PART A

INSTRUCTION

Answer ALL questions

QUESTION 1

a) Describe the relationship between temperature and the

volume of dissolved oxygen in water.

Dissolved Oxygen (DO) is found in microscopic bubbles of oxygen ( O2 ) that are

mixed in the water and occur between water molecules. DO is a very important indicator of a
water body's ability to support aquatic life. Fish "breathe" by absorbing dissolved oxygen
through their gills. Oxygen enters the water by absorption directly from the atmosphere or by
aquatic plant and algae photosynthesis. Oxygen is removed from the water by respiration and
decomposition of organic matter.

One factor that may affect dissolved oxygen concentration is temperature. Here is the
relationship between temperature and the volume of dissolved oxygen in water. Cold water
can hold more of any gas, in this case oxygen, than warmer water. Warmer water becomes
"saturated" more easily with oxygen. As water becomes warmer it can hold less and less DO.
So, during the summer months in the warmer top portion of a lake, the total amount of
oxygen present may be limited by temperature.
b) Many tropical fishes come to the surface of water to obtain oxygen directly from the
air. Why?

During the dry season the lakes and rivers shrink, often dramatically, in size and the
number of fish in any given square meter of water increases, so there is less of everything,
including oxygen, for each fish. Those that can take small amounts of oxygen directly from
the air to supplement what they are able to get from the water

Gills are not the only way fish get O2. If the fish is small enough, respiration can be
done across the body surface. As the fish gets bigger, this type of respiration becomes not
much use. Larval fish use surface diffusion, but in adult fish, the skin may only account for
5-30% of respiration. Eels, mudskippers and some gobies use surface respiration when they
are out of water.

Some fish have developed special breathing apparatus because they come from
swampy areas where the O2 content is very low. Gouramis are a good example of this. Some
loaches and catfish use part of the gastrointestinal tract for air breathing. They come to the
surface and take a mouthful of air and store it in this special ‘bag’.

The king of air breathers must be the lung fish. They have special folds inside the gas
bladder creating a massive surface area for gas exchange. The lung tissue is very similar to
our own lungs - African and South American lung fish even have a pair of lungs as apposed
to only one in the Australian lungfish. That’s why many tropical fishes come to the surface
of water to obtain oxygen directly from the air using their own way to breathes.
QUESTION 2
There are many endangered species of animals found in the
island of Borneo, which consists of Sabah and Sarawak, Brunei
and Indonesia.
Discuss the possible reasons that able to explain why the
conservation of these endangered animals is difficult.

Trying to save an endangered species is difficult, given the usual obstacles. With limited
resources there are, too often, cases of certain areas being over-emphasized while others are
neglected. This collaboration aims to avoid duplication and overlap whilst giving attention to
previously neglected areas.
Limited Production Forest : Forest allocated for low-intensity timber production.
Typically, limited production forest is found in mountainous areas where steep slopes make
logging difficult. Conversion Forest .Forest that is designated (under an IPK license) for
clearance and permanent conversion to another form of land use, typically a timber or estate
crop plantation.
Borneo is very unique tropical forests were once protected by their remoteness. Now, unless
urgent action is taken they could be gone in less than 15 years. The Southeast Asian islands
of Borneo is a home to some of the richest and most diverse tropical forests on the planet.
They house thousands of unique species and the world’s last remaining Sumatran tigers,
orangutans, pygmy elephants and Sumatran rhinos. These forests also absorb harmful carbon
emissions and are sources of fresh water for the islands' 56 million people.

In Borneo, commercial logging and conversion to agriculture are doing swift and irreversible
damage. Borneo’s forests have been very nearly wiped out, and the few that remain are under
severe pressure. Borneo’s unique tropical forests are in danger of disappearing forever unless
urgent action is taken.

Conserving Borneo requires not only work on the ground with local communities and
governments, but global action to address the relentless forces that are destroying the last
strongholds of tigers, orangutans and countless other species - many still undiscovered. To
succeed, WWF works hand in hand with local people - empowering them to manage their
natural resources to the greatest benefit of current and future generations.WWF's vision for
Borneo: Effectively manage a network of protected areas, productive forests and other
sustainable land uses that maintain the biodiversity and natural resources for the prosperity of
the people who rely on them. The habitats of endangered animal will destroyed because of
illegal logging. Because of this human activities , the conversation for endangered animals
are very difficult.

The conservation of these endangered animals is difficult because of the threats such as ;
Logging and fires

Logging and fires are decimating the rainforests. Borneo is not just unique habitat for yet-
undiscovered species. It also shows us how powerful global markets are jeopardizing this
amazing place and how concerted action by WWF and we also can help stem the tide. Many
of the greatest threats to conservation worldwide can be observed in action here. Endangered
animals will lose their own habitats.
Wildlife trade
Rampant poaching, facilitated by the growing number of roads and logging trails, poses a
grave threat to Borneo endangered species. Tigers are hunted for their skins, teeth and for use
in traditional medicines. Rhinos are killed for their horns, which are also used in traditional
Chinese medicine. Orangutans are stolen from the wild for the entertainment and tourism
trade. Baby orangutans are popular pets and their mothers are often shot during their capture.

International finance
The vast wealth of natural resources found on Borneo has attracted large-scale international
financing focused on extractive resources industries, from precious hardwoods and minerals
to palm oil, rubber, natural gas and petroleum. The pressure to feed growing global demand
and the huge capacity of mills and other operations funded by international investors has led
to unsustainable logging, massive forest conversion and other practices that imperil the
islands' ecological integrity. WWF is identifying the most influential public and private
financial institutions that drive the extractive industries and working with them to realize
business opportunities that are economically, environmentally and socially sustainable.

Climate change
With just over three percent of the world's forests, Indonesia accounts for more than 14
percent of global deforestation. This represents almost half of the total global carbon
emissions from deforestation and land degradation — almost twice as much as Brazil (the
second-largest producer of greenhouse gases from land conversion), and more than three
times Malaysia (the third largest). Indonesia ranks fourth in the world in terms of total carbon
emissions — behind the U.S., the European Union and China, and ahead of Brazil.
Deforestation and forest degradation account for more than 83 percent of Indonesia's carbon
emissions.
All the factors can show us why the conversation is difficult for endangered animals,

QUESTION 3

Explain the meaning of a crop monoculture and the TWO effects

of monoculture on the environment.

Monoculture is the agricultural practice of producing or growing one single crop

over a wide area. The term is also applied in several fields. It is usually developed by
extensive growing farmers. The term is mostly used in agriculture and describes the practice
of planting crops with the same patterns of growth resulting from genetic similarity.
Examples include wheat fields or apple and corn orchards or grape vineyards.

These cultivars have uniform growing requirements and habits resulting in greater
yields on less land because planting, maintenance (including pest control) and harvesting can
be standardized. This standardization results in less waste and loss from inefficient harvesting
and planting. It also is beneficial because a crop can be tailor planted for a location that has
special problems - like soil salt or drought or a short growing season.

Intensive monoculture has serious environmental effects such as soil erosion,

fertilizers, herbicides and etc.

Soil erosion
Intensive monoculture and tillage practices lead to soil erosion and degradation. An example;
as the price of corn rises, farmers are more likely to abandon crop rotation and to use more
aggressive tillage methods that intensify environmental problems.

Fertilizers
The massive amount of fertilizers used to grow corn or grape vineyards causes overgrowth of
algae in rivers and lakes and destroys habitats of certain marine species. Farm runoff has
resulted in the formation of a 6,600 square mile along the Gulf of Mexico.

Herbicides
Widespread use of herbicides leads to the contamination of water and soil. In the spring time,
when corn farmers apply the largest quantities of herbicides to their fields, rains wash these
chemicals into the drinking water of nearly 12 million people throughout the central United
States.
QUESTION 4
a) Explain how nodules on roots of some plants enable them to
survive in soils with a low concentration of nitrate ions.

Root nodules occur on the roots of plants that associate with Vigna bacteria.

Cross section though a soybean (Glycine max.Essex) root nodule. The bacteria,
Bradyrhizobium japonicum, infects the roots and establishes a nitrogen fixing symbiosis.
This high magnification image shows part of a cell with single bacteroids within their
symbiosomes. In this image, you can also see endoplasmic reticulum, dictysome and cell
wall.
For nitrogen, non-leguminous plants, such as lawn and turf grasses, corn and most fruit and
vegetable crops, must rely on either bacteria that live in the soil to "fix" the nitrogen (N2) into
a usable form or nitrogen from decomposing organic matter, or fertilizers. The forms of
nitrogen that most plants can use are ammonium ion (NH4+) and nitrate ion (NO3-), as shown
in Figure 1 below. Of these, the ammonium and nitrate ions are the most common forms
taken in through plant roots. Ammonium is converted to the nitrite and nitrate forms rather
quickly by nitrifying bacteria, such as Nitrosomonas .sp and Nitrobacter .sp, which add
oxygen to the ammonium ion and convert it to nitrate. However, the legumes, for example,
alfalfa, clover, soybeans and peanuts, have nodules on their roots that contain bacteria. The
plants benefit by having the bacteria that fix atmospheric nitrogen into a usable form for the
plant, while the bacteria benefit from the energy obtained in the chemical conversion.

Figure 1. The nitrogen cycle in soil.

b) Explain why low concentrations of nitrate ions are often

encountered in
waterlogged soil.

Nitrogen can become unavailable to plants primarily in three ways, which are illustrated in
Figure 1. First, most nitrogen is lost through denitrification, which is a problem in wet or
compact soils. Since these soils contain little oxygen, denitrifying bacteria remove the
oxygen from nitrite (NO2-) and nitrate (NO3-) ions for their own use, releasing N2 and/or N2O
back to the atmosphere. The second means of nitrogen loss is by nitrate leaching, which is a
particular concern with the nitrate ion (NO3-). Leaching occurs when the water-soluble nitrate
ion moves through the soil as water percolates downward beyond the reach of plant roots.
Surface volatilization (conversion to the gaseous phase) is the third method of nitrogen loss.
This loss occurs when ammonia (NH3), usually in the form of urea, volatilizes and is lost to
the atmosphere. Surface volatilization is usually a problem in areas with high temperatures,
and with soils that have a high pH value. Soils that have been compacted by field operations
and other human activities also are a problem because it may not be possible to properly mix
the urea with the compacted soil. Another pathway for nitrogen loss from plant availability is
the loss of the nitrogen through the process of soil erosion by water.
QUESTION 5
Explain with examples on how agricultural pests can be
controlled in an
environmentally sound manner.
In agriculture, IPM (Integrated pest management) takes advantage of all appropriate
pest management options including, but not limited to, the judicious use of pesticides.
Effective, less risky pest controls are chosen first, including biopesticides such as
pheromones to disrupt pest mating, or mechanical controls such as trapping or weeding. If
less risky controls do not work, then additional pest control methods are employed, such as
the selective and targeted spraying of pesticides. In most cases, the cost of different control
options must be taken into consideration.IPM is not a single pest control method but, rather, a
series of pest management evaluations, decisions and controls. In practicing IPM, growers
follow this four-tiered approach:

1. Set Action Thresholds: Before taking any pest control action, an IPM program first
develops an action threshold, a point at which pest populations or environmental
conditions indicate that pest control action must be taken. Sighting a single pest does not
always mean control is needed. Understanding the level at which a pest becomes an
economic threat is critical to making pest control decisions.
2. Monitor and Identify Pests: Not all insects, weeds, and other living organisms require
control. Many organisms are innocuous, and some are beneficial and help control pests.
IPM programs work to monitor for pests and identify them accurately, so that appropriate
control decisions can be made in conjunction with action thresholds. Successful
monitoring and identification ensure that pesticides are used only when really needed and
that the wrong kind of pesticide is never used.
3. Prevention: As a first line of defense, IPM programs prevent pests from becoming a
threat. This may mean rotating between different crops, selecting pest-resistant varieties,
or planting pest-free rootstock. In most cases, these methods are effective in preventing
pest problems, and they are more economical than chemical sprays. They also pose little
to no risk to human health and the environment.
4. Control: Once monitoring, identification, and action thresholds indicate that pest control
is necessary and preventive methods are no longer effective or available, the next step is
to determine which control method maximizes effectiveness and minimizes risk.
Broadcast spraying of a nonspecific pesticide is a last resort.

PART B

INSTRUCTION

Answer ALL questions

QUESTION 1

“Many virgin forests were being converted to palm oil

plantations.”
Discuss the benefits and problems derived from the planting of
palm oil plantations.

Your answer should include the effects on humans, orang utans

and the environment.

The forests of Borneo and Sumatra are under threat from both legal and illegal logging.
Indonesia's status as the world's number-one supplier of plywood puts the forests of Borneo
and Sumatra under extreme pressure. The region is also a major source of hardwoods and
wood products for the pulp and paper industry. The rate of deforestation in Indonesia is
among the worst globally, with a staggering 80 percent of the nation's wood supplies thought
to come from illegal sources, including nature reserves and other protected areas.
Borneo is facing a similar fate. According to a World Bank study, unless urgent action is
taken, all of Borneo's lowland forests outside of protected areas are doomed to disappear by
2010, and its upland forests by 2020.

The green area represents Borneo's forests in 2000 (left), and projections of forests loss in
2010 (center) and 2020 (right).
The benefits from planting palm oil plantations are it can give income for our government to
managing this country. It also can upgrade local people’s life. The effects on orang utans is
they didn’t have enough natural habitats for them to live. The deforestation also can cause
global warming for our environment and it can cause haze to the city, and it can effects many
decease for human such as skin cancer or another fever deceases.

Expanding oil palm plantations are pushing out tropical forest and plans to grow palm
trees are also used as a pretext for lumber extraction. Conversion of forests into palm oil
plantations has been shown to result in the loss of 80-100 percent of the mammal, reptile and
bird species in the area. Palm oil is used in a dizzying array of products including chocolates,
ice cream, lipstick and detergents, and world demand is on the rise. Ironically, palm oil
makes an excellent bio-fuel but unless sustainable production can be achieved, increasing use
of this "clean" fuel may spell disaster for the forests of Borneo and Sumatra.

The remaining Borneo rainforest is the only natural habitat for the endangered Bornean
Orangutan. The demand for natural resources, such as timber and coffee, along with the
expansion of oil palm plantations are jeopardizing this irreplaceable region. The focused on
the areas that are the most critical to ensure both the survival of the region’s natural treasures
and the prosperity of its local communities.

Borneo’s forests are increasingly threatened by logging and expansion of oil palm
plantations. WWF is protecting the Heart of Borneo a pristine area of equatorial rain forests
larger than Kansas. Three governments that share the island Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia
and Malaysia to implement a collaborative conservation plan. This will safeguard rare
species and drive the use of sustainable business practices. Borneo’s rainforests are
breathtakingly diverse.
Practicing sustainable agriculture are good for Indonesia and Malaysia because they can
produce 85 percent of the world’s palm oil. WWF co-founded the Roundtable on Sustainable
Palm Oil in 2003. This group has already grown to include 150 businesses including leading
producers, retailers, traders, financiers and buyers. Together, we are bringing sustainable
palm oil to the marketplace. But we must remember that we’re also facing many problem for
human , orang utans and our environment.
References

http://www.newenergychoices.org/index.php?page=ethanol_corn&sd=ru

Davis, J. H. (1940), The Ecology and Geologic Role of Mangroves in Florida. Carnegie

Institute, Paper of the Tortugas Laboratory No. 32. Publication Number 517: 305-412.

Adkisson, P. (1972). "The Integrated Control of the Insect Pests of Cotton" Proceedings of
Tall Timbers Conference on Ecological Animal Control by Habitat Management, no. 4, pp
175-188.