will strengthen and add to the results of this study. As leadership education moves forward, connecting leadership theory to students everyday world is imperative in the role of leadership educators.
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References
Brungardt, C. (1996). The making of leaders: A review of the research in leadership development and education. The Journal of Leadership Studies, 3(3), 81-95. Callahan, J. L., & Rosser, M. H. (2007). Pop goes the program: Using popular culture artifacts to educate leaders. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 9(2), 269-287. Callahan, J. L., Whitener, J. K., & Sandlin, J. A. (2007). The art of creating leaders: Popular culture artifacts as pathways for development. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 9(2), 146-165. Champoux, J. E. (2005). Comparative analyses of live-action and animated film remake scenes: Finding alternative film-based teaching resources. Educational Media International, 42(1), 49-69. Coles, J., & Armstrong, P. (2007). Dumbing down history through popular culture: Communities of interest or learning as consumption. Proceedings of the 37th Annual Standing Conference on University Teaching and Research in the Education of Adults, Queens University, Belfast, Northern Ireland. Cooper, J., Prescott, S., Cook, L., Smith, L., Mueck, R., & Cuseo, J. (1990). Cooperative learning and college instruction: Effective use of student learning teams. Long Beach, CA: California State University Foundation. Dewey, J. (2006). Individuality and experience (1926). In Forgotten Heroes of American Education, p. 589-594. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: Macmillan. Fieldhouse, R. (1995). Historical perspectives on future developments and th diversity in British adult education. Proceedings of the 25 Annual Standing Conference on University Teaching and Research in the Education of Adults, University of Southampton, Winchester, England. Foley, G. (2001). Radical adult education and learning. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 20(1/2), 71-88.
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Franenkel, J. R., & Wallen, N. E. (2008). How to design and evaluate research in th education (7 ed). Boston: McGraw-Hill. Giroux, H. (1992). Border crossings: Cultural workers and the politics of education. New York: Routledge. Giroux, H. (2000). Public pedagogy as cultural politics: Stuart Hall and the crisis of culture. Cultural Studies, 14(2), 341-360. Gramsci, A. (1971). Selections from the prison notebooks. New York: International Publishers. Halpern, D. F. (2000, March). Creating Cooperative Learning Environments. APS Observer, p. 14-15, 29-31. Hodge, R, & Kress, G. (1988). Social semiotics. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Jarvis, C. (2000). Researching adult learners reading histories and practices. st Proceedings of the 41 Annual Adult Education Research Conference (p. 196-200), University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. Kamis, M., Muhamad, M., Junoh, A. M., Asmuni, A., & Idris, K. (2005). Informal learning in Malaysia. Proceedings of the 46th Annual Adult Education Research Conference, University of Georgia, Athens. Knowles, M. S., Holton III, E. F., & Swanson, R. A. (1998). The adult learner (5 ed). Houston: Gulf. Kolb, D. A., (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood-Cliffs, CA: Prentice-Hall. Kouzes, J., & Posner, B. (2007). The leadership challenge, (4 ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Kouzes, J., & Posner, B. (2008). The student leadership challenge: Five practices for exemplary leaders. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Lull, J. (1995). Media, communication, culture: A global approach. New York: Columbia University Press.
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Marshall, D. M. (2001). Thinking outside the box: Using popular culture to stimulate a critical thinking process. Unpublished master of education thesis. University of Alaska, Anchorage. Rogers, E. E. (2002). Waiting to exhale: African American women and adult learning through movies. Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Adult Education Research Conference (p. 327-332), North Carolina State University, Raleigh. Svinicki, M. D., & Dixon, N. M. (1987). The Kolb model modified for classroom activities. College Teaching, 35(4) 141-146. Taylor, M. L. (2006). Generation next comes to college: 2006 updates and emerging issues. Self-study and Institutional Improvement, 2(2), 248-255. Thompson, P. M. (2007). The influence of popular culture and entertainment media on adult education. In E. J. Tisdell & P. M. Thompson (Eds.), New directions for adult and continuing education: No. 115. Popular culture and entertainment media in adult education (p. 83-90). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Williams, J. R., Townsend, C. D., & Lindner, J. (2005). Teaching leadership: Do students remember and utilize the concepts we teach? Journal of Leadership Education, 4(1), 66-78. Wright, R. R. (2006). Popular culture, cult TV, and gender resistance: Informal learning from primetime feminism. Proceedings of the 36th Annual Standing Conference on University Teaching and Research in the Education of Adults (p. 449-464), All Saints College, Leeds, United Kingdom. Wright, R. R. (2007). The Avengers, public pedagogy, and the development of British women's consciousness. In E. J. Tisdell & P. M. Thompson (Eds.), New directions in adult and continuing education: No. 115. Popular culture and adult education (p. 63-73). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Wright, R. R., & Sandlin, J. A. (2009). Cult TV, hip hop, shape-shifters, and vampire slayers: A review of the literature at the intersection of adult education and popular culture. Adult Education Quarterly, 59(2), 118-141. Young, M., Robinson, S., & Albert, P. (2009). Students pay attention! Combating
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the vigilance decrement to improve learning during lectures. Active Learning in Higher Education, 10(1), 41-55.
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Author Biographies
Jennifer Williams is an Assistant Professor in Agricultural Leadership, Education, and Communications at Texas A&M. She teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in leadership theory and application. Megan McClure is a graduate student at The University of Georgia in the Department of Agricultural Leadership, Education, and Communication where she is pursuing her Master of Agricultural Leadership degree.
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Impact of Group Development Knowledge on Students Perceived Importance and Confidence of Group Work Skills
Natalie Coers, M.A.L. University of Georgia natalie.coers@gmail.com Jennifer Williams, Ph.D. Texas A&M University dr.jen@tamu.edu With acknowledgements to: Dennis Duncan, Ph.D. University of Georgia dwd@uga.edu
Abstract
This study explored the impact of emphasis on the group development process on the perceived importance of and confidence in group work skills and students perception of group work use in the collegiate classroom as developed by Tuckman and Jensen (1977). The purposive sample utilized in this study included 33 undergraduate students enrolled in an introductory leadership and service course at a southern, land-grant institution. Knowledge of the group development process enhances a students perceived importance and confidence in group work skills. The emphasis on group development process also positively impacted students perception of group work being utilized in the collegiate classroom. The importance of group work skills continues to be reflective of the demand from employers; therefore, educators must continue to develop these transferable skills in todays students. Although relevant across disciplines, leadership educators should take a leading role in developing such skills in students.
Introduction
Expectations of todays college graduates continue to emphasize leadership and experience, as top entry-level positions carry high standards for students regarding strong transferable skills to be competitive. Employers desire job candidates to have polished communication skills, leadership skills, teamwork
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skills, initiative, interpersonal and social networking skills, problem solving skills and analytical skills, among others (NACE, 2010). We, as leadership educators recognize the importance of leadership coursework and programming to prepare students to enter society, but the majority of educators who did not study pedogological methods in their graduate work are unaware of the importance of incorporating effective group work into courses. Mu and Gnyawali (2003) emphasize the crucial step development of effective team work skills with all walks of people is to career success. Blackwell, Cummins, Townsend, and Cummings (2007) note the numerous formal and informal opportunities available at universities to enable students to connect experience and theory in the educational setting. Educators across many disciplines choose to incorporate group projects or other forms of collaborative or team-based learning in an effort to create formal group experiences for transferable skill development. Ricketts, Bruce, and Ewing (2008) express a key benefit of including group projects in core classes is the development of team building skills; however, the authors emphasize that students may be missing an important connection between developing team building skills in the classroom environment and their transferability to the workplace. Cassidy (2006) stresses the presumption that employers deem academic institutions responsible for preparing students in such skills needed for the workplace. By focusing leadership education, as well as other disciplines on the proper development of group work skills, a safe environment is offered for students to practice these social and communication skills while applying course concepts (Haberyan, 2007). Employability skills are interdisciplinary and relevant for any level of position desired; the acquisition of such skills if influenced in academia by many factors, including an instructors personal characteristics and teaching methods, as well as student involvement (Cassidy, 2006). Hassanien (2007) noted that students are aware of the frequency group work is being utilized throughout higher education, and view it as a crucial component of their studies because teamwork is an essential employability requirement (p. 145). Collaboration is needed in the organizational context, thus it is essential that students today receive the knowledge and transferable skills needed for success in various careers. Student Perceptions of Group Work Opportunities for students to gain group work experience in the collegiate classroom with a lack of direction from instructors has lead to frustration and a mix of student perceptions regarding the use of group work in the classroom. Based on prior experiences, many students groan at the thought of another group project experience where one individual carries the weight of the work and the group struggles to find a common time to meet, which leads to frustration and friction among the group (Butts, 2000). Although the benefits of collaborative
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learning are evident, Bolton (1999) notes that student satisfaction with group work experiences in the classroom is less than that of the faculty designers. Mu and Gnyawali (2003) emphasize the lack of guidance through the group development process or knowledge of how to effectively work together in a group with other students a skill necessary to fulfill a complex team assignment. Group Work Skill Development Hirst, Mann, Bain, Pirola-Merlo, and Richver (2004) emphasize the disconnect between leadership learning and behavior, suggesting that experiential learning may enable students to develop group work skill in a timely manner focused on the process and long-term development of skills, rather than short training courses on the job. The importance of understanding the process of group development a process that needs to be learned and developed over time is evident in the shifting focus on group work within the university setting (Baskin, et al., 2005). Students should be aware of the stages of group development, and fully understand the depth of the group project at hand (Davis, 1993). Ultimately, students need training to be effective and successful at group work (Hassenien, 2007; McGraw & Tidwell, 2001). McKendall (2000) also notes that while students gained a wealth of experience in group work, no class or instruction was focused on effective group work for a simple lack of time on behalf of the instructor to even introduce the process of group development or tips for working in a group. Cooperative Learning Cooperative learning encourages the development of skills, such as working with a diverse array of students, that individual assignments do not offer (Bobbitt, Inks, Kemp, and Mayo, 2000). A dual purpose is also served when group projects are based in service-learning. Formal and informal experiences provide opportunities to determine the most effective means of achieving student acquisition of careeroriented skills within higher education. Astin and Astin (1999) note the role of university faculty to influence and carry out research and practice of believed effective methodologies or approaches to leadership education. Extensive research has been conducted on the methods of cooperative learning in the classroom, its benefits, and the role of the instructor in facilitating cooperative learning (Colbeck, Campbell, & Bjorklund, 2000; Hassanien, 2007; Cottell & Millis, 1993; Cooper, Prescott, Cook, Smith, Mueck, & Cuseo, 1990; Kreie, Headrick, & Steiner, 2007; Haberyan, 2007; Halpern, 2000). A minimal but increasing amount of research has been conducted on student perceptions of group work in the collegiate classroom (Payne & Monk-Turner, 2006; Rassuli & Manzer, 2005; Pauli, Mohiyeddini, Bray, Michie, & Street, 2008; Coers &
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Lorensen, 2009). However, there is a void within the research of how group development process knowledge impacts a students experience with collaborative learning or group work in the collegiate classroom. While many leadership educators utilize group work effectively, this pedagogy is increasingly being utilized across disciplines where instructors may not understand the importance of process knowledge to the student experience with group work. The purpose of this study is to determine the impact of Tuckman & Jensens (1977) model of group development process through the following research objective and questions. 1. Describe identified demographic characteristics, including gender, academic status, and previous group work experience. 2. Does knowledge of the Tuckman & Jensen (1977) theory of group development process impact student importance in group work skills? 3. Does knowledge of the Tuckman & Jensen (1977) theory of group development process impact student rating of confidence of group work skills? 4. Does knowledge of the Tuckman & Jensen (1977) theory of group development process impact student perception of group work in the collegiate classroom? Group projects are utilized in numerous college courses today, many without providing direction on group development to students. Instructors may assume students understand the basic tenants of working collaboratively with their peers on an assignment, and not considering scheduling difficulties among student group members and potentially multiple class projects. By examining the impact of Tuckman & Jensens (1977) theory of group development process on student perception of group work in the collegiate classroom, confidence in group work skills, and perceived importance of group work skills, the researcher will determine the role of such knowledge to the practice of using group projects in the college classroom. The implications of such data could transform the manner in which instructors utilize group projects in the collegiate classroom to develop transferable skills.
Conceptual Framework
The Tuckman & Jensen (1977) model of group development provided the conceptual framework of this study. From Tuckmans (1965) review, four stages of group development were identified: (a) forming, where group members orient with the task and interpersonal boundaries, (b) storming, marked by conflict around interpersonal issues and resistance to task requirements, (c) norming, distinguished by role adoption and cohesiveness, and (d) performing, which is
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established by the influence of built interpersonal relationships on the task performance. Tuckman and Jensen (1977) added the adjourning stage to signify the conclusion of the group development process. Fall and Wejnert (2005) noted that creating a unified, common language for the description and analysis of group dynamics contributed greatly to the understanding of group work (p. 324325). The forming-storming-norming-performing-adjourning model is appealing due to its rhyming stages for easy recall, the comfort of conflict viewed as a natural stage to the process of development and lead to norms in a group, and performance of the task.
Methodology
This study utilized a true experimental, posttest only control group design to determine the impact an emphasis on group development theory (Tuckman & Jensen, 1977) may or may not have on a students perceived importance and confidence in group work skills, and perception of group work in the classroom setting. The control group consisting of 16 undergraduate students received the group service project assignment as well as a one-hour lecture on the process of group development identified by Tuckman and Jensen. The experimental group of this study consisted of 17 undergraduate students. These students received the group service project assignment, a full class period (approximately three hours) lecture and application brief on the process of group development identified by Tuckman and Jensen. In addition to the extended lecture time and application, experimental group students also completed a mid-semester reflection paper on the group development process. A purposive sample was utilized for student participant selection, as data was collected from two sections of an introductory, undergraduate leadership course help during the short, summer semesters. The population of this study included 33 undergraduate students at (University) who were enrolled in the 2009 summer semester course entitled Introduction to Leadership and Service. The control group included undergraduate students enrolled in the May semester course (three weeks in length, daily meetings), and the experimental group included undergraduate students enrolled in the July semester of the course. A purposive sample was utilized for student participant selection due to the nature of the leadership course which included a groups and teams content area, as well as an established service-learning group work component. The number of students participating in this generative study is statistically low due to the course enrollment numbers and the timeframe for the study.
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Instrumentation The instrumentation utilized in this study was the Core Group Work Skills Inventory Importance and Confidence (CGWSI-IC). The instrument consists of 27 items, each matched to one of the Association of Specialists in Group Work (ASGW) training standards. Wilson & Newmeyer (2007) noted the scaling of the instrument, which includes a four-point summative scale rating for each dimension; the importance scale ranged from very unimportant to very important and the confidence scale ranged from very unconfident to very confident. A before section was added for this study to create a post-then analysis of the importance and confidence factors of the survey, and four constructs developed from the instruments 27 statements (Table 1). Five of the instruments original statements were disregarded for data analysis because the statements did not pertain to the context of group work discussed in this study. The disregarded items included statements 3, 12, 16, 23, and 27 which addressed self-disclosure and disclosure of opinions or feelings in a group work setting. As identified by Wilson and Newmeyer (2007), the primary measure of validity for the instrument was determined by analyzing the relationship between the scales of importance and confidence; a strong correlation was reported (r = .62, p<.01). The reliability for each construct developed within the items of the Core Group Work Skills Inventory Importance and Confidence was tested using Chronbachs alpha. Davis (1971) identified a scaling of significance to describe the relationship among items which emphasized a Chronbachs alpha greater than 0.7 as very high, and 0.5-0.69 as substantial. Table 2 displays the results of Chronbachs alpha test regarding the CGWSI-IC; three areas were identified with substantial reliability and all other areas of the developed constructs indicated very high reliability.
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Table 1 Core Group Work Skills Inventory Importance and Confidence, Constructs Construct and Corresponding Items Group Process 9. Identifies group process 13. Responds empathically to group process themes 14. Keeps a group on task 19. Assesses group functioning 26. Contributes to evaluation activities during group processing Collaboration 8. Works cooperatively with a co-leader 10. Works collaboratively with group members 11. Encourages participation of group members 15. Requests information from group members 17. Provides information to group members Group Development 5. Seeks good fit between group plans and group member's life context 6. Gives feedback to group members 7. Requests feedback from group members 20. Identifies personal characteristics of individual members of the group Leadership 1. Evidence ethical practice in group membership or leadership 2. Evidences best practices in group membership or leadership 4. Develops a plan for group leadership activities 21. Develops hypotheses about the behavior of group members 22. Develops overarching purpose and sets goals/objectives for the group, as well as methods for determining outcomes 24. Conducts evaluation of one's leadership style 25. Engages in self-evaluation of personally selected performance goals
CGWSI-IC: Copyright 2007 by F. Robert Wilson, Mark D. Newmeyer, Lynn S. Rapin, and Robert K. Conyne, University of Cincinnati.
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Table 2 Reliability of Developed Constructs (N=33) Chronbachs Construct Items Group Process Before 9,13,14,19,26 .732 Importance After 9,13,14,19,26 .663 Importance Before 9,13,14,19,26 .762 Confidence After 9,13,14,19,26 .666 Confidence Collaboration Before 8,10,11,15,17 .790 Importance After 8,10,11,15,17 .736 Importance Before 8,10,11,15,17 .736 Confidence After 8,10,11,15,17 .724 Confidence Group Development Before 5,6,7,20 .783 Importance After 5,6,7,20 .740 Importance Before 5,6,7,20 .732 Confidence After 5,6,7,20 .690 Confidence Leadership Before 1,2,4,21,22,24,25 .807 Importance After 1,2,4,21,22,24,25 .756 Importance Before 1,2,4,21,22,24,25 .860 Confidence
M 16.0606 18.2121 15.9394 18.0303
SD 3.102 2.043 3.020 2.114
Min./Max. 5/20 5/20 5/20 5/20
17.3939 18.9091 16.9394 18.5758
2.904 1.843 2.512 1.985
5/20 5/20 5/20 5/20
12.3939 14.3333 11.9091 14.0909
2.957 2.189 2.832 2.156
4/16 4/16 4/16 4/16
22.2121 25.1212 21.6970
4.121 2.987 4.469
7/28 7/28 7/28
After Confidence
1,2,4,21,22,24,25 .802
25.1212
3.248
7/28
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Findings & Implications Demographic information for the student participants of this study describes the similarities between the control and experimental groups of the purposive sample chosen for this study. The participants gender and academic status within each group are displayed in Table 3 below.
Table 3 Gender and Academic Status
Category Control Group (n=16) Gender Academic Status
Demographic Male Female Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior Other
f 11 5 0 1 5 10 0 8 9 0 9 3 4 1
P 68.7 31.3 0 6.2 31.3 62.5 0 47.1 52.9 0 52.9 17.7 23.5 5.9
Experimental Group (n=17) Gender Male Female Academic Status Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior Other
Participants reported previous group work experiences (external) according to four categories: athletics, professional organizations, sororities, or fraternities, student organizations, or other specified means (Table 4). Experience gained through external group work scenarios within student organizations, professional organizations, athletics, or other means provides additional avenues for engagement in collaborative work to enable further application of course material and develop skills applicable for employment (Astin & Astin, 2000).
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Table 4 Previous Group Work Experience
Category Control Group (n=16) External
Demographic Athletics Professional organization, sorority, or fraternity Student organization Other (Job) Course related to my major General education course Elective course
f 14 7 9 1 9 6 12 14 6 7 1 11 9 15
P 87.5 43.8 56.3 6.3 56.3 37.5 75.0 82.4 35.3 41.2 5.9 64.7 52.9 88.2
Classroom
Experimental Group (n=17) External Athletics Professional organization, sorority, or fraternity Student organization Other (Church) Classroom Course related to my major General education Elective course
Students also responded with the nature of any previous classroom group experience through courses in three categories: course related to my major, general education course, or elective course (Table 4). The inclusion of group work experiences in courses throughout the university emphasizes the interdisciplinary relevance for group work and leadership skill development, and reiterates the notion that group activities offer one of the richest opportunities for transferable skill development in the college classroom (Astin & Astin, 2000). Participants also indicated the number of group work projects completed in academic courses prior to this course, with options ranging from one to five and over (Table 5). Notably, the majority of students within both the control and experimental groups indicated over five courses with group work. The frequency of group work being utilized in the collegiate classroom as reported by participants suggests alignment with the belief that group work is increasingly being used to meet growing demands of industry for leadership and group work skills in employees (Colbeck, et al., 2000; Siciliano, 2001; Hassanien, 2007).
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Table 5 Frequency of Prior Classes Including Group Work Experience
Group Control Group (n=16)
Experimental Group (n=17)
Number of Courses 1 2 3 4 5+ 1 2 3 4 5+
f 0 1 1 5 9 0 1 2 2 12
P 0 6.3 6.3 31.3 56.3 0 5.9 11.8 11.8 70.6
Participants indicated enjoyment levels of group work in the classroom, which were reported according to four options: never, seldom, sometimes, or always (Table 6). The variation in enjoyment levels of group work may be related to each students previous experience with group work in the classroom in dealing with the common issues that plague groups, including social loafing, scheduling challenges, and personality differences among group members (Colbeck, et al., 2000; Pauli, et al., 2008; Levi, 2007). This also may be influenced by instructors who lack the pedogological background in facilitating group activities.
Table 6 Group Work Experience Enjoyment
Category Control Group (n=16)
Experimental Group (n=17)
Demographic Never Seldom Sometimes Always Never Seldom Sometimes Always
f 0 4 6 6 0 2 10 5
P 0 25.0 37.5 37.5 0 11.8 58.8 29.4
Results of paired t-tests for developed constructs of the Core Group Work Skills Inventory Importance and Confidence, with focus on the importance scale of the instrument were reported. Participants rated themselves on items related to each construct on a summative rating scale from one to four (1=very unimportant, 2=unimportant, 3=important, and 4=very important). For the control group (Table
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7), a strong, significant improvement in participants perceived importance from before the course to after the course was indicated in all constructs (t >2). For the experimental group (Table 8), significant improvement in participants perceived importance from before the course to after the course was indicated in all constructs (t >2).
Table 7 Paired t-tests, Importance scale, Control (n=16) Paired Construct T Group Process 4.096 Collaboration 3.294 Group Development 3.721 Leadership 4.081 Table 8 Paired t-tests, Importance scale, Experimental (n=17) Paired Construct T Group Process 3.396 Collaboration 2.537 Group Development 3.099 Leadership 3.891
Sig. (2-tailed) .001 .005 .002 .001
Sig. (2-tailed) .004 .022 .007 .001
A comparative analysis of the growth in importance from before the course to after the course in each construct between the control and experimental groups was reported. Summated means for each construct and the corresponding standard deviation are based upon the participants self-reported rating on items related to each construct on a summative importance rating scale from one to four (1=very unimportant, 2=unimportant, 3=important, and 4=very important). Reported means and standard deviations resulted from the calculated differences of before and after scores, summated for each construct identified by the researcher (Table 9). Independent t-tests were conducted to determine the significance in change regarding perceived importance of group work skills. With p >.05 in all four constructs, equal variances were assumed. All four constructs indicate t <2, which indicates no significant difference between the control and experimental groups.
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Table 9 Comparative Construct Growth - Importance
Construct
Control (n=16) M 2.19 SD 2.14
Experimental (n=17) M 2.12 SD 2.57
p*
Group .085 .933 Process Collaboration 1.88 2.28 1.17 1.91 .957 .346 Group 2.38 2.55 1.53 2.03 1.06 .299 Development Leadership 3.19 3.12 2.65 2.81 .524 .604 Note: 1=very unimportant, 2=unimportant, 3=important, and 4=very important * Equal variances assumed, (p >.05) The significant improvement in both the control and experimental groups of this study suggests the positive impact that pairing group development knowledge with group work in the classroom on students understanding of the importance of group work skills. However, the comparative analysis indicates no significance in change between the control and experimental groups of this study. Colbeck, Campbell, and Bjorklund (2000) provided insight through their qualitative analysis of student experiences with group work, stressing that students may appreciate such skill development if faculty stress its importance and relevance to their future endeavors. This may imply that it is not the amount of emphasis placed on the group development process, but rather the inclusion of such knowledge that impacts a students understanding of the importance of developing such skills for their future career. The results of paired t-tests for developed constructs of the Core Group Work Skills Inventory Importance and Confidence, with focus on the confidence scale of the instrument were reported. Participants rated themselves on items related to each construct on a summative rating scale from one to four (1=very unconfident, 2=unconfident, 3=confident, and 4=very confident). For the control group (Table 10), a strong, significant improvement in participants perceived confidence in group work skills from before the course to after the course was indicated in all constructs (t >2). The confidence scale for the Leadership construct represents the strongest improvement (t=5.578) for the control group.
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Table 10 Paired t-tests, Confidence scale, Control (n=16) Paired Construct T Group Process 5.222 Collaboration 3.337 Group Development 4.200 Leadership 5.578
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .004 .001 .001
For the experimental group (Table 11) significant improvement in participants perceived confidence in group work skills from before the course to after the course was reported in all constructs (t >2). The confidence scale for the Leadership construct represents the strongest improvement (t=4.654) for the control group.
Table 11 Paired t-tests, Confidence scale, Experimental (n=17) Paired Construct T Group Process 3.822 Collaboration 3.225 Group Development 3.453 Leadership 4.654
Sig. (2-tailed) .002 .005 .003 .000
A comparative analysis of the growth in confidence from before the course to after the course in each construct between the control and experimental groups was conducted (Table 12). Summated means for each construct and the corresponding standard deviation are based upon the participants self-reported rating on items related to each construct on a summative importance rating scale from one to four (1=very unconfident, 2=unconfident, 3=confident, and 4=very confident). Reported means and standard deviations resulted from the calculated differences of before and after scores, summated for each construct identified by the researcher. Independent t-tests were conducted to determine the significance in change regarding perceived importance of group work skills. With p >.05 in all four constructs, equal variances were assumed. All four constructs indicate t <2, which indicates no significant difference between the control and experimental groups.
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Table 12 Comparative Construct Growth - Confidence
Construct
Control (n=16) M 2.13 SD 1.63
Experimental (n=17) M 2.06 SD 2.22
Group .097 .923 Process Collaboration 1.88 2.25 1.41 1.81 .655 .517 Group 2.63 2.50 1.76 2.11 1.07 .292 Development Leadership 4.31 3.09 2.59 2.29 1.83 .077 Note: 1=very unconfident, 2=unconfident, 3=confident, and 4=very confident * Equal variances assumed, (p >.05) The significant improvement in both the control and experimental groups of this study suggests the positive impact that pairing group development knowledge with group work in the classroom on students confidence in group work skills. However, the comparative analysis indicates no significance in change between the control and experimental groups of this study. Effective instructor guidance for students participating in group projects can also improve confidence in performing the group work skills necessary to have an enjoyable group work experience (Colbeck, et al., 2000; Siciliano, 2001). Prior group work experiences, such as those gained through student involvement in organizations or athletics, may also increase a students confidence in group work skills when instructor facilitation of cooperative learning lacks direction regarding the group development process (Colbeck, et al., 2000). This may imply that it is not the amount of emphasis placed on the group development process, but rather the inclusion of such knowledge that impacts a students confidence in applying such skills and knowledge in group work scenarios. The demographic question regarding participants perception (positive or negative) of group work in the classroom setting before and after the course was reported (Table 13). The results of this study indicate a positive improvement in perception of group work in the college classroom, as also indicated by Coers and Lorensen (2009). Student understanding of group development impacts the group experience; thus, ensuring faculty are aware of group development knowledge and including group development knowledge in the college classroom where group work is being utilized are imperative steps toward developing group work skills and creating a positive student group work experience (Baskin, et al., 2005; Gillies, 2003; Butts. 2000; Coers & Lorensen, 2009).
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Table 13 Student Perception of Group Work in the Classroom Setting, Control Group (n=16)
Time Before After
Perception Positive Negative Positive Negative
f 11 5 15 1
P 68.8 31.2 93.8 6.2
Conclusions and Recommendations

There is an emergent trend towards utilizing teams and cooperative learning in the college classroom. This trend can be attributed to stimuli provided by prospective employers of students, students themselves, cooperative learning educators, and accrediting agencies (Colbeck, Campbell, & Bjorklund, 2000). The results of this study show it is important for students to understand there is a process of team development, and if this process is followed correctly, better perceptions of teamwork and better products are a result. This is an important finding for leadership educators. As many of us use team projects as assimilation of course material and application, we may not be cognizant of team development and the importance of students understanding team development processes. It can also be concluded, for this sample, that quantity is not always synonymous with quality when in regards to team projects. A large determination of team success and true cooperative learning lies with the instructor. The facilitation of teams by instructors is essential, but in many classes, team projects are assigned and the only guidance given by the instructor is good luck. Regrettably, [instructors] have been less vigorous in [their] efforts to provide students with the concrete support and systematic guidance they need to effectively navigate their team-based assignments (Bolton, 1999, p.233). Instructors have been socialized to believe that [their] primary job is to teach content, and someone else should be responsible for the process (Bolton, p. 235). But, as teams and cooperative learning become more utilized as teaching techniques in the college classroom, the need for instructors across disciplines to understand the intricacies of team learning increases. Because of this, the following recommendations are designed to offer insight to group work in the leadership education classroom and continue to provide experience for developing group work skills that will transfer to students careers: University educators choosing to utilize group work in the classroom setting should be trained on the group development process and
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include such instruction to their students prior to assigning group work projects. Given the different contexts of the original surveys purpose, a survey relating specifically to components of the group development process and skills desired for employees should be developed and tested. Additional research should be conducted relating to various group work pedagogies. Research regarding the relationship between the amount of support and structure given to students by instructors for a group work assignment and a students perception, believed importance, and confidence in group work skills. Further research should be conducted to include courses that do not include group process knowledge with group work assignments to determine the full impact of group process knowledge inclusion regarding a students perception, believed importance and confidence in group work skills. Research pertaining to the use of service-learning as a means to group work skill development to both benefit the student in transferable skill development, as well as the community being served through the project. This study should be replicated to include more participants for generalizability.
An over-reliance on the lecture method in higher education [has led to students to become] passive spectators in the college classroom (Cooper, Prescott, Cook, Smith, & Mueck, 1990, p. 1). Guidance, resources, and support are three elements that successful teams receive from their supervisor (Beck & Yeager, 1996). As this study shows, it is becoming increasingly important to educate instructors on cooperative learning facilitation techniques because often, instructors simply lack the time or knowledge to prepare students properly for group activities (King & Behnke, 2005, p. 58). The over-reliance on pedagogical teaching methods, such as lectures, leads some instructors to simply put students into groups and then tell them to work together. As leadership educators, with the knowledge of group development as well as educational methods, it is imperative we share this knowledge with others at our universities.
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References
Astin, A. W., & Astin, H. S. (2000). Leadership reconsidered: Engaging higher education in social change. Battle Creek, MI: W. K. Kellogg Foundation. Baskin, C., Barker, M., & Woods, P. (2005). When group work leaves the classroom does group skills development also go out the window? British Journal of Educational Technology, 36(1), 19-31. Beck, J. D., & Yeager, N. M. (1996). How to prevent teams from failing. Quality Progress, 29(3), 27-31. Blackwell, C., Cummins, R., Townsend, C. D., and Cummings, S. (2007). Assessing perceived student leadership skill development in an academic leadership development program. Journal of Leadership Education, 6(1), 39-58. Bobbitt, L. M., Inks, S. A., Kemp, K. J., and Mayo, D. T. (2000). Integrating marketing courses to enhance team-based experiential learning. Journal of Marketing Education, 22, 15-24. Bolton, M. K. (1999). The role of coaching in student teams: A just-in-time approach to learning. Journal of Management Education, 23(3), 233-250. Butts, E. A. (2000). Overcoming student resistance to group work. Teaching English in the Two-Year College, 28(1), 80-83. Cassidy, S. (2006). Developing employability skills: Peer assessment in higher education. Education + Training, 48(7), p. 508-517. Coers, N., & Lorensen, M. (2009). Case study: Student perceptions of groups and teams in leadership education. Journal of Leadership Education, 8(1), 93110. Colbeck, C. L., Campbell, S. E., & Bjorklund, S. A. (2000). Grouping in the dark: What college students learn from group projects. The Journal of Higher Education, 71(1), 60-83. Cooper, J., Prescott, S., Cook, L., Smith, L., Mueck, R., & Cuseo, J. (1990). Cooperative learning and college instruction: Effective use of student learning teams. Long Beach, CA: California State University Foundation.
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Cottell, P. G., & Millis, B. J. (1993). Cooperative learning structures in the instruction of accounting. Issues in Accounting Education, 8(1), 40-59. Davis, B. G. (1993). Tools for Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Davis, J. A. (1971). Elementary survey analysis. Englewood, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Fall, K. A., & Wejnert, T. J. (2005). Co-leader stages of development: An application of Tuckman and Jensen (1977). The Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 30(4), p. 309-327. Gillies, R. M. (2003). Structuring cooperative group work in classrooms. International Journal of Educational Research, 39, 35-49. Haberyan, A. (2007). Team-based learning in an industrial/organizational psychology course. North American Journal of Psychology Education, 9(1), 143-152. Halpern, D. F. (2000, March). Creating Cooperative Learning Environments. APS Observer, pp. 14-15, 29-31. Hassanien, A. (2007). A qualitative student evaluation of group learning in higher education. Higher Education in Europe, 32(2/3), 135-150. Hirst, G., Mann, L., Bain, P., Pirola-Merlo, A., & Richver, A. (2004). Learning to lead: The development and testing of a model of leadership learning. The Leadership Quarterly, 15, p. 311-327. King, P. E., & Behnke, R. R. (2005,), Problems associated with evaluating student performance in groups. College Teaching, 53(2), 57-61. Kreie, J., Headrick, R.W., & Steiner, R. (2007). Using team learning to improve student retention. College Education, 55(2), 51-56. Levi, D. (2007). Group Dynamics for Teams (2nd ed.). Sage Publications, Inc.: Thousand Oaks, CA. McGraw, P., & Tidwell, D. (2001). Teaching group process skills to MBA students: A short workshop. Education + Training, 43(3), 162-170.
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McKendall, M. (2000). Teaching groups to become teams. Journal of Education for Business, 75(5), 277-282. Mu, S. C., & Gnyawali, D. R. (2003). Developing synergistic knowledge in student groups. The Journal of Higher Education, 74(6), 689-711. National Association of Colleges and Employers (Producer) (2010). Job Outlook 2010 (Video). Retrieved April 11, 2010, from the National Association of Colleges and Employers (http://www.naceweb.org/Job_Outlook_2010_video/). Pauli, R., Mohiyeddini, C., Bray, D., Michie, F., & Street, B. (2008). Individual differences in negative group work experiences in collaborative student learning. Educational Psychology, 28(1), 47-58. Payne, B. K., & Monk-Turner, E. (2006). Students perceptions of group projects: The role of race, age, and slacking. College Student Journal, 40(1), 132139. Rassuli, A., & Manzer, J. P. (2005). Teach us to learn: Multivariate analysis of perception of success in team learning. Journal of Education for Business, September/October, 21-27. Ricketts, K. G., Bruce, J. A., & Ewing, J. C. (2008). How todays undergraduate students see themselves as tomorrows socially responsible leaders. Journal of Leadership Education, 7(1), 24-42. Siciliano, J. I. (2001). How to incorporate cooperative learning principles in the classroom: Its more than just putting students in teams. Journal of Management Education, 25(1), 8-20. Tuckman, B. W. (1965). Developmental sequence in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 63(6), 384-399. Tuckman, B. W., & Jensen, M. A. C. (1977). Stages of small-group development revisited. Group &Organization Studies, 2(4), 419-428. Wilson, F. R., & Newmeyer, M. D. (2007). Core Group Work Skills Inventory (CGWSI-IC) technical guide. Association of Specialists in Group Work. Accessed from http://www.asgw.org, April 1, 2009.
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Author Biographies
Natalie Coers is a recent graduate of the University of Georgia with her Masters in Agricultural Leadership. She completed her undergraduate studies focused in Agricultural Leadership Education at the University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign. Her passion for leadership education continues to drive her career aspiration of becoming a leadership education faculty member. Jen Williams is an Assistant Professor at Texas A&M University in the Department of Agricultural Leadership, Education, and Communications. She teaches graduate and undergraduate courses in leadership theory and application. Her line of inquiry includes pedogological methodologies for teaching leadership.
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Serving the Once and Future King: Using the TV Series Merlin to Teach Servant-Leadership and Leadership Ethics in Schools
Laura M. Oliver MA Organizational Leadership Graduate School of Professional Studies Gonzaga University Spokane, Washington Laura2sing@aol.com Kae Reynolds Ph.D. Candidate, Leadership Studies School of Professional Studies Gonzaga University Spokane, Washington kreynolds@gonzaga.edu
Abstract
The recent financial crisis has brought business ethics issues to the forefront. While most colleges have formal training in business ethics, a persons ethical standards have often developed before college age. This application brief proposes using digital popular media to teach servant-leadership principles to public school adolescents. The purpose is to illustrate the advantage of using secular content from the television series Merlin (Wilkie, 2008) to demonstrate an ethics-based leadership perspective through a medium that is accessible to the virtual/video generation.
Introduction
Greenleaf (2003) noted the work of leadership education today takes place in a world that is increasingly glutted with information and yet starved for wisdom (p. 13). Since Robert Greenleaf first coined the phrase servant-leadership in his 1970 essay the concept has been widely embraced by Christian and educational communities. With the growing apprehension in the United States of America about separation of church and state, teaching a leadership style articulated by a devoutly Christian man in public schools can create concern. Yet, the need for
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developing ethical principles in future leaders is obvious considering the current economic predicament. Although an individuals ethical standards have often developed before college age (Bisland, Karnes, & Cobb, 2004), few school districts have curriculum including leadership or ethics for mainstream high school students (Williams, Yanchar, Jensen, & Lewis, 2003). Responsibility for developing ethical standards in young people falls on their immediate family and friends (Bisland, et al., 2004). As such, there is a need in public schools for leadership training that is grounded in ethical principles and free of alliance to a specific faith. There is also a need to make use of media that is appealing to the video generation (Smilanich & Lafreniere, 2010, pp. 604-605) Utilizing film and popular media to teach leadership as a vehicle for social change can make learning more accessible to the Millennials (Hickam & Meixner, 2008) while remaining religiously neutral. Film is also a powerful tool for teaching complex leadership concepts through the experience of visually witnessing leadership scenarios and analyzing behavior as observers (Enlow & Popa, 2008; McMahon & Bramhall, 2004). Digital media offer an endless supply of examples for analysis from a leadership perspective (Cummins, 2007). Prosperio and Gioia indicate it is appealing to the technically savvy virtual generation (cited in Gifford, 2010, p. 165). Through the use of film facilitators can create a safe and effective learning environment (Cummins, 2007). Students can relate to scenarios as they come alive through fictional and historical characters (Callahan & Rosser, 2007). This application brief proposes using the story of Merlin and the young King Arthur in the BBC television series Merlin (Wilkie, 2008) to teach adolescents ages 14 to18 basic servant-leadership principles. We use the episode The Moment of Truth (Vanstone & Moore, 2008) to illustrate ethical leadership in practice. The popular Arthurian characters demonstrate the 10 characteristics of servantleadership identified by Spears (2004) including stewardship, empathy, foresight, persuasion, conceptualization, commitment to the growth of people, listening, awareness, building community, and healing. Recommendations are made for classroom activities that are appropriate for the learning styles of Millenials as outlined by Wisniewski (2010).
Servant-Leadership, Spirituality, and Ethics

According to Spears (1995), servant-leadership was conceived by Robert Greenleaf in the 1960s when he read Hesses 1956 book, The Journey to the East, which is an account of a mythical journey by a group of men on a spiritual quest. Through his experience in shaping large institutions Greenleaf saw the need for
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leaders to exercise humility, morality, and social justice (Spears, 1995). By developing managers who mentor their employees instead of promoting themselves, Greenleaf believed businesses could create both successful companies and positive work environments. Spears (2004) observation of recurrent themes in Greenleafs writing led him to identify the 10 characteristics of servant-leadership. In practice these characteristics are illustrative of how leadership applies ethics in decision-making and relating to others. Teaching servant-leadership in schools and workplaces poses a challenge due to Greenleafs numerous references to Christian texts (see Hamilton & Bean, 2005). Lee and Zemke (1995) noted despite a noticeable trend in the acceptance of spirituality in the workplace, crossing the fuzzy lines (p. 107) between work and spirituality is not always well received. Crossing the line of secularism in public schools is equally, if not more controversial. Therefore, tools for teaching servant-leadership in public schools must be developed free of religious affiliation while still allowing for ethical considerations. Ethical dimensions of leadershipsocial justice, putting others needs and the greater good before profit, investing in the community and the futureappear to be diminishing in the business world. Many business people dismiss the idea of servant-leadership because its principles do not correspond to the more typically recognized leader traits of assertiveness and a self-centered desire for power and influence (Spears, 1995). Traditional forms of leadership have led to the moral decline of the relational environment (Ferch, 2004, p. 227) in our business world. As more scandal and corruption is uncovered, the need for teaching ethics and leadership to our youth becomes clearer (Enlow & Popa, 2008; Spears, 2004). Servant-leadership as a philosophy of leadership (Prosser, 2010) places particular emphasis on ethical considerations of social justice and human dignity (Ferch, 2004). Greenleafs original intent was to describe an organizational leadership style and philosophy for corporate adults. Yet, its adaptability to youth leadership training is obvious (Grothaus, 2004). Wisniewski (2010) noted the purpose of a leadership education model is to help learners identify their core values and beliefs and examine the relationships between their espoused values and their actions (p. 66). By instilling young people with servant-leadership principles before they have management positions, corporations could transform into an environment dedicated to social justice and stewardship for a sustainable future.
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Servants and Leaders Merlin and Arthur in The Moment of Truth Episode In the following we present a plot summary of the episode The Moment of Truth (Vanstone & Moore, 2008) from the first season of the BBC television series Merlin (Wilkie, 2008) and examples of basic servant-leadership principles enacted by the characters. There are numerous advantages of utilizing this particular medium. For example, Arthur and Merlin are historically recognizable characters, the story is free of religious undertones, and the episodes offer a story structure that is divided into easily digestible chunks of time. The first season of Merlin is available for download at the iTunes shop or on DVD. The episode The Moment of Truth (Vanstone & Moore, 2008) relies on the human elements of friendship, loyalty, and family, along with fantasy and magic to reveal its lessons. King Uther, Arthurs father, has outlawed magic in the kingdom. This decree makes Merlins position particularly precarious. If he is discovered to have magical abilities, it will cost him his life. Plot Summary and Examples of Servant-Leadership The episode opens with a small village being forced to turn over their food to a man named Kanen from a stronger neighboring village. The scene shifts to the open air market of Camelot, where Merlin discovers his mother. Her black eye is evidence that the village Merlin left behind is in danger. Merlin takes her to King Uther for help; however, previous treaties make it impossible to send troops from Camelot to the villages aid. Merlin, Morgana, and Gwen decide to go themselves recognizing their talents that could be useful. By taking this action, they practice the servant-leadership characteristic stewardship. It is the job of a leader to advance the common good and envision long term benefits (Greenleaf, 2003). Arthur demonstrates the servant-leadership characteristic of empathy when he comes to support Merlin. Though Merlin is a mere servant the prince sees him as a human being in need and chooses to help. Servant-leaders recognize that people are valuable no matter their status (Ferch, 2004). Morgana and Gwen risk their lives to help Merlin and his mother, demonstrating that leadership can come in all shapes, sizes, and rank. When the traveling party reaches the village they find Kanen already there, attempting to steal the little remaining rations. Arthur intervenes and Kanen decides the small group he has with him are not a match for his new adversaries. He retreats with the promise to return ready to deal with Arthur.
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Immediately Arthur gathers the people together to begin training for the next attack. He demonstrates the principle of foresight. Foresight enables a leader to understand lessons from the past and present as well as the futures likely consequences (Spears, 2004). One villager, Will, says to give Kanen what he wants. Arthur replies And then what? Those of you who dont starve together face him again next harvest? And the harvest after that? (Vanstone & Moore, 2008). Arthur shows an ability to look into the future and see what must be done now to save the village lateragain exemplifying foresight and stewardship. When Will runs off after his confrontation with Arthur, Merlin follows him and demonstrates persuasion. Merlin appeals to Will as a person and recognizes that Wills past may play a large role in how he feels about Arthur. While Will refuses to change his negative view of Arthur, Merlin does not force his own perspective on his friend. Servant-leaders rely on persuasion, not force, to make and implement decisions. Patience is a critical quality in using persuasion; it requires being open to resistance and willing to wait for others to consider and become comfortable with an idea (Silberman & Hansburg, 2005), even if it means delaying a decision. Arthur chooses to accept the challenge to arm and train the villagers, which requires the ability to conceptualize. Arthurs organization of the villagers for training shows his ability to work with minimal resources. Servant-leaders think creatively beyond immediate realities and see future possibilities (Spears, 1995). Arthur shows his commitment to the growth of people when he assigns a weaker villager, Matthew, an important task. He wants Matthew to feel helpful in providing a valuable service to his village. Servant-leaders are committed to seeing others grow and become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous (Greenleaf, 2003, p. 41). They often must put aside their own ambitions so that others can succeed, recognizing that the teams empowerment is more important than their own (Grothaus, 2004). Arthur also demonstrates listening in his conversations with Gwen and Morgana. When the women first approach him about allowing the female villagers to fight he denies them. As he becomes more aware of the lack of capable fighters and effective weapons, he chooses to listen to the women again. Before making decisions servant-leaders listen to and consider the opinions of those being served. When leaders are most anxious to progress they must be willing to listen to the arguments of those who do not share their view (Silberman & Hansburg, 2005). In these same conversations Arthur displays awareness. By being aware of the circumstances Arthur has a more complete picture of the situation, which enables
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him to make sound decisions. Awareness of both oneself and ones surroundings helps a servant-leader understand ethical issues from multiple perspectives (Spears, 1995). When Arthur helps Merlin put on his armor, instead of the usual habit of Merlin helping the prince, Arthur demonstrates how serving is important to leading. In Arthurs time the knight supported and taught the squire, while the squire cared for the knights armor, dressed him, and fought beside him (Perkins, 2003). Serving is a chance to build community (Spears, 2004). Arthur shows Merlin the respect of an equal, thus demonstrating that Merlin is far more valuable than just his contributions as a servant. In the end, Will demonstrates the final principle of healing. Although he does not understand Merlins affection for Arthur, Will uses his dying breaths to protect Merlins secret. Servant-leaders seek opportunities to heal wounds through encouragement, support, and forgiveness (Ferch, 2004). Will heals what could have become a horrid rift in the relationship between Merlin and Arthur by sacrificing his own reputation. Will knows that if Merlin trusts Arthur, Will must trust Arthur as well. Although Arthur exercises servant-leadership with a certain degree of wisdom and skill, it is clear that Arthur is young and still learning. King Arthurs legend and legacy is evidence of his exceptional leadership (Perkins, 2003) and of how young leaders can have an impact that reaches far beyond their generation.
Recommendations
Viewing can be guided using a handout of servant-leadership principles to (a) help ensure that students are consciously observant, (b) provide input for in-depth discussion, and (c) facilitate proper processing of the concepts presented (Graham, Sincoff, Baker, & Ackermann, 2003; McMahon & Bramhill, 2004).
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Handout for Viewing
Servant-Leadership Principles Listening Empathy Healing Awareness Persuasion Conceptualization Foresight Stewardship Commitment to the Growth of People Building Community
Character
Scenario
Servant-leadership is a complex topic that requires years to truly begin to practice and grasp fully. The moderators task is to provide the foundation for understanding while acknowledging that these basic principles are an introduction to servant-leadership (Callahan & Rosser, 2007). Viewing and discussing the clips alone will not provide the knowledge and skills needed. Educators should seek opportunities to guide students application of servant-leadership principles in ways that engage critical thinking, allow students to develop personal concepts of leadership, that are experiential and meaningful for their daily lives as well as directly in the classroom (Wisniewski, 2010). Facilitators can consider additional questions and activities that tie the films events to students interests and everyday lives (Wisniewski, 2010). Students should connect their learning to personal experiences or familiar scenes from
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other films to improve retention (Torock, 2008). In this way the students can learn from each others stories, relate characters behavior to real-life situations, discuss alternate behaviors, and consider whether they might be willing to exercise similar behavior (McMahon & Bramhill, 2004).
Guiding Questions Consider the servant-leadership principles introduced through Merlin: Stewardship Empathy Foresight Persuasion Conceptualization Commitment to the growth of people Listening Awareness Building community Healing 1. 2. 3. Have you seen people in the news who demonstrate these principles? Do you know anyone personally who leads this way? Do you have any situations in your life that you are leading this way or you could try applying servant-leadership principles? What outcome would you expect based on your application of these principles? Suggested Activities 1. Create role-play scenarios for groups of four. Two students play leaders; two students play followers. One leader is assigned the task of practicing a specified servant-leadership principle such as listening. The other leader is assigned the task to do the opposite of the corresponding servant-leadership principle such as imposing the leaders own ideas on the follower. The followers are instructed to go to the leader with a request. The scenes are played out in leader/follower pairs. Students discuss how they felt in their positions and the impact of servantleadership on outcomes. Students are assigned the task to be mindful of servant-leadership behaviors exercised by people in their environment. Students are asked to participate in creating a class blog by contributing posts describing specific incidents in which they felt they observed someone applying servant-leadership principles, the outcomes (if they observed any), and their thoughts about how that persons behavior affected others and themselves.
2.
We have illustrated only some examples of servant-leadership principles in one episode of Merlin (Wilkie, 2008). Other or additional episodes can also be used and students discussion may generate further examples. Although we limit our discussion of servant-leadership to teaching ethical principles of leadership, we recognize that servant-leadership can be used much more broadly. For example, servant-leadership can be applied to teaching civil rights, human rights, global citizenship, and in service-learning programs.
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Conclusion
This application brief demonstrates how secular media can be used to teach basic principles of servant-leadership and leadership ethics. The episode The Moment of Truth (Vanstone & Moore, 2008) from the television series Merlin (Wilkie, 2008) presents a model for analysis that is appropriate for use in public schools. Students can transport the characters actions into present day issues, reflect and discuss ethical concerns, and relate servant-leadership principles to their own experiences. As todays youth become tomorrows leaders, exercises like those described here can help them attain the skills and knowledge for creating a new, sustainable, and socially just leadership legacy. According to Perkins (2003), Most kings arent remembered for much at all, and others are remembered for awful slaughter, lawful robbery or laughable incompetence. King Arthur is remembered positively for the kind of king he was, for, in fact, the way he led (p. 91).
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References
Bisland, A., Karnes, F., & Cobb, Y. (2004). Leadership education. Gifted Child Today, 27(1), 50-56. Buchanan, L., & Hofman, M. (2000). Everything I know about leadership, I learned from the movies. Inc. Magazine, 22(3), 58-65. Callahan, J. L., & Rosser, M. H. (2007). Pop goes the program: Using popular culture artifacts to educate leaders. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 9(2), 269-287. Cummins, R. (2007). Can modern media inform leadership education and development? Advances in Developing Human Resources, 9(2), 143-145. Enlow, B. K., & Popa, A. B. (2008). Developing moral imagination in leadership students. Journal of Leadership Education, 7(2), 24-31. Ferch, S. R. (2004). Servant-leadership, forgiveness, and social justice. In L. C. Spears, & M. Lawrence (Eds.), Practicing servant leadership: Succeeding through trust, bravery, and forgiveness (pp. 225-239). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Gifford, G. T. (2010). A modern technology in the leadership classroom: Using blogs for critical thinking development. Journal of Leadership Education, 9(1), 165-172. Graham, T., Sincoff, M., Baker, B., & Ackermann, J. (2003). Reel leadership: Hollywood takes the leadership challenge. Journal of Leadership Education, 2(2), 37-45. Greenleaf, R. K. (2003). The servant leader within: A transformative path. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Press. Grothaus, T. (2004). Empowering adolescents as servant-leaders. Reclaiming Children and Youth, 12(4), 228-231. Hamilton, F., & Bean, C. J. (2005). The importance of context, beliefs, and values in leadership development. Business Ethics: A European Review, 14(4), 336-347.
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Hesse, H. (1956). The journey to the East (H. Rosner, Trans.). New York, NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Lee, C., & Zemke, R. (1995). The search for spirit in the workplace. In L. C. Spears (Ed.), Reflections on leadership: How Robert K. Greenleafs servant-leadership influenced todays top management thinkers (pp. 99112). New York: Wiley Press. McMahon, T. R., & Bramhall, R. (2004). Using entertainment media to inform student affairs teaching and practice related to leadership. New Directions in Student Services, 2004(108), 61-70. doi: 10.1002/ss.142 Perkins, D. (2003). King Arthurs round table: How collaborative conversations create smart organizations. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Prosser, S. (2010). Servant leadership: More philosophy, less theory [Essay]. Westfield, IN: The Greenleaf Center for Servant Leadership. Silberman, M., & Hansburg, F. (2005). Leading reluctant people. Leader to Leader, 36 (Spring 2005), 7-10. Smilanich, B., & Lefreniere, N. (2010). Reel-teaching = real learning: Motivating reluctant students through film studies. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 53(7), 604-606. Spears, L. C. (2004). Practicing servant-leadership. Leader to Leader, 34(Fall 2004), 7-11. Spears, L. C. (1995). Introduction. In L. C. Spears (Ed.), Reflections on leadership: How Robert K. Greenleafs servant-leadership influenced todays top management thinkers (pp. 1-14). New York, NY: Wiley Press. Torock, J. L. (2008). Bringing the emergency room to the classroom: Using Greys Anatomy to simplify situational leadership. Journal of Leadership Education, 7(2), 69-78. Vanstone, B. (Writer), & Moore, D. (Director) (2008). The moment of truth [Television series episode]. In A. Wilkie (Producer), Merlin [TV series]. Cardiff, UK: BBC Wales. Retrieved from http://www.itunes.com Wilkie. A. (Producer) (2008). Merlin [TV series]. Cardiff, UK: BBC Wales. Retrieved from http://www.itunes.com
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Williams, D. D., Yanchar, S. C., Jensen, L. C., & Lewis, C. (2003). Character education in a public high school: A multi-year inquiry into Unified Studies. Journal of Moral Education, 32(1), 3-33. doi: 10.1080/0305724022000073310 Wisniewski, M. A. (2010). Leadership and the Millennials: Transforming todays technological teens into tomorrows leaders. Journal of Leadership Education, 9(1), 53-57.
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Author Biographies
Laura M. Oliver developed a passion for Servant Leadership while earning her undergraduate degree from Southern Wesleyan University. Her continued desire to study leadership and its many facets drove Laura to pursue a Masters Degree in Organizational Leadership from Gonzaga University, which she completed in December 2009. Laura has previous experience as a corporate trainer specializing in leadership, human resources, and computer skills. She currently divides her work time between managing administrative staff for a nation-wide construction company and teaching voice to the next generation. Laura also publishes a blog about frugal living, www.afrugalchick.com, which involves regular work with local television and radio stations. Kae Reynolds is a doctoral candidate, teaching, and graduate assistant in Leadership Studies at Gonzaga University. Kae earned a Master of Organizational Leadership at Saint Ambrose University. Upon completing her bachelors degree in Russian, she received certification in Secondary Education. She has experience teaching foreign languages and English as a Foreign Language to grades 7-12, as well as EFL to college students and adult learners. Kae currently mentors online students earning their Masters Degree in Organizational Leadership in completing their capstone papers and portfolios. Before beginning her doctoral studies, she worked as an expatriate in Germany in the field of information technology, marketing, and organizational communication where she managed large-scale international online projects. Kae recently received the Greenleaf Scholars Award from the Greenleaf Center for Servant Leadership to conduct the research for her dissertation which will explore correlations between constructs of the ethic of care as a perspective of feminist morality and servant-leadership dimensions using survey design.
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Interviews: Linking Leadership Theory to Practice

Deborah N. Smith, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Higher Education and Leadership Studies Coordinator Department of University Studies Kennesaw State University 1000 Chastain Rd., MD 1802, LIB Bldg. 17, Rm. 422 Kennesaw, GA 30144 (770) 423-6874 dsmith1@kennesaw.edu Deborah B. Roebuck, Ph.D. Professor of Management Department of Management and Entrepreneurship Kennesaw State University 1000 Chastain Rd., MD 0404, BB 225, Rm. 339A Kennesaw, GA 30144 (770) 423-6364 droebuck@kennesaw.edu
Abstract
Leadership educators use various tools to enable their students to learn about leadership. This article describes the assignment Interview with a Leader which the authors have incorporated into several different leadership courses. Grounded in constructivist and social learning theories, the authors have found this assignment to be particularly effective as a strategy for helping students make meaning of the complexities and application of leadership. Furthermore, students found the assignment to be especially helpful for connecting leadership theory to practice.
Introduction
The academic study of leadership swings like a pendulum from debates regarding whether leadership can even be taught (Doh, 2003; Parks, 2005) to how best to teach leadership (Danzig, 1999; Getz, 2009; Wisniewski, 2010). Examples of curricular and co-curricular college student leadership development fill the literature (Day, 2000; Eich, 2008; Riggio, Ciulla, & Sorenson, 2003; Rost & Barker, 2000). Often comprehensive descriptions of these examples focus on
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program outcomes and assessment (Black & Earnest, 2009; Eich, 2008). While such a focus helps formulate big picture thinking about teaching leadership, what appears to be lacking in the literature are descriptions of assignments and activities comprising the day-to-day teaching of leadership. This article describes the technique Interviews with a Leader which the authors have found to be an effective tool for helping students connect leadership theory to practice. Student feedback and learning outcomes of these assignments are also examined.
General Description of Assignments

The authors have used the Interview with a Leader assignment every semester from 2008-2010 at a large, public, masters level, Southeastern university in the following leadership courses: (a) an undergraduate foundations course centered around theories and models of leadership, (b) an undergraduate course focusing on global and cultural contexts of leadership, and (c) a graduate course emphasizing womens leadership. In each of these courses, the authors grounded the interview assignment in constructivist (Bush, 2006) and social learning (Bandura, 1977) theories. As such, the assignments guided students to reflect upon how they constructed, defined, and made meaning (constructivism) of the practice of leadership by learning from the experiences of others (social learning). Students selected the leaders they wanted to interview. Selections ranged from former teachers, coaches, bosses, work colleagues, community leaders, and pastors. The students used the following interview guide to facilitate their dialogue with their chosen leaders in interviews that lasted from one to four hours. After completing thank you letters, students wrote reflective papers addressing the various aspects of leadership relevant to their course. In all three courses students considered how the leadership theories and models they were learning connected to the actual practice of leadership. The professors evaluated the papers utilizing the criteria set in the guide.
Student Feedback
To ensure this assignment was meaningful for students, we asked for their feedback. On the end of term course evaluations, students responded to both numerical and open-ended questions. On the numerical questions, students answered questions using a five-point scale with 5 being strongly agree, 4 agree, 3 neither agree nor disagree, 2 disagree, and 1 strongly disagree. When students were asked to rate if this assignment was relevant to their learning, 95% of the students responded 4 (agree) or 5 (strongly agree). In addition, students often
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mentioned this particular assignment in the open-ended comments with statements indicating that the leader interview assignment helped them relate to the course materials and also gave them an opportunity to apply their learning. Another source of feedback came from the actual written reports the students submitted regarding their interviews. When asked to critique the assignment, students perceived this assignment increased their learning; some went so far as to express thanks for the assignment. They shared they would not have had the courage to conduct such an interview without the motivation of a grade.
Interview with a Leader Guide General information on each of the course assignments is located below. Assignment specifics can be obtained by contacting the authors. Following their interviews, students write a reflective paper. Students lose points for grammatical and mechanical errors, as well as lacking depth and reflection in their responses. Depending on the course, the papers are worth 16-26% of the overall grade. Foundations of Leadership Undergraduate Course The following questions serve as the framework for the reflective paper: 1. Why did you select the person you chose to interview? 2. What is your leaders position and how did he or she obtain it? self-description of his or her leadership style? personal philosophy or view of leadership and how did he or she develop it? opinion as to whether or not his or her own gender, culture, and/or ethnicity impacted this personal philosophy/view of leadership or how he or she leads others? views on followership and group process? thoughts on ethical responsibilities, leading through change, and personal or group renewal strategies? suggestions for you, a student of leadership? 3. What did you learn from this interview that made the most impact on you and why? 4. How does what you learned in the interview validate, refute, or reinforce what you have learned about leadership in this class? Leadership in a Global Society Undergraduate Course Students engage in an intercultural experience by participating in an event sponsored by a culture with which they do not normally identify. Students interview the leader of the event and focus on the following details: The history of the event they attended. How the leader came to be involved with this event. How the leader obtained this position of leadership. How the leader interacts with followers and to what extent the cultural norms of the group he or she leads affect this process. Students also ask specifically about (a) conflict resolution and decision-making processes and (b) what the leader would like the majority culture to know about the culture/group he or she represents. 137
Interview with a Leader Guide (continued) Womens Leadership Lab Graduate Course Students ask interviewees to rate what skills or behaviors (e.g., negotiating, answering e-mail, etc.) they most utilize during the day. The following questions shape the subsequent interview. 1. How did you first get involved in leadership? 2. What is your personal philosophy/definition of leadership? 3. Who is your leadership role-model/mentor? 4. What impact do you perceive women have made in your particular area or discipline? 5. What are the outstanding skills or abilities of effective female leaders you have known? 6. Have you observed differences in the way men and women lead? If yes, what differences have you noted? If no, why do you think this is? 7. What are the major reasons female leaders fail in positions like yours? 8. If you had to train someone to replace you in your current job, what key abilities would you focus on? 9. What have been your biggest leadership challenges and celebrations? What are some resources that every leader should know about? 10. What are some words of advice that you would give to a new leader?
Learning Outcomes
From this student feedback, we perceive our students learned four lessons, which include: (a) a deeper understanding of leadership, as evidenced by such comments as, Mr. Bell really helped validate leadership as a whole for me, and showed me that leadership is a process and is something that comes in many different forms; (b) a linkage of leadership theory to practice, as noted by remarks like, After this interview, I realized that a lot of what Danielle was saying we had learned in class and in the book, for example Leader-Member Exchange theory.it was refreshing to see that a lot of what happens in the real world can actually be learned in school; (c) a change in how students thought about practicing leadership, supported by statements like I also thought that using political power and coercion methods, in certain situations, would be the best way to accomplish the task, but after talking to Elise, I no longer believe that either of those two methods works effectively; and (d) a desire to learn more about being an effective leader, corroborated by such comments as, He has opened my eyes to things I know I can accomplish. I have now set my standards higher to reach the goals and aspirations that will make me a great leader.
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Discussion
As shared above, we believe our students began to develop a deeper understanding of leadership, an outcome which aligns with constructivist theory (Bush, 2006). The assignments challenged the students old views of leadership, and they wrote about new, more complex views of leadership. For example, many students said they had begun to think of leadership as something more than a title or position. They realized leadership was something they could learn. This finding supports Wisniewskis (2010) assertion that personal theories of leadership can be modified through active learning in real-world settings. The second learning outcome, linking leadership theory to practice, is congruent with Danzigs (1997) research. Danzig indicated that experiences and stories shared in interviews provide a way for novices to move from the superficial to deeper issues embedded in their studies. Stories lead to new understandings of how expertise is gained in the real world by linking the study of leadership to professional practice (p. 123). As evidenced by their in-depth responses, students clearly demonstrated an understanding of how specific leadership theories and models were either intentionally or unintentionally applied in their interviewees daily leadership practices. The third learning outcome, a change in how students thought about practicing leadership, aligned with social learning theory (Bandura, 1977). Social learning theory suggests that errors are reduced or eliminated when we observe others, reflect on their actions, and then use their experiences to make decisions about our own responses. Students often wrote that they began thinking about their own leadership actions in light of the insights and experiences imparted by their interviewees. The final learning outcome, a desire to learn more about being a better leader, was evident in that many students went beyond the assignment requirements and visited with their interviewees more than once. Typically this occurred with the students who were interested in working in the same field as their interviewee.
Conclusion
We created these assignments to help our students learn about the complexities of leadership and connect theory to practice. In agreement with Moore, Boyd, and Dooleys (2010) findings, the reflective writing piece of our assignment provided evidence that our students did indeed make that connection. The students wrote
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about retaining and internalizing leadership concepts, as well as transforming their notions of leadership. Furthermore, conducting interviews with leaders meets several of the attributes Eich (2008) noted comprise a high-quality leadership program connection, reflection, discussion, and encountering episodes of difference. The assignment asked students to connect with leaders, it allowed them to reflect upon their experience, and then required them to discuss those experiences with others. Students in the Leadership in a Global Society class, in particular, encountered episodes of difference because they were interviewing leaders from a culture with which they normally do not identify. We believe the words of our students provide the best evidence of the value of using interviews to connect leadership theory and application. As one student wrote In my role in HR, I can use the learning I gained from this interview on a daily basis. From facilitating meetings to leading projects, my success will come from effective communication and preparation. Both of which are key skills that Joann has shared as important to leadership. A final student comment reads, I enjoyed the interview process for this assignment. I believe the best way to gain insight from a leader is to have a conversation; and this assignment was the spark that made that conversation happen.
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References
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Black, A. M., & Earnest, G. W. (2009). Measuring the outcomes of leadership development programs. Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 16(2), 184-196. Bush, G. (2006). Learning about learning: From theories to trends. Teacher Librarian, 34(2), 14-18. Danzig, A. (1997). Leadership stories: What novices learn by crafting the stories of experienced school administrators. Journal of Educational Administration, 35(2), 122-137. Danzig, A. (1999). How might leadership be taught? The use of story and narrative to teach leadership. Leadership Education, 2(2), 117-131. Day, D. V. (2000). Leadership development: A review in context. Leadership Quarterly, 11(4), 581-613. Doh, J. (2003). Can leadership be taught? Perspectives from management educators. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 2(1), 54-67. Eich, D. (2008). A grounded theory of high-quality leadership programs: Perspectives from student leadership development programs in higher education. Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 15(2), 176187. Getz, C. (2009). Teaching leadership as exploring sacred space. Educational Action Research, 17(3), 447-461. Moore, C., Boyd, B. L., Dooley, K. E. (2010). The effects o f experiential learning with an emphasis on reflective writing on deep-level processing of leadership students. Journal of Leadership Education, 9(1), 36-52. Parks, S. D. (2005). Leadership can be taught. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Riggio, R. E., Ciulla, J., & Sorenson, G. (2003). Leadership education at the undergraduate level: A liberal arts approach to leadership development. In
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S. E. Murphy & R. E. Riggio (Eds.), The future of leadership development (pp. 223-236). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Rost, J. C., & Barker, R. A. (2000). Leadership education in colleges: Toward a st 21 century paradigm. Journal of Leadership Studies, 7, 3-12. Wisniewski, M. A. (2010). Leadership and the millenials: Transforming todays technological teens into tomorrows leaders. Journal of Leadership Education, 9(1), 53-68.
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Author Biographies
Deborah N. Smith is an Associate Professor of Higher Education and the Leadership Studies Coordinator at Kennesaw State University. Besides leadership courses, she also teaches Honors Interdisciplinary Research Methods. Previously she taught Freshman and Senior Seminar, and held positions in the areas of student life and wellness. Deborah holds a B.A. in Psychology from Furman University, a M.Ed. in Student Personnel in Higher Education from the University of Georgia, and a Ph.D. in Higher Education from Georgia State University. Deborah B. Roebuck is a Professor of Management at Kennesaw State University, currently teaching leadership, ethics, coaching, and communication classes. Previously she held the position of Executive Director of the Siegel Institute for Leadership, Ethics, and Character, Chair of Leadership and Professional Development, and Programming Director of the EMBA. Deborah holds a B.S.E. and M.A. from Truman State University and a Ph.D. in Business Education from Georgia State University.
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Developing Life-Long Learners Through Personal Growth Projects

Barry Boyd Associate Professor Texas A&M University 2116 TAMU College Station, TX 77843-2116 b-boyd@tamu.edu (979) 862-3693 Jennifer Williams Assistant Professor Texas A&M University 2116 TAMU College Station, TX 77843-2116 dr.jen@tamu.edu (979) 862-1423 I have never let my schooling interfere with my education. (Mark Twain)
Abstract
Leaders must become life-long learners if they are to remain effective in an environment that is both global and changing at an exponential pace. As Day (1992) noted, personal growth is essential in the leadership development process. In a personal leadership development course, students are required to complete a personal growth project in order to add to their personal leadership development. In this assignment, students choose a project that will stretch their personal comfort zone and allow their strengths to be utilized in a new way. Reflection is a key element of the process in which they tie their experiences with the personal growth project to their values, strengths, and leadership behaviors.
Introduction
The need for leaders to remain current in their field has always been important, but technology has increased the rate of change to blinding speed. In addition, the half-life of knowledge gained in college has shrunk to two to five years for many disciplines (Fischer, 1999). Leaders must become life-long learners if they are to
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remain effective in an environment that is both global and changing at an exponential pace. Not only must leaders continue their personal development, but it is essential that they create an environment where their followers embrace personal growth as well. Senge, Kleiner, Roberts, Ross, and Smith (1994) note that an organization develops with its people. Leadership development, as defined by Brungardt (1996) and Conger (1992), involves both cognitive and affective assimilation. Ying and Yin (2010) stress colleges and universities should pay as much attention to the non-cognitive (affective) lessons as they do content (cognitive). Accreditation bodies in higher education have begun to look at the integration of affective and cognitive activities in the classroom. Kuh (2001) examined the National Study for Student Engagement and found courses which integrate both affective and cognitive activities. Such courses not only leave a lasting impact on students, the students assimilate course content into their lives at a higher cognitive level. This paper discusses how Personal Growth Projects (PGP) can be used to teach leadership students of any age how to become more self-directed, gain new skills, and develop a habit of life-long learning. A search of the literature did not reveal any research to date on the use of personal growth projects for this purpose.
Conceptual Framework
Kouzes and Posner (2007) state, The instrument of leadership is the self, and mastery of the art of leadership comes from mastery of the self (p. 344). Selfdiscovery and, eventually, self-confidence are really awareness of and faith in your own powers. These powers become clear and strong only as you work to identify and develop them (p. 344). Fischer describes life-long learning as a mindset and habit that people must acquire. It includes self-directed learning, learning on demand, informal learning, and collaborative and organizational learning (1999). Such self-growth is what Senge and colleagues (1994) call Personal Mastery learning to expand our personal capacity to create the results we most desire, and creating an organizational environment which encourages all its members to develop themselves toward the goals and purposes they choose (p. 6). Conger (1992) describes four key components and primary approaches to leadership development: (a) personal growth, (b) conceptual understanding, (c) feedback, and (d) skill development. The first approach, personal growth, makes a direct correlation to self-discovery and life-long learning. In personal growth, leaders must participate in activities that stretch their boundaries. Simple activities
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are not enough to complete the development; one must also reflect on behaviors, personal values, and desires. Allen and Hartman (2008) discuss the infusion of Congers components into various leadership development activities. They specifically address individual reflection within personal growth activities as a needed and integral part of the leadership development process.
Background
Personal Leadership Development is a three credit-hour course focusing on selfdiscovery and personal growth. In addition to learning about themselves as leaders, students are encouraged to develop a habit of personal growth and development through the identification and completion of a personal growth project (PGP). Developing the habit of personal growth helps students keep abreast of new information in their chosen field and gain new skills or abilities that lead to promotions. Life-long learning can also impact the creativity and innovation potential of people. Continuous learning fosters a deeper understanding of self as students pursue authenticity in their lives.
Description of Practice
The primary objective of the personal growth project (PGP) is to foster an attitude of life-long learning among students. By building a mentality of personal growth in themselves, they are more likely to encourage that mentality in their followers. A secondary purpose of the PGP is to encourage students to become self-directed in their learning. Becoming a life-long learner means becoming adept at selfdirected and informal learning a process that is fundamentally different from traditional classroom learning. Students are responsible for directing their own learning in their PGP. They must find sources of information on their chosen topic. These resources may be people that they know with skill in their project area, coaches, formal lessons or classes, books and how-to manuals, or selected Internet sites. Identification of these resources is a critical part of their project proposal. On the first day of class, students are asked to brainstorm a list of five things that they would like to learn if they had time. They are given until the next class to reflect on their list. During the second class, the Personal Growth Project is explained to them in greater detail. They are asked to choose one of the things that they would like to learn and prepare a one-page proposal detailing the project they plan to complete and why they chose that project. Students must describe how this project will be new and challenging to them, identify the resources they will use
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to learn to how to do their project, and how they will document their personal growth. Part of their documentation must be a learning log or diary where they reflect on the learning process. The focus of the PGP is not necessarily on completing the project, but on the learning process. The instructor provides feedback to each student, pointing them to resources for learning about their project and describing additional ways that they can document their learning. Some projects are rejected because they lack a learning component (e.g., tandem skydiving, bungee jumping), are too difficult to document the students growth, or cannot be completed in the time allotted. Once their proposals are approved, students are free to begin working on their project. Students must spend a minimum of six clock hours on their project; however, most spend far more than the minimum time. Students are required to submit a mid-semester progress report that describes their work on the project thus far. They also identify any barriers that have impeded their work and how they plan to overcome those barriers. The students final project report consists of their learning log, documentation of completion of the project, and a one-page reflection paper that answers the following questions: What have I learned about myself through this experience? How can I integrate what Ive learned into my life? What did this project teach me about values congruence? How does this experience help me become a more authentic leader? How has this experience help me be a better leader?
Results to Date
The Personal Growth Project has been used for six semesters and is very popular with most students. They enjoyed the autonomy of choosing their project, but readily made the connection to how their lives were made better because of the learning process. Students learned that leaders must make time for selfimprovement and this has to be a conscious decision on the leaders part. Students also discovered that they must incorporate much of the course content into the completion of their growth project. Students see the importance of the concepts taught in the lesson on achieving a balanced life as they try to find the time to devote to the completion of their project. Some students learn how to prioritize their activities while others find a way to integrate their project into their current schedule. Many students practice using their strengths they identified
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through the Strengths Quest assessment to complete their project while others discover their creative abilities. Following is a sampling of Personal Growth Projects completed to date: Learning to cook (average of 5 meals) Obtaining certification in an area of interest (First Aid, CPR, Certified Handgun License) Reading to increase spirituality, establish better relationships Training to complete a marathon, triathlon, 5K or 10K run (must have never done these events) Learning a craft: crochet, painting, writing poetry/songs Learning a new hobby: golf, cycling, play an instrument, horseback riding, rock climbing Learning new skills: woodworking, home remodeling, basic construction, basic plumbing
Conclusions
While a formal assessment has not been conducted, anecdotal evidence suggests that engaging students in a personal growth project has a positive impact on them. Students final reflection papers indicate that some level of personal growth did occur and they are able to articulate how that growth impacted them personally and as a leader. One student described the impact of her project this way, The project challenged my personal assumptions about my limits. It pushed me to overcome the mental models of my strengths. Another student made this selfobservation, As I completed my personal growth project, I realized my leadership behaviors were more masculine than feminine, which I am. It (the project) made me think about how I lead. These anecdotal statements show the assimilation of class content into the project and their leadership development. As noted by Kuh (2001), this is a benefit of having an activity which is focused on affective as well as cognitive development. Follow-up conversations with students indicate that many of them continue using their new knowledge or skill well after the semester is over. For some, their project has turned into a hobby that they continue practice with passion. Other students embraced the concept of personal growth and have chosen new projects, demonstrating life-long learning even though they are no longer in the Personal Leadership Development class. A formal assessment of the impact of the personal growth project has been set for the end of the Spring 2010 semester.
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References
Allen, S. J., & Hartman, N. S. (2008, Winter). Leadership development: An exploration of sources of learning. SAM Advanced Management Journal, 10-19 & 62. Brungardt, C. (1996). The making of leaders: A review of the research in leadership development and education. The Journal of Leadership Studies, 3(3), 81-95. Conger, J. (1992). Learning to lead: The art of transforming managers into leaders. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Fischer, G. (1999). Life-long learning: Changing mindsets. In Advanced research in computers and communications in education. G. Cumming et al. (Eds.). 21-30. Amsterdam: IOS Press. Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2007). The leadership challenge (4 ed.). San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons. Kuh, G. D. (2001). Assessing what really matters to student learning: Inside the National Survey of Student Engagement. Change, 33(3), 10-17. Nikos, J. M. (2003). Defining, teaching, and assessing life-long learning skills. rd Paper presented at the 33 ASEE/IEEE Frontiers of Research Conference, November, 1999, Boulder, CO. Senge, P., Kleiner, A., Roberts, C., Ross, R. B., & Smith, B. J. (1994). The fifth discipline fieldbook: Strategies and tools for building a learning organization. New York: Doubleday. Ying, J. L., & Yin, A. C. (2010, Spring). Assessing personal growth. New Directions for Institutional Research, 111-123.
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Author Biographies
Barry Boyd is an Associate Professor in Agricultural Leadership, Education, and Communications at Texas A&M University. He teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in personal leadership development, ethics in leadership, leadership theory, leadership of volunteers, and youth leadership programs. Jennifer Williams is an Assistant Professor in Agricultural Leadership, Education, and Communications at Texas A&M University. She teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in leadership theory and application.
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Servant Leadership and Constructive Development Theory: How Servant Leaders Make Meaning of Service
Kelly A. Phipps, J.D., Ph.D. Assistant Professor Helzberg School of Management Rockhurst University Kansas City, MO
Abstract
A connection between servant leadership and constructive developmental theory is proposed. A theoretical framework is offered that examines the subject and object relationship for servant leaders at progressive stages of meaning making, showing how the way leaders make meaning of service evolves with their constructive development. The framework also proposes a threshold on the ability to adopt servant leadership. This understanding suggests that leadership educators who wish to promote servant leadership should first focus their energies on helping younger students reach the developmental stage required for servant leadership.
Introduction
Servant leaders are those who view themselves first as servants, putting the needs of others before their own, making a deliberate choice to serve others (Sendjaya & Sarros, 2002). This approach to leadership has been described as a long-term, transformational approach to life and work, in essence, a way of being (Spears, 1995, p. 4). Despite more than 40 years since it was introduced to the field of leadership by Robert Greenleaf (1970), servant leadership has experienced a resurgence of interest in the academic literature recently. This renewed interest has included the introduction of several new constructs and instruments for measuring servant leadership (Barbuto & Wheeler, 2006; Linden, Wayne, Zhao, & Henderson, 2009; Sendjaya, Sarros, & Santora, 2008). Despite the attention servant literature has received, little has been done to explore the developmental process of servant leadership. Such an exploration is key to integrating servant leadership into leadership curriculum. This article attempts to understand the development of servant leadership through the lens of an established developmental theory constructive developmental theory. It is
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intended that proposing a progression in the way servant leaders make meaning of service will provide insight into how servant leadership should be presented and taught, particularly to younger leaders.
Literature Review
Servant Leadership Servant leadership was first introduced into the leadership field by Robert Greenleaf (1970). However, Greenleafs writings were mostly narrative in form and lacked an operational definition of servant leadership. Since that time several authors have attempted to define and refine the attributes of servant leadership. Graham (1991) described servant leadership as the most moral form of charismatic leadership and argued that the elements consisted of humility, relational power, autonomy, moral development of followers, and emulation of the leaders orientation toward service. Spears (1995) saw servant leadership not as a sub-theory, but as a unique theory of leadership itself consisting of 10 attributes: listening, empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion, conceptualization, foresight, stewardship, commitment to the growth of people, and building community. These elements were drawn largely from a review of Greenleafs writings rather than from any empirical research. Others too have offered definitions of servant leadership drawn from the conceptual literature on the topic. Farling, Stone, and Winston (1999) proposed a five factor model comprised of vision, influence, credibility, trust, and service. Interestingly, they also proposed a developmental understanding of servant leadership. The developmental theory proposed, however, related exclusively to servant leadership and did not rely upon or correlate with any established cognitive or developmental model. More recent work on servant leadership has focused on developing instruments for the measurement of servant leadership. Barbuto and Wheelers (2006) research empirically tested 11 elements drawn from the writings of Greenleaf (1970) and others. Their research yielded five elements of servant leadership including altruistic calling, emotional healing, wisdom, persuasive mapping, and organizational stewardship. Sendjaya, Sarros, and Santora (2008) used both qualitative and quantitative studies to develop a six-dimension measure of servant leadership. Those dimensions are voluntary subordination, authentic self, covenantal relationship, responsible morality, transcendental spirituality, and transforming influence. They
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asserted that their model of servant leadership extended prior work on servant leadership by emphasizing service, followers, and moral-spiritual dimensions. Linden, Wayne, Zhao, and Henderson (2008) reviewed existing taxonomies of servant leaders, and developed an instrument using nine dimensions: emotional healing, creating value for the community, conceptual skills, empowering, helping subordinates grow and succeed, putting subordinates first, behaving ethically, relationships, and servanthood. Their research found that servant leadership made a unique contribution beyond transformational leadership and LMX to community citizenship behaviors, in-role performance, and organizational commitment. Consistent across all of these constructs is some element of self-perception as a servant. This approach is consistent with prior work on the topic. Spears (1995) described servant leadership as a transformational approach to life and work, a way of being. Sendjaya and Sarros (2002) have proposed that the distinctive characteristic of a servant leader is his or her intent and self concept. They suggest that the action of a servant leader may emanate from their self concept as a moral, altruistic person. They also acknowledge, however, that many unanswered research questions remain, including the precursors of servant leadership, and whether certain types of people more likely to become servant leaders. Understanding servant leadership as an orientation or way of being is the first hint of a connection between servant leadership and a leaders stage of constructive development. If servant leadership is connected to identity, how does a servant leaders identity develop? The current paper attempts to explore that question by drawing on an established theory of human development. This paper proposes that a servant leaders stage of constructive development shapes the way a leader understands and makes meaning of service. Constructive Development Building on the theory of constructivism (the idea that reality is constructed by the individual); Kegan (1982) proposed that the method by which individuals construct reality develops or evolves over time. He asserted that this evolution occurs as the relationship between subject and object changes, allowing individuals to process their surroundings and experiences in new ways. Kegan used the term subject to refer to that from which the individual cannot differentiate him or herself. He sometimes referred to an individual as embedded in that to which they are subject. Because the individual cannot differentiate self from subject, the subject also serves as the framework through which the individual makes meaning of experiences (Kegan, 1982, 1994). For example, a young child cannot separate herself from her immediate needs and feelings. In this way, she is embedded or subject to her needs.
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The term object is used by Kegan to describe that which has been differentiated from the self, and which therefore can be treated as other. An individual who sees a concept as other is able to think critically about it, and is aware of personal choices regarding it. Thus, when a child is able to hold her needs as object, she is able to differentiate between the self and her immediate needs or feelings. What was subject has now become object. Central to Kegans theory of constructive development is the idea that the evolution in the subject and object relationship occurs in five measurable stages. The characteristics of each stage are defined by the shift that has occurred, moving the former subject (source out of which meaning is made) into the realm of object (ideas about which the individual can think critically). This change in the subject and object relationship is brought about by life events, crises, or other precipitating events. (Kegan, 1982, 1994) In other words, what was formerly the framework out of which meaning was constructed becomes separate from the self, and the individual is now capable of thinking critically about it. From the relationship between the particular subjects and objects in transition, Kegan is able to describe the outlook and common characteristics typical in each developmental stage (see Table 1). In Stage 1 (Impulsive Balance) the child has differentiated him- or herself from reflexes, but is unable to differentiate between his or her perceptions and reality. In other words, if the perception of something changes, the object itself is understood to have changed. (Kegan, 1982, 1994) The shift to Stage 2 (Imperial Balance) usually occurs between the ages of five and seven years of age. Stage 2 is characterized by the emergence of a selfconcept and a private world. As the child is able to separate from perceptions and immediate needs, the child develops an awareness that he or she has something to do with what happens. As the self-concept develops, so too does a conscience together with guilt. Not yet able to see their needs as object, others are seen through the needs of the perceiver, and thus others may be evaluated according to their ability to meet those needs. (Kegan, 1982, 1994)
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Table 1: Stages of Constructive Development Stage Subject 1 Impulsive Balance Perceptions, immediate needs, feelings 2 Imperial Balance Personal goals and agendas
Object Reflexes
Perceptions, immediate needs, feelings
3 Interpersonal Balance
Interpersonal connections, Personal goals and mutual obligations agendas Personal standards and value system Interpenetration of systems Interpersonal connections, mutual obligations Personal standards and value system
4 Institutional Balance
5 Interindividual Balance
Portions of this table are adapted from Kuhnert and Lewis (1987), with additional information from Kegan (1982).
With the emergence of Stage 3 (Interpersonal Balance), the individual moves from being a need to having a need. This emergence from embeddedness in personal goals and agendas allows the coordination of multiple perspectives and the capacity for subjectivity. This allows the development of mutuality, empathy, and reciprocal social obligation. While there is an emergence of self, that self is embedded in the social matrix (Kegan, 1982, p. 96). It now becomes possible to experience feelings as such, rather than as negotiations for the meeting of needs. An individual in Stage 3 may not, however, experience or express anger because of its inherent threat to the social matrix out of which the individual forms selfidentity. Likewise, conflict results in the individual feeling torn since it presents a challenge to the identity rooted in others. (Kegan, 1982, 1994) Stage 4 (Institutional Balance) brings the emergence of a true sense of selfauthored identity. The interpersonal connections that defined the self in Stage 3 are now able to be reflected upon, and the individual is able to create a consistent self-system. Where knowing others once meant identity was formed through them, now knowing others means the self image is reinforced through those relationships. The self becomes a system or organization of personal standards and values that create consistency across circumstances, including an internally
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constructed system for judging and resolving conflict. The creation of this selfsystem can result, at times, in an ideological orientation. (Kegan, 1982, 1994) In the final Stage 5, reached by very few people, the self system or organization becomes subject, and the individual is no longer synonymous with the ideological self-system. The distinction between self and ideology allows for a change in how criticism is received, since a critique of the organization or self-system is no longer a critique of the self. There emerges an ability to move between internal psychic systems, and an ability to recognize not just the existence but the validity of multiple perspectives. At this stage the individual may now experience others as individuals, rather than sources of identity or affirmation, and is thus now able to move beyond the independence of Stage 4 to interdependence. Inner emotional conflict is now tolerable and seen as part of the diversity of perspectives that can be valid. (Kegan, 1982, 1994) While the stages occur in a sequential order, the later stages are not linked to chronological age, nor will all adults necessarily reach the later stages. In fact, research indicates that only 20-30% of adults will reach Stage 4 (Eriksen, 2006). For reasons that will be discussed hereinafter, Stages 3 through 5 are most relevant to the current theory. Accordingly, Stages 0 through 2 will not be examined in detail. Furthermore, Kegans examination of the transitions between stages is also beyond the scope of this paper. For a complete discussion of both, see Kegan (1982, 1994). Constructive Development and Servant Leadership The academic literature on servant leadership to this point has not explored the question of servant leader development using an existing developmental theory. Constructive developmental theory was chosen for this exploration because of its focus on the fundamental process whereby individuals make meaning. Such a focus seemed consistent with servant leadership theory which is thought to emanate from the leaders self concept (Sendjaya & Sarros, 2002). The idea of a connection between the leaders stage of constructive development and the style of leadership displayed was suggested by Kegan himself shortly after introducing constructive developmental theory (Kegan & Lahey, 1984). Kuhnert and Lewis (1987) also proposed a connection between the leaders developmental stage and chosen leadership style. Reasoning that the leaders choice between transactional and transformational leadership would be constrained by the leaders stage of constructive development, they argued that a leader at Stage 2 would be developmentally incapable of engaging in transformational leadership practices by virtue of their method of making
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meaning. (Kuhnert & Lewis, 1987). While instructive on the current issue, their analysis was limited to the difference between transactional and transformational leadership. The present paper extends this consideration of the relationship between constructive development and leadership style, focusing exclusively on servant leadership. One of the unique contributions of this paper is its orientation toward the question of servant leadership and constructive development. While others have examined the relationship between servant leadership and constructive development (Bugenhagen, 2006), this paper approaches that relationship by focusing on the way leaders make meaning of service. That orientation is one of the unique contributions of this work. Understanding how a leader makes sense of service requires a systematic look at the subject and object relationship for that leader. A leader who chooses to serve first has made a very specific choice about how to orient the self in relation to others. This choice to orient the self as servant, like any other choice regarding relationships, is connected to the individuals method of meaning making. From an examination of the subject and object relationship found in each stage of development, we can make predictions about the likely meaning of service for a leader at that stage. However, before we can proceed to the effect of constructive development we must first address the question of capacity for servant leadership. The Capacity for Servant Leadership The first question in considering the relationship between constructive development and servant leadership is that of capacity. Kuhnert and Lewis (1987) proposed that a leader operating at Stage 2 would be incapable of transformational leadership. Using a similar logic, it can be argued that a developmental threshold exists for servant leadership. As discussed above, individuals operating out of Stage 3 are, for the first time, able to exercise empathy. Not until this stage can a leader fully experience mutuality and coordinate multiple perspectives. Instead, individuals operating in Stage 2 are embedded in their own personal goals and agendas. The state of being embedded in ones own personal goals and agendas would seem to be incompatible with the definition of servant leadership. This incompatibility can be seen in multiple definitions of servant leadership. According to Sendjaya, Sarros, and Santora (2008), servant leaders practice voluntary subordination that is attending to the legitimate needs of others. This attribute is contrasted by Sendjaya, Sarros, and Santora with self-seeking leaders who serve others only when it is convenient or personally advantageous (p. 406).
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A similar attribute is described by Linden, Wayne, Zhao, and Henderson (2008). They asserted servant leaders work to put subordinates first. This author asserts that voluntary subordination would be difficult for an individual who was not yet able to reflect on his or her personal goals and agendas. Similarly, in Barbuto and Wheelers (2006) construct, servant leaders demonstrate altruistic calling and organizational stewardship. Both of these attributes concern the well-being of others and thus would require an ability to recognize the needs of others and the needs of the community, separate and apart from the needs of the leader. For these reasons, it is proposed that servant leadership is not possible until individuals have reached the third order of constructive development.
Proposition 1: Servant leadership is not possible until the third order of constructive development.
Once an individual has developed the capacity to recognize and coordinate the perspectives of others, and once such a person has chosen to be a servant leader, the question remains, How does such a person make meaning of service? Answering this question requires us to return to the various definitions of servant leadership. According to Sendjaya, Sarros, and Santora (2008), servant leaders practice voluntary subordination. Linden, Wayne, Zhao & Henderson (2008) suggested that servant leaders work to put subordinates first. Hints regarding how servant leaders make meaning of this self-subordination can be found in an examination of the subject and object relationship. As explained above, as individuals progress through each stage of constructive development, what was formerly subject to them becomes object. When it was subject they were embedded in it and could not differentiate themselves from it, but once it is object they can reflect upon it in new ways (Kegan, 1982, 1994). This progression of subject to object is illustrated in Table 2.
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Table 2: Progression of Subject and Object Relationship Stage Subject Object 1 Impulsive Perceptions, immediate Reflexes Balance needs, feelings 2 Imperial Balance 3 Interpersonal Balance 4 Institutional Balance 5 Interindividual Balance Personal goals and agendas Interpersonal connections, mutual obligations Personal standards and value system Interpenetration of systems Perceptions, immediate needs, feelings Personal goals and agendas
Interpersonal connections, mutual obligations Personal standards and value system
Portions of this table are adapted from Kuhnert and Lewis (1987), with additional information from Kegan (1982). From this understanding, we can draw two propositions that will guide our consideration of meaning making and servant leadership. First, when individuals choose to be servant leaders, they can only subordinate that part of the self which they hold as object. In other words, the process of subordinating the self is voluntary, and thus requires them be able to reflect on what they are subordinating. For example, consider the child discussed earlier. Since she is embedded or subject to her own needs and feelings, she cannot reflect critically on them. Similarly, we can argue that, because she sees self and needs as one, she would not be able to subordinate her personal needs in order to serve the needs of others. Thus, we can postulate that when individuals choose to be servant leaders, they will only be able to subordinate that part of the self which they hold as object.
Proposition 2: When individuals choose to be servant leaders, they can only subordinate that part of the self which they hold as object.
Similarly, the other side of the subject and object balance can give us clues into how a servant leader makes meaning of service. While the servant leader is subordinating the portion of their self they hold as object, they remain embedded in that to which they are subject. This state of embeddeness means the leader will
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not be able to question or reflect upon that to which he or she is subject. Kegan (1982, 1994) explained that what is subject for an individual serves as the framework through which they make meaning of experiences. We can therefore propose that the context of service defined by servant leaders will be that in which they are embedded as subject. Put another way, when servant leaders make meaning of service, their embeddeness defines their context for service.
Proposition 3: When servant leaders define service, the context for that definition will be that to which the leader is subject.
Using these principles as guidelines, we can now begin to build a series of propositions concerning how servant leaders will define service in each stage of constructive development. Servant Leadership in the Third Order To understand how a servant leader in the third order of constructive development would make meaning of service, we must begin with the subject and object balance for this stage. A leader in this stage has developed the ability to hold as object his or her personal goals and agenda, and is able to think critically about them. Thus a leader in this stage who is subordinating the self would likely subordinate his or her personal needs, goals, and ambitions in order to be in service. However, since a leader in the third order of constructive development is embedded in interpersonal connections and mutual obligations, he or she would not be subordinating those relationships to be in service. Rather, service will likely be lived out in that context since the leader is not able to think critically about those interpersonal obligations (see Table 3). Table 3: The Third Order of Constructive Development Stage Subject Object 3 Interpersonal Interpersonal connections, Personal goals and agendas Balance mutual obligations
Thus we can propose that a servant leader in the third order of constructive development will understand service as the subordination of personal goals and agendas in order to serve others through interpersonal connections. In such a stance we can see the leader subordinating that which is held object (personal
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goals), and exercising service in the context of that which is subject (interpersonal connections).
Proposition 4: A servant leader in the third order of constructive development will understand service as the subordination of personal goals and agendas in order to serve others through interpersonal connections.
Servant Leadership in the Fourth Order Again, we begin our examination of how a servant leader would make meaning of service in the fourth order by examining the subject and object balance. An individual in this stage of constructive development has learned to hold interpersonal connections and obligations as object. As such, he or she can now think critically about those obligations, and is no longer bound by them as once was the case. Instead, the person in this stage of constructive development is held subject by his or her personal standards and value systems. This state of embeddeness means he or she cannot examine his or her personal value system critically (see Table 4.) Table 4: The Fourth Order of Constructive Development Stage Subject Object 4 Institutional Personal standards and Interpersonal connections, Balance value system mutual obligations
Thus, applying Propositions 2 and 3, we can propose that a servant leader in the fourth order of constructive development will understand service as the subordination of interpersonal obligations in order to be in service of a higher ideal. We can see in such a stance that the leader is subordinating the portion of the self which is held object (interpersonal obligations) and exercising service in the context of that which is subject (personal value system).
Proposition 5: A servant leader in the fourth order of constructive development will understand service as the subordination of interpersonal obligations in order to be in service of a higher ideal.
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Servant Leadership in the Fifth Order In the fifth order, a shift has occurred making it possible for the leader to see personal values as object and capable of change and critical thought. The new subject in which the individual is embedded is the interpenetration of systems. This is admittedly a difficult concept to grasp since, by definition, all humans view themselves as subject to the interpenetration of systems. However, the basic notion is that an individual who enters Stage 5 no longer sees the world as a collection of institutions engaged in either good or bad actions, but rather sees a complex network of individuals engaged in actions that could be either good or bad depending on ones perspective. In this way the individual is no longer embedded in a personal value system, but instead in a larger matrix incorporating all persons (see Table 5). Table 5: The Fifth Order of Constructive Development Stage Subject Object 5 Interindividual Interpenetration of Personal standards and Balance systems value system
Thus, it is proposed that a servant leader in the fifth order of constructive development will understand service as the subordination of a personal value system in order to address the interpenetration of systems. We can see in this stance that the leader is subordinating that which is held object (personal value system), and exercising service in the context of that which is subject (interpenetration of systems).
Proposition 6: A servant leader in the fifth order of constructive development will understand service as the subordination of a personal value system in order to address the interpenetration of systems.
Taken in total, this approach shows a progression in the definition of service as servant leaders progress through the stages of constructive development (see Table 6). To illustrate that progression, Table 6 shows the stages of constructive development, together with the proposed definitions of service for each stage.
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Table 6: Stages of Constructive Development and Definitions of Service Stage of Constructive Development 2 Imperial Balance Subject Personal goals and agendas Object Perceptions, immediate needs, feelings Personal goals and agendas Definition of Service Not Applicable
3 Interpersonal Balance
Interpersonal connections, mutual obligations
The subordination of personal goals and agendas in order to serve others through interpersonal connections The subordination of interpersonal obligations in order to be in service of a higher ideal The subordination of a personal value system in order to address the interpenetration of systems
4 Institutional Balance
Personal standards and value system
Interpersonal connections, mutual obligations
5 Interindividual Balance
Interpenetration Personal of systems standards and value system
Support for This Approach While this approach is entirely theoretical, there is some prior empirical evidence that seems to provide support for at least the final proposition. That evidence in found in the related field of spirituality and leadership, and concerns human rights leaders. To understand how internationally renowned human rights leaders responded in exceptional ways to challenging circumstances, Parameshwar (2005) conducted a phenomenological study looking at the autobiographies of ten such leaders. The sample included leaders such as Viktor Frankl, Mahatma Gandhi, and Mother
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Teresa. While we cannot be certain that each of these leaders was both a servant leader and operating at the fifth order of constructive development, examination of Parameshwars findings is useful here nonetheless. The overarching theme emerging from each of their stories was characterized by Parameshwar as ego-transcendence (Parameshwar, 2005). Parameshwar described how leaders such as Gandhi transcended ego to produce an extraordinary response in the midst of a challenging time. In describing the experience of ego-transcendence, Parameshwars description of the human rights leaders orientation toward institutions is particularly telling for the present purposes. Parameshwar writes, In responding to challenging circumstances, the leaders uncover what they perceive as the ways in which the human spirit is held hostage within the thick nexuses among institutional structures (p. 697). We can see in Parameshwars definition of service an approach that is consistent with the subject/object relationship in the fifth order. The leaders held their personal values as object (transcending ego) in order to address the interpenetration of systems (the subject in which they were embedded). While certainly not proof of the propositions presented here, this similarity provides at least preliminary support for the notion that constructive development offers clues to how servant leaders make meaning of service. Meaning Making and the Practice of Servant Leadership It should be noted that the proposals offered above concern the way servant leaders make meaning, not how they might self-describe their service. Many people claim to be servant leaders, and they describe many motivations for doing so. The complex mixture of religious connotation, corporate vocabulary, and social desirability make it unlikely that the relationship between constructive development and servant leadership will be ascertainable simply through self reporting. Much as an individuals stage of constructive development cannot be accurately gauged by simply asking the individual to self report, neither will a self report of servant leadership give a reliable indication of the way a particular leader makes meaning of that term. In practice, this means that an individual may say he or she is a servant leader because it is the right thing to do, or because they are serving a divine being. The framework offered herein does not question the sincerity of such self reported motivations. However, it does propose that the way a leader understands and operationalizes service will be a product of his or her stage of constructive development. Similarly, while the understanding of servant leadership is proposed to evolve, the specific actions of a servant leader do not necessarily indicate the level of constructive development. A single expression of servant leadership (e.g.
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organizing a workplace charitable giving program) could be an expression of helping others, an expression of the leaders value system, or an attempt to address the interpenetration of systems. While the action remains the same, the motivation and meaning ascribed to the act differs greatly. Through this example we can see that the above propositions concern the leaders understanding of service, but they do not necessarily predict behavior. How a leader makes meaning of service will certainly inform how he or she lives out servant leadership, but the expressions that emerge from each stage will not be mutually exclusive. It should also be noted that nothing about the leaders stage of constructive development is hypothesized to compel servant leadership. Rather it is proposed that servant leadership becomes possible, not inevitable, through evolution in the leaders constructive development. Once servant leadership is chosen as an orientation, service is defined in ways consistent with that leaders constructive development. In other words, constructive development affects servant leadership but does not cause servant leadership.
Implications
While recent writing on servant leadership has focused on identifying and defining the elements of the construct, no work has yet conceptualized the connection between servant leadership and the constructive developmental process. The approach to servant leadership proposed herein produces a three dimensional picture of servant leadership, with definitions of service evolving as leaders advance in their constructive development. Such an approach has profound implications for leadership educators who wish to instill servant leadership as a preferred model of leadership. The first implication for educators is a challenge to the notion that servant leadership can be taught to young leaders who have not yet reached the third stage of constructive development. While such leaders can certainly be taught that servant leadership is a desirable societal norm, the proposals offered herein question whether the adoption of those norms genuinely constitutes servant leadership. Since acting as a servant leader requires the subordination of personal goals and agendas, it would not appear that true servant leadership would be possible until students have reached the third order of meaning making. This conclusion has important implications for leadership educators teaching servant leadership to young leaders. Since the adoption of servant leadership seems to require a capacity to make meaning in the third order, leadership
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educators should focus less on instilling servant leadership in young leaders, and instead focus their energies on helping students reach the third order. The strategies for doing the latter may resemble the former, but the overall objective differs. Leadership development efforts aimed at servant leadership among young leaders should start not by instilling the values of service, but by using servant leadership as a way of helping students see beyond their own goals and agendas. In other words, service to others can be used by leadership educators as a way to nudge those students who are beginning to transition from the second stage of meaning making to the third. In doing so, teaching about servant leadership may be an effective tool in helping young leaders make the important transition between the second and third order of meaning making. Second, these propositions have implications for how servant leadership is promoted for all leaders, regardless of age. Since crises or life events precipitate the transition between stages of constructive development, programs that promote servant leadership should place primary focus on supporting leaders through that transition to both establish and expand capacity for servant leadership. A fundamental premise of constructive developmental theory is that greater organizational and societal complexity requires leaders able to make meaning at higher levels. When the societal demands exceed the leaders capacity to make meaning, leaders are left feeling in over our heads (Kegan, 1994). Thus the challenge for those who wish to advance servant leadership is not only getting leaders to adopt such a posture, but assuring that the way they make meaning of service does not limit their ability to respond to their circumstances. For leadership educators this means attending not only to the promotion of servant leadership, but to helping servant leaders advance in the way they make meaning of service. Lastly, this theory has profound implications for practitioners of servant leadership. If the civil rights leaders studied by Parameshwar (2005) were in fact servant leaders, their exceptional responses provide a compelling argument for both the power of servant leadership and the need for servant leaders who operate out of higher orders of constructive development. Kegan (1994) himself postulated that the constructive development of many contemporary adults may be insufficient for the complexity of modern society. If in fact servant leadership holds potential for powerful societal change, advancing the constructive development of servant leaders would seem to have the power to amplify that effect.
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Future Research
The proposals offered above present several possibilities for future research. In addition to empirical testing of the propositions themselves, research needs to be conducted on the development of servant leadership. Given the understanding of servant leadership described herein, what contributes to the adoption of servant leadership once the leader has the requisite capacity? What types of support or experiences assist servant leaders in the evolution of their constructive development? Further examination of these questions would assist both educators and practitioners in understanding and promoting servant leadership.
Conclusion
The primary contribution made by this paper is a framework for understanding how servant leaders make meaning of service. Through examination of the subject and object relationship, various understandings of service emerge from the leaders method of meaning making. It is hoped that this framework can serve as the basis for future research integrating servant leadership and constructive development. This research can also enhance the understanding of how servant leaders develop, assisting both educators and practitioners of servant leadership.
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References
Barbuto, J. E., & Wheeler, D. (2006). Scale development and construct clarification of servant leadership. Group & Organization Management, 31, 300-326. Bugenahgen, M. J. (2006). Antecedents of transactional, transformational, and servant leadership: A constructive-development theory approach. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Nebraska. Eriksen, K. (2006). The constructive developmental theory of Robert Kegan. The Family Journal: Counseling and Therapy for Couples and Families, 14, 290-298. Farling, M. L., Stone, A. G., & Winston B. E. (1999). Servant leadership: Setting the stage for empirical research. The Journal of Leadership Studies, 6, 4972. Graham, J. W. (1991). Servant leadership in organizations: Inspirational and moral. Leadership Quarterly, 2, 105-119. Greeleaf, R. K. (1970). The Servant as Leader. Indianapolis, IN: Greenleaf Center. Linden, R. C., Wayne, S. J., Zhao, H., & Henderson, D. (2008). Servant leadership: Development of a multidimensional measure and multi-level assessment. The Leadership Quarterly, 19, 161-177. Kegan, R. (1982). The Evolving Self. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Kegan, R. (1994). In Over Our Heads. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Kegan, R., & Lahey, L. L. (1984). Adult leadership and adult development: A constructivist view. In B. Kellerman (Ed.), Leadership: Multidisciplinary Perspectives (pp. 200-230). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Kuhnert, K. W., & Lewis, P. (1987). Transactional and transformational leadership: A constructive/developmental analysis. Academy of Management Review, 12, 648-657.
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Parameshwar, S. (2005). Spiritual leadership through ego-transcendence: Exceptional responses to challenging circumstances, The Leadership Quarterly, 16, 689722. Sendjaya, S., & Sarros, J. C. (2002). Servant leadership: Its origin, development, and application in organizations. Journal of Leadership and Organization Studies, 9, 57-64. Sendjaya, S., Sarros, J. C., & Santora, J. C. (2008). Defining and measuring servant leadership behaviour in organizations. Journal of Management Studies, 45, 402-424. Spears, L. C. (1995). Reflections on Leadership. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
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Author Biography
Kelly A. Phipps is an Assistant Professor in the Helzberg School of Management at Rockhurst University. He earned his J.D. from the University of Iowa and his Ph.D. from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, where he also taught courses in leadership development as an Assistant Professor of Practice. His research interests include servant leadership, leadership development, spirituality and leadership.
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